STATISTICS
What is Statistics?
- is a branch of science that deals with collection,
presentation, organization, analysis and
interpretation of numerical figures.
- A branch of mathematics that deals with the
scientific collection, organization, presentation,
analysis, and interpretation of numerical data in
order to obtain useful and meaningful information.
- A set of procedures and rules for reducing large
masses of data into manageable proportions
allowing us to draw conclusions from those data.
(McCarthy)
Role of Statistics
a) In biological and medical sciences, statistics guide
researchers and scientists in the evaluation of
research project.
b) In physical science, it determines whether the results
of experiments should be incorporated into the
general body of knowledge.
c) In business and economics, it provides forecasting
and product design procedures.
d) In engineering, it can be used to test various
materials constructed and developed.
e) In social sciences, statistics provides ways to support
the development of theories and models.
f) In education, it helps develop and test new
techniques on learning and teaching process.
g) In health, it provides ways to prove better health
management and procedures.
Functions of Statistics
a) Organizes data for presentation and better
understanding.
b) Estimates quantities and measurements.
c) Facilitates information dissemination.
d) Helps in establishing differences.
e) Explains the relationship between variables of
interest.
f) Tests assertions and claims
g) Predicts and forecasts future outcome.
Statistician - A person who is trained in collecting numerical
information (data), evaluating it, and drawing conclusions
from it.
Basic Concepts
Variable (data) - characteristics or attribute that can assume
different values
- is a phenomenon whose values cannot be predicted
with certainty. It may be defined in various ways
depending upon the use and need of the researcher.
Examples:
> scores of the students.
> opinion of the students about the taste of durian.
Data Values- values (measurements or observations) that the
variables can assume.
Data set - collection of data values
Example: (Scores in a 40-item quiz)
21,27,19,21,20,24,30
A population consists of all subjects (human or otherwise)
that are being studied.
A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population.
The measure used to describe the population is called the
PARAMETER.
The measure computed from sample data is called STATISTIC.
Statistical theory - deals with the development and
exposition of theories that serve as the bases of statistical
methods.
Population – collection of all individuals or items included in
the scope of the study.
Sample – part or subset of the population from where data is
actually taken.
Parameter – quantitative value or attribute that characterizes
the population.
Statistic - quantitative value or attribute that characterizes
the sample.
Variable – characteristic or attribute of objects or person that
can assume different values for different objects or person.
Observation – the value that the variable assumes.
Data – the collection of observation
Measurement – the process of determining the vale or level,
either qualitative or quantitative
Types of statistics
Statistics Methods
- refer to the procedures and techniques used in the
collection, presentation, organization, analysis and
interpretation of data. The two main areas of
statistical methods are descriptive and inferential
statistics.
Descriptive
- includes those methods concerned with the
collection, presentation, description, summary and
analysis of data without drawing inference about a
large group.
- consists of the collection, organization,
summarization, and presentation of data.
Inferential
- refers to those methods concerned with analysis of a
subset of data leading to predictions and inferences
about the entire set of data.
- consists of generalizing from samples to populations,
performing estimations and hypothesis tests,
determining relationships among variables, and
making predictions.
Let’s Practice
In each of these statements, tell whether descriptive or
inferential statistics have been used.
1. On average, 100 people choke to death on ball point pens
every year. (statisticbrain.com) Descriptive
2. The average person's left hand does 56% of the typing.
(statisticbrain.com) Descriptive
3. By 2040 at least 3.5 billion people will run short of water
(World Future Society). Inferential
4. Allergy therapy makes bees go away (Source: Prevention).
Inferential
5. Nerve impulses to and from the brain travel as fast as 170
miles per hour. (typepad.com) Descriptive
Types of Data  arithmetic operations are not performed on
ordinal level data
Data

Interval Scale
Qualitative Quantitative  applied to data that can be arranged in some order
(Categorical) (Numerical) and for which differences in data values are
meaningful
Discrete Continuous  results from counting or measuring
 the value zero is arbitrarily chosen for interval data
and does not imply an absence of the characteristic
Qualitative data are variables that can be placed into distinct being measured
categories, according to some characteristic or attribute.  Ex: temperature
 consist of labels, category names, and such for which
representation on a numerical scale is not naturally Ratio Scale
meaningful  the highest level of measurement
Examples:  applied to data that can be ranked and for which all
 Opinion of Catholics to Death Penalty (Pro or Anti) arithmetic operations including division can be
 Name of your friends in MCL performed
 results from counting or measuring
Quantitative data are numerical and can be ordered or  data can be arranged in an ordering scheme and
ranked. differences and ratios can be calculated and
 are counts or measurements for which interpreted
representation on a numerical scale is naturally  data has an absolute zero and a value of zero
meaningful. indicates a complete absence of the characteristic of
Example: interest
Amount of a student’s daily allowance.  Examples: wages height weight units of
production changes in stock prices distance
Discrete Data between branch offices grams of fats consumed per
 quantitative data that are countable using a finite day
count, such as 0, 1, 2, and so on
 integer-valued Classify each variable as nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio-
level measurement.
Continuous Data 1. Times required for mechanics to do a tune-up.
 quantitative data that can take on any value within a RATIO
range of values on a numerical scale in such a way 2. Ages of students in a classroom. RATIO
that there are no gaps, jumps, or other interruptions 3. Classification of children in a day-care center (infant,
 Real valued toddler, preschool) ORDINAL

Discrete or Continuous? SUMMARY:

 Daytime temperature readings (in degrees
Fahrenheit) in a 30-day period Continuous
 Ages of MATH111 students Continuous
 Number (0, 1, 2, or so on) of people attending a
conference Discrete
 Defects per hour in a shoe company Discrete
 Number of hours you waited for your girlfriend
Continuous
Levels Of Measurement
Nominal Scale
 the lowest level of data
 applied to data that are used for category
identification
 characterized by data that consist of names, labels,
or categories only
 data cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme
 arithmetic operations are not performed for
nominal data
Nominal – characterized by data that consist of names, labels,
or categories only
Ordinal - characterized by data that applies to categories that
can be ranked
- data can be arranged in an ordering scheme
- arithmetic operations are not performed on ordinal
level data
Interval - the value zero is arbitrarily chosen for interval data
and does not imply an absence of the characteristic being
measured
Ratio - data has an absolute zero and a value of zero indicates
a complete absence of the characteristic of interest
Sampling Methods
• Population. All of the subjects of interest.
• Sample. The subjects in the population we actually
measure.
• Sampling. The process of selecting the individuals
from the population that makes up our sample.

Ordinal Scale
 the next higher level of data
 characterized by data that applies to categories that
can be ranked
 data can be arranged in an ordering scheme
The details of which subjects are and are not part of our
population should be carefully specified.
- our sample is our only source of information about the
population
The theory of sampling is as follows:
• Researchers want to gather information about a
whole group of people (the population).
• Researchers can only observe a part of the
population (the sample).
• The findings from the sample are generalized, or
extended, back to the population.
Why Sample?
 Less time consuming than a census
 Less costly to administer than a census
 It is possible to obtain statistical results of a
sufficiently high precision based on samples
Sample sizes can be computed by applying the Slovin’s
formula:
N are interviewed to determine whether they believe the
n=
1+ N e 2
where n – number of samples
N – number of population
e – margin of error
Nonstatistical Sampling
Convenience
- Collected in the most convenient manner for the
researcher
Judgment
- Based on judgments about who in the population
would be most likely to provide the needed
information
Statistical Sampling
- Items of the sample are chosen based on known or
calculable probabilities
4 METHODS OF STATISTICAL SAMPLING
1. Simple Random Sampling
- Every possible sample of a given size has an equal
chance of being selected
- The sample can be obtained using a table of random
numbers or computer random number generator
2. Stratified Random Sampling
- Divide population into subgroups (called strata)
according to some common characteristic
- e.g., gender, income level
- Select a simple random sample from each subgroup
- Combine samples from subgroups into one
3. Systematic Random Sampling
- Decide on sample size: n
- Divide ordered (e.g., alphabetical) frame of N
individuals into n groups of k individuals: k=N/n
- Randomly select one individual from the 1st group
- Select every kth individual thereafter
4. Cluster Sampling
- Divide population into several “clusters,” each
representative of the population (e.g., province)
- Select a simple random sample of clusters
- All items in the selected clusters can be used, or
items can be chosen from a cluster using another
probability sampling technique
Let’s Practice
1.) In a large school district, all teachers from two buildings
students have less homework to do now than previous years.
CLUSTER
2.) The team needs to get a sample of 4000 students from the
population and select 480 English, 1120 Science, 960
Computer Science, 840 Engineering and 600 Math students
which provides a better representation of students’ college
majors in U.S. STRATIFIED
3.) Every 100th hamburger manufactured is checked to
determine its fat content. SYSTEMATIC
4.) Mail carriers of a large city are divided into four groups
according to gender (male or female) and according to
whether they walk or ride on their routes. Then 10 are
selected from each group and interviewed to determine
whether they have been bitten by a dog last year. STRATIFIED
Classify each variable as qualitative or quantitative.
1. Genre of songs played in YES FM 101.9 last year QN
2. Rankings of NBA players in the MVP race. QL
3. Capacity in cubic feet of six cylindrical containers. QN
4. Grade Point Average (GPA) of the top five ME students in
MCL last term (3T-2016-2017). QN
5. The population of the California condor. QN
Classify each variable as discrete or continuous.
1. Speed of a car. DISCRETE
2. The weight of a bag of apples. CONTINUOUS
3. The length of a piece of wire. CONTINUOUS
4. The number of telephone calls received. DISCRETE
5. The number of felony arrests in a town. DISCRETE
Classify each variable as nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio-
level measurement.
1. Ratings of eight local plays (poor, good, excellent)
ORDINAL
2. Number of pages in the city of Cleveland telephone book.
INTERVAL
3. SSS numbers of MCL Faculty members. NOMINAL
4. Salaries of the top five CEOs in USA. RATIO
5. Rankings of tennis players. ORDINAL
Random Variable
- Possible outcome of a variable
Discrete Probability
- Discrete Data/Variable
Probability Mass Function
- Continuous Data/Variable
Sample Space – list of all possible outcome
Sample Point – outcomes

2n = number of outcomes

Mean Varaiable
Μ =∑ x ( P ( x ))

Variance
ϑ =∑ ( x × P ( x ) ) − Μ
2 2 2

Standard Deviation
ϑ= √∑ ( x × P ( x ) ) − Μ
2 2