Development Southern Africa

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Home economics and development

Erika Knye

To cite this article: Erika Knye (1985) Home economics and development, Development Southern
Africa, 2:1, 89-96, DOI: 10.1080/03768358508439128

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Development Southern Africa Vol 2, No 1, February 1985

Home economics and development

Erika Knye*

The development of home economics shows that the satisfaction ofpeople's

social and economic needs has always been its broad aim through history.
Home economics focuses on the family as ecosystem and the improvement of
the individual's interaction with the environment. Effective management of
available resources in order to satisfy the food, housing and clothing needs of
the family is an important factor in the improvement of quality of life and also
of the functioning offamilies within the community. Home economics extension
helps to maintain the balance between economic and social factors in
community development. The learning of physical skills or tasks to satisfy short
terms needs therefore serves as the starting point for ultimately developing
people's abilities, attitudes and values which will lead them to self-determina
tion.

1. INTRODUCTION: HOME ECONOMICS - AN HISTORICAL

PERSPECTIVE
Since its inception towards the end of the nineteenth century, home
economics has addressed itself to the needs and problems of families in
Europe and the United States. The history of home economics in the Un-
ited States is considered a reflection of the development of this field of
study in other countries. In this country domestic science was initially in-
troduced into schools with the aim of solving the social problems of the
time by teaching young girls cooking and sewing. However poverty and
the disintegration of the family unit was of great concern to many people
and in 1899 the first Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics was
held to enlarge the scope of home economics beyond domestic science. It
was felt that homemakers should be educated to apply the findings of sci-
ence to their home problems and thus contribute to the welfare of the na-
tion (McGrath, 1968). Home economics courses were introduced in the
landgrant colleges and nutrition, food-service, child care, budgeting,
hygiene, chemistry, microbiology and biology became essential parts of
the curricula. The improvement of homes and home life was stated as the
broad mission. The following well-known definition was formulated at the
fourth Lake Placid Conference in 1902:
Home economics is the study of the laws, conditions, principles and
ideals concerned with man's immediate physical environment and his
nature as a social being, and specially the relation between those two
factors (East, 1980, p 10).
It is interesting to note that during this time the International Federation
for Home Economics (IFHE) was founded in Fribourg, Switzerland in

* Senior Lecturer, Department of Home Economics, University of Stellenbosch.

89
1980 by men who felt that it was essential to educate women for their roles
as mothers and housewives and thereby improve conditions in poor
homes (Gencet, 1984).
During these early years the behavioral sciences, sociology and psychol-
ogy on which home economics builds today, were in their infancy. Be-
cause of rapid technological development during the first part of this cen-
tury, and economic approach to the management of the home with regard
to time, energy and money was preferred. Today home economics draws
its knowledge and attitudes from several relevant disciplines such as the
natural, biological, social and behavioural science as well as the arts and
humanities in order to help families find solutions for their practical prob-
lems (Hutchinson, 1982).
Although a slight shifting of emphasis has occurred during the past years,
the needs of families with respect to food, shelter and clothing have re-
mained the main components of home economics. It is a field of know-
ledge which focuses on strengthening the family as basic unit of society.
Besides building mainly on the natural sciences (biochemistry and
physiology) and the social sciences (sociology and psychology) home
economics subject areas include the following: food and nutrition, clo-
thing, housing, home management, resource management, human de-
velopment, family education, physical aspects of the home environment
and special problems related to family needs (Janelid, 1972).
2. THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT AS RELATED TO HOME
ECONOMICS
Literature on development, and more specificly community development,
stresses the importance of both environmental and human development
(Maritz, 1979; Batten, 1974). Failures encountered in past development
planning experiences have led to the recommendation of a balance bet-
ween economic and social development.

2.1 The family and development

Although the family is the most important economic and social unit of
community, the contribution families can deliver to the advancement of a
community is often overlooked. According to Janelid (1972) most develop-
ing countries do not provide for family oriented programmes, and the role
of rural families in development is undervalued. However people are part
of a family throughout their lives. They are bom. fed, clothed, cared for
and intellectually formed within the family environment. The family as a
social unit therefore determines the survival, well-being, success and hap-
piness of its individual members (Cebotarev, 1979). Stable and well-ad-
justed families provide the necessary material, economic, emotional and
social support to their members.
The well-being of families and the improvement of the quality of people's
lives depend to a great extent on the ability of families to use available re-
sources. Resource management of low-income families is determined by
their decision-making ability (Paolucci et al, 1977). Intelligent decision-
making, especially by women, is essential for creating a home environ-
ment where every individual can reach his fullest potential. Family deci-
sion-making is influenced by the environment in which the family func-
tions and in turn influences the environment. The nature and quality of
90
this environment can hinder or promote the decision-making abilities of
family members. Families and their environments are therefore interde-
pendent and constantly interacting with another.
2.2 The ecological approach of home economics
Home economics is fundamentally concerned with the family and its envi-
ronment. The broad aim of home economics programmes for development
is to enhance the quality of people's lives through effective resource man-
agement. The focus is on the family as an environment on the one hand
and the immediate environment of the family on the other hand (Engberg,
1972). Families in specific communities are therefore studied as social
systems with values, aims, aspirations, needs and roles, within an envi-
ronment of physical-material and socio-cultural resources. Resource
management and need satisfaction take place through the mechanism of
interaction between the family and its environment. The function of home
economics is to support and to strengthen this interaction through im-
proved management practices in the home (Cebotarev, 1979).
Home economics therefore uses an ecological approach and does not di-
rect its efforts toward the learning of physical skills only. This is a fre-
quent misconception of other professions, who still view home economics
as characteristic of the former 'domestic science'. Cebotarev (1980) points
out that home economics should also not be viewed in terms of knowledge
of subjects like nutrition and clothing. The content of home economics is
rather directed toward problem areas which families have to face. The
focus on family resource utilisation and management provides home
economics with a functional and dynamic character and enables family
members to have greater control over their lives and to contribute more
consciously to the welfare of the family and the community.

2.3 The scope of home economics

The aim of home economics programmes is to help families realise their
needs in order to improve their quality of life. Home economics program-
mes are based on the needs, problems and interests of people as well as on
their available resources. Problems home economists have to address in
developing countries usually stem from lack of food, shelter and clothing.
In this regard a broader view of home economics can be illustrated as fol-
lows (Stiebeling, 1969):
— Problems of malnutrition are caused not only by a lack of knowledge
but also connect to socio-cultural habits of families, food production,
distribution and use. The homemaker has to know what the nutri-
tional needs of the different family members are and must be able to
prepare attractive, nutritional meals by using safe and sanitary
methods within a limited budget.
— Housing is more than shelter. It is the space where individuals and
families develop physically, psychologically and socially. Good arrange-
ment of space is necessary for activities such as work, rest and recrea-
tion and efficient equipment should be used to save time and energy.
Adequate privacy for family members as well as sanitation in the house
and its environment are important aspects.
— Clothing not only satisfies physical needs but also acts as an outward
sign of a person's role and status in the family and the community.
Functional and comfortable clothes are important for individual well—
91
 being, but proper construction techniques and care practices will pre-
long the usefulness of textile items and maintain hygiene.
- As families in developing communities move from a subsistence to a
money economy they will need to become better informed consumers in
order to use their resources in the best possible way to satisfy their
food, housing and clothing needs.
— Homemakers need guidance in creating a secure and happy home at-
mosphere and therefore need information on child care and develop-
ment as well as on handling conflict situations to ensure family stabil-
ity.
2.4 Women and development
The growing realisation of the need of women to participate in develop-
ment programmes (Palmer. 1977; Pala, 1976; Janelid, 1975), confirms
the importance of the home economist in community development. Social
and economic changes make new demands on women as decision making
becomes more complex. As consumers of goods and services, they take im-
portant decisions in relation to nutrition, health and the provision of clo-
thing to the family (Higgs & Mbithi, 1977). Women's access to resources
and the improvement of their decision-making abilities are therefore cru-
cial factors in development.

2.5 The unique contribution of home economics to development

Home economics is "the only profession and body of knowledge which fo-
cuses on the family as its core and nucleus, and works predominantly in a
preventive, educational, developmental mode rather than through re-
mediation, therapy or crisis intervention" (Green, 1980, p 67).
Home economics is unique in the sense that it uses physical and natural
science based knowledge as well as social science based competencies to
improve family well-being. In this respect the home economist has a
broader knowledge base than the nutritionist who focuses on only one of
man's basic needs, or the social worker or community worker whose
methods and skills are based strictly on social sciences. The management
process is used at the integrating concept of the many subject areas of
home economics. T h e Joint application of process and technological
knowledge to family well-being is the real strength of home economics"
(Cebotarev, 1979, p 126). The understanding of social and economic
problems related to everyday living at the microlevel enable home
economists to provide a balance between human and economic factors in
development at the macrolevel (Tupay, 1980).
3 . HOME ECONOMICS AND ŔURAL DEVELOPMENT
Since the fifties purposeful attempts have been made to develop underde-
veloped communities, especially in the British African colonies, India and
the Philippines (Moody, 1980). The United Nations also founded several
specialised agencies to help member countries satisfy the needs and aspi-
rations of their inhabitants. The United Nations Children's Fund (UN-
ICEF), the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza-
tion (UNESCO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) are but a few of
the agencies that direct programmes for the betterment of family life and
employ home economists (Stiebeling, 1969). United States home
economists are involved in some of these international programmes and
92
provide leadership and expertise in research and programming (Hertzler
&Wall. 1984).
The FAO has special programmes aimed at raising the levels of nutrition
and the standard of living of people in developing countries. These prog-
rammes work through a joint farmhome approach by home economists
and agriculturists in rural extension services. Recent reports show that
FAO home economists play an important role in development planning. In
order to integrate women into agriculture and rural development, projects
were initiated which required base-line studies by home economists in
countries like Sri-Lanka, Indonesia, Lesotho, Bangladesh and Nepal
(FAO, 1981a). This action followed reports which showed that there was a
lack of information on women's living and working conditions as well as a
lack of action programmes relating to the role and the contribution of
women in agriculture and rural development (FAO, 1981b). At the World
Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development in Copenhagen
in 1980 it was also pointed out that more emphasis should be placed on
the training of men as well as women in household resource management,
consumer education, nutrition, health, sanitation and family life/popula-
tion education (United Nations, 1980).

Home economists in rural development programmes have also been sub-

jected to criticism for planning inappropriate projects without taking
women's needs and available time into consideration. Examples include
teaching rural women to embroider flowers on pillow cases (Heskins,
1981) or to bake biscuits (Axinn, 1981) as well as classes in gracious liv-
ing, flower arranging and stitching (Hertzler & Wall, 1984). Cebotarev
(1980) also criticises existing programmes for introducing foreign values
and for being out of touch with reality and totally neglectful of existing
needs. She stresses that programmes for rural development should be as-
sessed in terms of its relationship to social change. It follows that home
economists involved in rural development should have sufficient know-
ledge of adult education to be able to plan, implement and evaluate non-
formal education programmes. Belck (1981) proposes the use of the ex-
tension model in developing countries. Community leaders are taught by
the extension agent, and through the diffusion process the rest of the
community adopts the same practices. This model is especially useful in
countries where there is a lack of sufficiently trained home economists.
Community leaders could also be trained as paraprofessionals in order to
expand educational opportunities.
Besides poverty, one of the most crucial problems facing developing na-
tions is overpopulation. Population education is one of the new areas in
which economists have become involved, mainly because they have the
greatest single influence on women (Thompson-Clewry, 1975). Family
planning programmes have a better chance to succeed when living condi-
tions of families are improved through home economics extension prog-
rammes which focus on better home and family living. The teaching of re-
sponsible parenthood can also be easily integrated into home economics
programmes (Stewart, 1980).
With their background of clothing, textiles and food processing, home
economists are also qualified and able to enhance women's income-earn-
ing opportunities by helping them to produce aesthetic products of an ac-
93
ceptable standard and quality. The development of small-scale industries
in handicrafts, based on locally-available materials and agricultural by-
products, will enable women to earn incomes in order to improve the
health and economic position of their families (FAO, 1980).
4 . HOME ECONOMICS AND DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA
Home economics developed as a field of study in South Africa mainly as a
result of the findings and recommendations of the investigation into the
poor White problem by the Carnegie Commission of 1932. In part five of
the commission's report Rothman (1932, pp xv — xvi) proposes an adult
education system for women in poor families:
dit is baie wenslik dat moeders en dogters eenvoudige onderrig
ontvang insake die keuse en toebereiding van verskillende soorte van
voedsel...hulle dien onderrig te word nie alleen in sake soos geson-
dheid en siekeverpleging en sorg vir die suigeling nie, maar ook in
spaarsame huishouding en die huislike opvoeding van die kinders.
For many years home economists employed by the Department of Agricul-
ture contributed to the development and welfare of these families.
At present, most home economics extension agents are employed by the
Department of National Education and their efforts are directed mainly
towards the already developed White population. It is clear that home
economists do not serve the needs of the total South African population
and a shift in accent has become necessary.
In South Africa, the ability of home economists to contribute to commun-
ity development is also relatively unknown. They are usually involved in
educational projects for low-income groups on a voluntary basis. So-called
women-related subjects like cooking, sewing and crafts, which are often
offered by partly qualified persons or by any women with everyday experi-
ence, affect the status of home economics and the home economist is over-
looked because it is believed that anyone can fill her role.
Social workers, community workers or nutritionists may not be substi-
tuted for home economists. Home economics related programmes which
lack the services of home economists could be fragmented and uncoordi-
nated resulting in a wastage of man-hours and finances. They may also
leave families confused instead of enabling them to exert better control
over their environments. Social workers, nutritionists and home
economists all have important roles to play and should rather combine
their efforts in an interdisciplinary team approach, to the benefit of
families and communities.
Home economists in South Africa can play a vital part in developing both
rural and urban communities. The contribution of home economists to
rural communities with typical Third World problems such as poverty,
overpopulation and malnutrition should not be overlooked. The problems
faced by thousands of families in urban resettlement housing schemes
need urgent attention. Home economists are pre-eminently able to help
these families control their changed environment and to motivate them to
improve their living conditions in such a way as to establish responsible,
stable and happy communities.
5. CONCLUSION
The fact that the contribution of home economists to the problems of de-
94
velopment has long been recognised internationally may encourage South
African home economists to direct their efforts toward those communities
in greatest need and to become more actively involved in development. It is
clear that improving the decision making skills of family members
through home economics education will move them from passive to active
participation in their communities and improve their quality of life. There
is a need for the integration of home economics programmes into existing
development planning. However home economists should have a holistic
view of family problems and use an ecological model as base for assessing
needs and resources in order to plan appropriate programmes which will
support social and economic development.

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