Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Composition of the atmosphere

Atmospheric constituents can be classed in two groups: those that are well mixed, and those
that are variable. Nitrogen and oxygen, which account for roughly 99% of the atmosphere
(Table 1.1), are examples of the former. These constituents have long residence times—they
enter and leave the atmosphere much more slowly than the typical time it takes for turbulence
to mix them up thoroughly throughout the atmosphere. As a result, their number fraction is
essentially constant in space and time. Because of this, it is possible (from the physical and
thermodynamic point of view) to treat the “soup” of well-mixed gases as if it consisted of
a single species with molecular weight equal to the constituents’ average molecular weight.
This fictitious gas is called dry air.

The most important variable constituent is water vapour. Water is the only atmospheric
constituent that can change phase at the typical pressures and temperatures experienced in
the Earth’s atmosphere. It can condense to form clouds and precipitate out as rain, and it
can evaporate from the surface and from cloud and rain droplets. These are fast processes, so
the residence time of water vapour is brief. At any given instant, water vapour can account

9
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 10

for anything between 5% of the atmosphere (near the surface in the tropics) and almost zero
(in the stratosphere). To an excellent approximation, the atmosphere can be considered as
a two-component gas, made up of variable proportions of dry air and water vapour.

Table 1.1: Composition of the atmosphere. Number fractions (other than for water vapour) are specified
with respect to dry air.
Constituent Number fraction [%]
Nitrogen (N2 ) 78.08
Oxygen (O2 ) 20.95
Argon (Ar) 0.93
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) 0.038
Neon (Ne) 0.001818
Helium (He) 0.000524
Methane (CH4 ) 0.0001745
Krypton (Kr) 0.000114
Hydrogen (H2 ) 0.000055
Water vapour (H2 O) 0—5
Ozone (O3 ) 0—0.00001

1.2 Observed vertical structure

Vertical soundings of temperature, pressure and humidity are taken daily at a large number of
meteorological stations spanning the globe. The data thus obtained are among the principal
inputs to weather forecasting. There is a single sounding station in the Republic of Ireland,
picturesquely sited in Valentia Island off the Kerry coast. Figure 1.1 shows a randomly
selected sample sounding from Valentia. This serves to illustrate some key general features
of the atmosphere’s vertical structure:

• Pressure decreases smoothly with height. Surface pressure is about 1000 hPa.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 11

Pressure [hPa] Temperature [Celcius] Density [kg/m3]

25 25 25

20 20 20
Height [km]

15 15 15

10 10 10

5 5 5

0 0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Figure 1.1: Sounding at Valentia station, south-west Ireland, at 00Z on 14 September 2005.

• Temperature also decreases with height, though there is much more structure (more
wiggles) in the profile. The rate of decrease or lapse rate is on average 6◦ C/km (though
in this particular sounding is closer to 5◦ C/km). Above a certain height (about 15 km)
the temperature increases with height (the lapse rate is negative). The cross-over point
is known as the tropopause, separating the troposphere below from the stratosphere
above. Surface temperature is about 15◦ C or 288 K. A useful round-number value to
keep in mind as a typical surface temperature is 300 K.

• Density decreases with height, mirroring the pressure. The surface value is roughly 1
kg/m3 .