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GEO/PHYS 3150 Unit 6

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Unit 6 Part 1: Nuclear Basics

• Nuclear reactions
• Introduction to radioactivity
• Types of decay

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Nuclear Reactions
There are three nuclear reactions to discuss:
• Radioactivity
• Spontaneous change of the nucleus by the emission of energetic
particle(s)
• Characterized by a half-life
• The time for one half nuclei to change
• Nuclear fission
• The splitting of a nucleus into two parts
• accompanied by the emission of energy in the form of kinetic energy
• Nuclear fusion
• The joining of two nuclei to form a third
• Results in a release of energy in the form of kinetic energy

Nuclear Reactions
In all cases the energy comes from a reduction in
mass of the products, before and after the nuclear
reaction:
▫ ∆m is the mass change
▫ The energy is given by Einstein’s equation

E = ∆mc2
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http://cnx.org/content/m44390/latest/Figure_02_01_01.jpg

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Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the term used to describe the spontaneous
changes that can occur when nuclei are unstable
▫ Many stable nuclei have unstable isotopes
▫ We will see the importance of these when we discuss environmental
issues surrounding the use of nuclear energy
• The term comes from the radiation emitted by these nuclei
which were termed 'rays' in the early studies of
radioactivity

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Radioactivity
𝝰 rays - energetic helium nucleus (42He2+) also called ‘a’ particles

https://www.atomicarchive.com/img/science/alpha-particle.svg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Alpha_Decay.svg/1280px-Alpha_Decay.svg.png

Radioactivity
𝝱 rays - energetic
electrons from the nucleus
Neutrons change to protons
with the emission of an
electron

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Beta-minus_Decay.svg/240px-Beta-minus_Decay.svg.png

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Radioactivity
𝛄 rays - very short wavelength
electromagnetic waves
▫ To maintain energy and
momentum conservation,
neutrinos are also sometimes
emitted
▫ Neutrons are sometimes
emitted as well https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gamma_Decay.svg/1200px-Gamma_Decay.svg.png

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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg/300px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg.png

Alpha radiation is no match

for a sheet of paper

Beta radiation is no match

for a thin sheet of
aluminum

Gamma radiation has no problem

penetrating everything except
dense materials like concrete or
lead

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Radioactivity
• Alpha, beta, and gamma radiation can damage animal
and plant tissue and are fatal in large doses.
• An example of radioactive decay:
239 235
94
Pu 145 → 92
U143 + 24He 2 t1/2 = 24,000 years

t1/2 , the half life for the reaction, the time for 1/2 of the Pu nuclei to decay
Another example - Carbon 14
14
C - +147N 7 +e-,T1 =5730 yrs
6 8
2

Used to determine date of death of living plant/animal tissue

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Alpha Decay
• Instability that causes the decay: A nucleus has too many nucleons.
• Decay event: The nucleus emits a 24He nucleus - called an alpha
particle.
• Particle(s) emitted: a 24He nucleus - called an alpha particle

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Which Atoms are Likely to Alpha Decay?

A very large nucleus, generally anything larger than

Pb-208

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Beta particle – an electron emitted from the

nucleus.
• Does the nucleus contain electrons? (electron capture)
• In order to reach stability, a neutron changes into a proton
and emits an electron (and neutrino and gamma)

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Which Nucleus is Likely to Beta Decay?

• It is not about the overall size of the nucleus, but the
RATIO of neutrons to protons
• At the top of the periodic table, this is almost 1:1
• At the bottom of the table, it is more like 1.6:1

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Why would this imbalance exist?

• This does occur naturally, notably in 14C, which is built
by atmospheric interactions with neutrons from space

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Most Beta-susceptible nuclei are not

natural, but man-made
• The largest source of these on the planet today come from nuclear reactors
and are commonly referred to as “nuclear waste”

236 90 143
235
92
U 143 + n-+ 92 U144 -+ 36 Kr54 + 56 Ba87 + 3n

• Examine the Kr and Ba left in this reaction:

• Stability for either of these nuclei occur with fewer neutrons
• Conclusion: most fission products are highly radioactive and will
undergo beta decay
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Gamma
What is the instability causing the decay?
A nucleus has too much energy because one or more
of its electrons is in a higher energy level than it
should be occupying
What is the decay event?
The nucleus emits the energy in the form of a
photon, called a gamma ray
Gamma decay is the most common of all nuclear reactions
It also accompanies almost all beta decays and many alpha
decays

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Unit 6 Part 2: Nuclear Energy Background

(radiation)
• Nuclear timeline
• Nuclear terminology

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Nuclear Fission Timeline

• In the late 1930s German scientists discovered that when uranium nuclei
were bombarded with neutrons the uranium nuclei fissioned into two
fragments of about equal mass
• The fission fragments had a total energy of ~160MeV
• In addition, two or more neutrons were released
▫ This turned out to be VERY important for the harnessing of the released energy

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Nuclear Fission Timeline

• As a result of intense research during WWII, it was found that only the
isotope of uranium 235U underwent fission.
• Also, it was found that a new element formed from 238U by neutron
bombardment was also a fissile element (Pu-239)
• Three bombs were produced at Los Alamos in the famous WWII
Manhattan Project
▫ One was tested in the New Mexico desert
▫ Two were used in warfare against Japan
• Hiroshima and Nagasaki
▫ A legacy of this action has been public opposition to nuclear energy

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Nuclear Fission
Krypton
Gamma
rays n
Neutron
n n
235 U
Gamma
Barium rays
235U absorbsa neutron to become a very unstable isotope 236U which then undergoes fission
to two fragments, 2-3 neutrons and y rays

236 90
235
U +n = U + Kr +143Ba + 3n
92 92 36 56

This is one of many pairs of fission products that are formed

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Chain Reaction

• Note the exponential growth of the number of fissions

• However, to facilitate this, there is an important step between the emission of the
neutrons after fission and their involvement in the next fission
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Critical Mass
• A factor in determining whether a chain reaction will grow or fizzle out is
whether enough neutrons remain within the block of uranium
• If the block is too small, too many neutrons will escape through the edge
and not be available for producing additional fissions
• The minimum size for a sustained chain reaction to occur is called the
critical mass
• For a bomb with almost pure 235U, it is not very large
• For a reactor with only a small fraction of the uranium being 235U, it is
much larger
▫ Accidents have happened and still happen when too much uranium finds itself in
the same place – including spontaneously…. in nature

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Unit 6 Part 3: Nuclear Reactors

• Reactor 101

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Nuclear Reactors
• Nuclear reactor is the name given to the system used to control nuclear fission,and
remove the energy released through fission as heat energy in the form of
pressurized high-temperature steam.
▫ The steam is used in the same manner as steam from a fossil fuel boiler to drive a
turbine, turn a generator, and produce electrical energy
• The nuclear reactor core has four major components:
▫ Fissile fuel to release energy from mass
▫ A coolant to remove the heat from the fuel
▫ A moderator to reduce the energy of the neutrons to increase the probability of
their producing a fission reaction
▫ Control rods to control the number of neutrons, and thereby control the
number of fissions /second (i.e. power output of the reactor)

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Reactor Fissile Fuel

• Mined uranium ore is a mixture of the two
isotopes 235U and 238U of which only
0.7% is the fissile isotope 235U
• The 235U must be enriched to make up 3% of the
uranium in order to be used as a fuel in a
nuclear reactor
▫ This is difficult because isotopes are chemically
identical
▫ Separation must use the physical difference of the
masses of the isotopes
▫ Differential diffusion speeds used Fuel pellets ready for insertion into
fuel rods

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Fuel Rods 22

• The enriched uranium oxide is formed into pellets

and fill a long thin tube of an alloy of zirconium
▫ These are called fuel rods
• Always in the news…countries enriching uranium for
nefarious purposes!
• This is a concern because enrichment greater than
3% can be used for weapons

Fuel assemblies being installed

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Ore à yellow cake à UF6 (U hexafluoride) à fuel pellets in Uranium oxide structure

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Reactor Fissile Fuel

• Energy released in the fuel is converted to heat energy and conducted
through the casing to a fluid which transfers the heat to the heat engine
(turbine)
• The fuel rods remain in the reactor for ~3 years
▫ Initially the energy comes from the fission of 235U
▫ Later, significant amounts of 238U have been converted to the man-made
fissile isotope 239Pu by neutron bombardment which contributes to energy
release.
▫ The formation of 239Pu in nuclear reactors is an ominous problem (or a
potential benefit) for the exploitation of nuclear energy which we will
discuss later

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1. Fuel is mined, refined, enriched,

and placed in a reactor
2. Fission
3. Spent fuel placed in geologic
storage
4. Fuel is reprocessed for use

Steps 3 and 4 DO NOT OCCUR in the US

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Reactor Coolant
• The most common type of reactor used to produce heat energy (and electricity) is the Boiling Water
Reactor (BWR)
• The coolant for the core of the reactor is regular water, which is turned into steam by heat energy
resulting from uranium fission
• It is essential that coolant keeps flowing throughout the core to prevent the core temperature rising
and causing a core meltdown
• A variant is the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) which uses more highly enriched uranium and
can operate for ~15 years without refueling
▫ The water coolant remains liquid at very high pressure and temperature and then
generates steam in a separate heat exchanger.
▫ France and Russia use PWR for water cooled reactors in their nuclear power plants
▫ Also marine nuclear power plants are normally PWR

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Reactor Moderator
• Recall that neutrons are much more likely to cause fission if they have very low energies - fractions
of an eV.
• The purpose of the moderator is to reduce the neutron energy as a result of collisions between
moderator nuclei and the neutrons.
• The greatest energy loss occurs if the neutron collides with a nucleus having the same mass
(think of billiard balls colliding)
• The only candidate with equal mass is hydrogen, but it is not possible to have very dense
material which is just hydrogen inside the reactor
• A compromise is to use solid material with a low nuclear mass:
• Graphite is a common substance used because of its high melting point and low nuclear mass
of 12 amu (neutron & proton are ~1 amu)
• The hydrogen in the coolant water will also regulate neutron energy and is used as the
moderator in water-cooled reactors

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Reactor Control Rods

• To control a nuclear reactor, limit the number of neutrons available to produce
further fissions of the uranium
• This can be done by introducing material which absorbs neutrons into the core of
the reactor
• Engineer it so that the amount in the core can be varied

• How? Control rods of a boron or hafnium compound which can be inserted to

variable depth in the core of the reactor
▫ Full insertion of the rods will shut down the chain reaction
▫ Shut down is not instantaneous because of neutrons emitted from radioactive fission fragment
within the fuel rods

• Boron can be added to the coolant in case of the need for an emergency shut down
with malfunctioning control rods. (Potassium tetraborate)

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Control rod assembly above fuel,

showing springs for emergency
SCRAM shutdown.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/EBR-I_-_SCRAM_button.jpg/440px-EBR-I_-_SCRAM_button.jpg

SCRAM button at Experimental

Breeder Reactor near Arco, ID

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Schematic Reactor Core

• Fuel rods in a matrix
Control
Rods ▫ 46,376 rods, 193 in diameter
▫ Gaps between fuel rods allow water to be pumped
through the core.
Fuel • Control rods move in between fuel rods
Rods ▫ 177 control rods
• In this design water serves as both coolant and
moderator

Data for 1220MW reactor core

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Schematic Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) Core

Note:
▫ Forced circulation of coolant
▫ Separation of steam and water
▫ Container walls made of 6” thick steel
▫ Return water from condensers

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Nuclear BWR Electrical Power Plant

• The generating part is the same as for a fossil fueled power plant
• Containment structure is outside the reactor vessel
• Diagram is deceptive since the reactor is very small compared to the power plant

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Breeder Reactors
• We noted earlier that 238U is converted to 239Pu as a result of neutron
bombardment
• 239Pu is a fissile element, so if we expose naturally occurring 238U to a neutron
flux, we can make 239Pu - a nuclear fuel
• This is the basis of the breeder reactor which produces more nuclear fuel than
it uses - hence “Breeder”
• This type of reactor uses 239Pu as its primary fuel, which unlike 235U, has a
higher probability of fission for fast neutrons
• This reactor does not include moderator-like materials
• Leads to use of a heavier nucleus coolant than water
• The coolant of choice is liquid sodium
• This is why this type of reactor is called Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor
(LMFBR)

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Breeder Reactors

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Unit 6 Part 4: Other Issues

• Uranium inventory
• Social issues
• Accidents

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Uranium Inventory
• It is estimated that there are ~3x106 metric tons of uranium in the USA. (1 metric ton = 1,000 kg
= 2,205 lb = 1 tonne
• About 200 metric tons of mined uranium produce 1GW/yr of electrical energy (1.1 metric
ton of 235U)
• The power output of the 96 reactors operating in the USA is 99GW.; in other words, in one year
they produce 99GW of energy and use 200 x 99 metric tons of mined uranium.
• Thus, lifespan of uranium is:
▫ 3x106 / (200 x 99) = 152 years
• If nuclear power replaced fossil fuel electrical power the time would be reduced by a factor of 5
i.e ~30 years
• With breeder reactors this time would increase by a factor of nearly 200 to ~6000 years.
▫ Because all of mined uranium could be used for fission
▫ If Thorium is also used, this is >10,000 years

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Know Nukes before you say “No Nukes”

• The fission of 1 gram of 235U or 239Pu releases 1 MW/day, which is
equivalent to burning 3 tons of coal/day or 600 gallons of fuel oil/day
(which release about 1/4 metric ton carbon dioxide)
• The global combustion of coal annually releases about 16,000 tons of
radioactive thorium and about 7,000 tons of uranium into the
atmosphere
• Worldwide, the nuclear power industries produce about 10,000 tons of
radioactive waste
• This waste is contained and not released into the atmosphere
• Do you want to breathe alpha emitters?

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How much do you suppose that you receive from background

sources in the world around you?
•Generally very near or exceeding the established limit
•What things might increase this amount?

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Safety Issues

Total Natural

Comparison of nuclear Comparison of nuclear power

power plant risks with plant risks with natural
human events events

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Nuclear power plant accidents

1979 caused by human error
• Three Mile Island plant in
Pennsylvania

• Loss of coolant
• Severe core damage
• Minimal release of
radioactive material https://static01.nyt.com/images/2019/05/08/multimedia/08xp-threemile1/merlin_150734901_87bdb4ec-ca8b-4342-8ccf-e9e1341bc44a-superJumbo.jpg

• Containment worked

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Nuclear power plant accidents

1986 caused by human error
• Chernobyl plant in Ukraine
• Explosion and fire destroyed reactor
• Containment breached
• Large release of radioactive material
• High level of local fallout
• Lower levels carried by wind to
northern Europe
• Eventually radioactive material
carried around the world
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1b/Chernobyl_Disaster.jpg

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Nuclear power plant accidents

2011 caused by natural disaster
• Fukushima Daiichi
• Damage to backup power
causes loss of cooling
• Minimal release of radioactive
material
• Containment still working
• Concern over on-site storage
of spent fuel rods https://sites.suffolk.edu/jstraka/files/2015/10/FukushimaMeltdown101113.jpeg

• Stable on Sept 1, 2011

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Accident Severity Comparison

Chernobyl
combined
Fukushima Daiichi
1, 2, 3

4 TMI

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Chernobyl

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Fukushima Rx 1-4

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Unit 6 Part 5: What Could Go Wrong?

• Security
• What to do
with waste?
• Future?

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National Security Issues

• Why has the US has shut down its breeder reactor development program?
▫ National security
▫ Safety
• National security
§ Breeder reactors produce large amounts of plutonium
§ Small amounts of plutonium are needed to make nuclear weapons
§ Thus keeping track of the inventory of plutonium to the accuracy to be sure none had gotten
into the wrong hands would be a nightmare
• International security
§ The government is concerned about to development of conventional nuclear reactors in
other countries.
§ All nuclear reactors produce plutonium which remains in the spent fuel
§ Thus the commissioning of a nuclear power plant is also commissioning a plutonium
factory.

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Safety Issues

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Safety Issues
• Another major impediment to the development of nuclear energy is the perception that nuclear
power plants are more dangerous than other power plants
• This is probably a legacy of the use of nuclear weapons in WWII and subsequent testing of these
weapons by the USA, the former USSR, and other countries
▫ Graphic visual evidence of the blast effects of uncontrolled nuclear energy release
▫ Graphic descriptions of the effects of radioactivity on human beings.
▫ Lack of public knowledge of the obscure phenomenon of radiaoactivity.
▫ Propaganda about the results of nuclear war
▫ Gradual release of information on the effects of fallout on people from above ground testing of nuclear
weapons
• The public were led to believe that nuclear power stations were a hairsbreadth from being nuclear
bombs
• In fact, the situation is very different due to safeguards built into the design of nuclear power
stations

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Radioactive Waste
• Although nuclear power plants do not emit dangerous materials into the
atmosphere, there is a waste problem
• The fuel rods are mostly spent after 2-3 years and are removed from the reactor
core and replaced by new fuel rods

• The fuel rods are very radioactive at removal

Unstable isotopes of fission fragments
239Pu produced from 238U in the fuel

Unstable isotopes of the structural material in the fuel rod casing

• The problem is where to put the spent fuel rods….

• First they are placed in water tanks
▫ Cools rods heated by radioactive decay
▫ Absorbs much of emitted radiation
• Planned for ~150 days in water tanks, but many have accumulated in
tanks for many years
▫ Nowhere else to take them!

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Radioactive Waste
• The proposed long term storage facility under
consideration was at Yucca Mountain, NV.
• Containers have been approved to maintain the integrity
of the unit for 1000’s years and absorb most of the
emitted radiation
• Radiation emission in transit is an important
consideration
• Project cancelled at essential completion in 2010

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Real Disposal Options

• Long-term geologic storage must be part of the solution, but the question of
how much needs to be sequestered is fascinating
• In 1977 President Jimmy Carter banned reprocessing of spent fuel rods,
effectively making the entire fuel rod in need of long term storage.
(Reaffirmed by Obama, 2010)
• Reprocessing, which would recover most of the Uranium and all the
Plutonium would reduce the volume of the waste by 90%, while also
making fuel available for re-use
• Most of the problems of disposal are political, not engineering

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Long-term disposal issues

• Highly radioactive, needs to be stored far from population
▫ How to predict in geological time?
• Will survive a very long time
▫ This problem is significantly reduced if reprocessing occurs, because the
long-lived nuclides are removed for re-use
• Could pose a threat to water supply
▫ Store in desert
▫ Bind in ceramics, then bury

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Other possibilities
Thorium Cycle
• Th n Th (Fissionable)

• This system produces its own fuel during operation by absorbing

excess neutrons from fission
• It requires some Uranium to get started
• Outcomes:
• No transuranics
• Fuel is stable
• Minimal waste
• Ideal for reprocessing

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Advanced Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/nations-first-small-modular-reactor-plant-power-nuclear-research-idaho-national

• Small footprint, reduced cost, stackable, can be designed to be breeder

reactor

• Thermal-neutron and fast-neutron with

• Thermal-neutron: rely upon moderator to slow neutrons; use 235U I

• Fast-neutron: no moderators, neutrons absorbed by fuel; use 235U or 239Pu

• Can deliver tens to hundreds of megawatts

• Fuels are lower quantity and non-weapons-grade, therefore not ‘enrichable’

• Fuels have a higher burnup rate, resulting in less waste

• Thorium fuel may also be used

Carbon-Free Power Project (CFPP), SMRs planned for

construction on the Idaho National Laboratory site

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