lubricants
Article
Process Optimization of Automotive Brake Material in Dry
Sliding Using Taguchi and ANOVA Techniques for
Wear Control
Ashish Saurabh , Kartik Joshi, Abhinav Manoj and Piyush Chandra Verma *
Citation: Saurabh, A.; Joshi, K.;
Manoj, A.; Verma, P.C. Process
Optimization of Automotive Brake
Material in Dry Sliding Using Taguchi
and ANOVA Techniques for Wear
Control. Lubricants 2022, 10, 161.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
lubricants10070161
Received: 27 June 2022
Accepted: 12 July 2022
Published: 18 July 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Lubricants 2022, 10, 161. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10070161
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani—Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad 500078, India;
p20190443@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in (A.S.); h20191060036@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in (K.J.);
p20210439@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in (A.M.)
* Correspondence: piyushchandraverma@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in
Abstract: In this paper, an investigation of the load-dependent wear behavior of copper-free semi-
metallic brake material is presented. The experiments were conducted in ambient thermal settings
with varying sliding velocities (3.141 m/s, 2.09 m/s, and 1.047 m/s), normal load (60 N, 50 N,
and 40 N), and sliding distance (4500 m, 3000 m, and 1500 m). Taguchi’s method was used in
designing experiments to examine the output through an L9 orthogonal array. ANOVA was used to
identify the consequence of interactions among different constraints. It also established the significant
contribution of each process factor. The objective was set as the ‘smaller is better’ criterion to find
minimum wear conditions. The impact of the normal load on the wear process was found to be
maximum (71.02%), followed by sliding velocity (27.84%) and sliding distance (1.14%). The optimum
condition for the minimum wear rate was found at 40 N normal load, 1500 m sliding distance,
and 3.14 m/s sliding velocity. The results were confirmed with validatory friction experiment
runs. The resulting error was within 10% error, which verified the experiment methods. The SEM
investigation of worn surfaces of pin and disc confirmed abrasive wear and adhesive wear at 60 N and
40 N, respectively.
Keywords: copper-free semi-metallic friction material; MINITAB; dry sliding wear; ANOVA; SEM;
process optimization
1. Introduction
Brake pads are one of the most difficult composite materials to work with. They
are challenging to fabricate owing to the differences in the chemical behaviors of each
component [1]. The behavior of the brake friction material is impacted by its microstructure
and composition. It contains fibers, abrasives, minerals, lubricants, fillers, and phenolic
resin. It should maintain a consistent and moderate coefficient of friction (CoF) under wide-
ranging and fluctuating environmental conditions. The friction behavior can be altered by
changing the constituent fiber with different hardness [2,3]. The selection of brake material
is affected by numerous criteria, such as friction behavior, wear, etc. [4,5]. The CoF of the
brake frictional material should be such that it does not lock the wheel and produce high
noise. At the same time, it should also stop the vehicle at a desirable sliding distance when
needed [6–8]. The CoF should lie between 0.3 and 0.5 for efficient braking [9–11]. Another
condition for the brake material is that it should not wear out quickly. However, it must
not damage the rotor in a prolonged run. Under these circumstances, knowledge of the
wear process of brake material becomes essential [12,13].
As illustrated in Figure 1, due to the motion of the brake pad against the rotor, a
substantial portion of wear from the friction material will be discharged as particulate
matter. Brake wear accounts for 16% to 55% of total particle mass in non-exhaust road
traffic emissions in urban contexts, according to research. The presence of copper in the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/lubricants
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18

Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 2 of 16

traffic emissions in urban contexts, according to research. The presence of copper in the
automotive brake pad has been a significant concern owing to its adverse effects on the
automotivemainly
ecosystem, brake marine
pad haslife.been a significant
Brake concern
makers were owing to
anticipated toits adversethe
decrease effects on the
amount of
ecosystem, mainly marine life. Brake makers were anticipated to decrease
copper used in their friction material by 2021 to comply with the copper-free brake padthe amount of
copper used in their friction material by 2021 to comply with the copper-free
agreement reached in 2015 between the US Environmental Protection Agency and indus- brake pad
agreement
try reached in
representatives. This2015
ledbetween the USofEnvironmental
to the arrival Protection Agency
copper-free semi-metallic frictionand industry
materials.
representatives. This led to the arrival of copper-free semi-metallic friction
To maintain the performance of copper-free semi-metallic friction material at par with materials. To
maintain the performance of copper-free semi-metallic friction material at par with copper-
copper-based friction material, the wear behavior of copper-free friction material must be
based friction material, the wear behavior of copper-free friction material must be examined.
examined. Furthermore, there has been much research in the past on the optimization of
Furthermore, there has been much research in the past on the optimization of the brake
the brake manufacturing process. However, insights into the wear process, factors affect-
manufacturing process. However, insights into the wear process, factors affecting it, and
ing it, and the interaction among the wear process variables are still needed [13–20].
the interaction among the wear process variables are still needed [13–20].

Figure
Figure1.1.Schematic
Schematicofofthe
theautomotive
automotivebrake
brakepad–disc
pad–discsystem.
system.

Becauseofofthe
Because thecomplexity
complexityofofthe thewear
wearprocess,
process,aascientific
scientificmethodology
methodologyisisrequired
required
totoinvestigate
investigatethe thetribological
tribologicalproperties
propertiesofofthe
thefriction
frictionpair.
pair. One
Oneof ofthe
themost
mostimportant
important
statisticaltechniques
statistical techniquesforfor studying
studying diverse
diverse process
process factors
factors by lowering
by lowering the number
the number of mul-of
tiple trials is the design of the experiment (DOE). The Taguchi design technique leads toto
multiple trials is the design of the experiment (DOE). The Taguchi design technique leads
theremoval
the removalofofunnecessary
unnecessaryexperiments
experimentsininthetheprocess.
process.ItItisisfollowed
followedbybyANOVA
ANOVAanalysis.
analysis.
Thisresults
This resultsininidentifying
identifyingthe thecrucial
crucialcharacteristics
characteristicsthat
thatinfluence
influencewear wearrate.
rate.ANOVA
ANOVAalso also
becomesessential
becomes essentialtotodetermine
determinewhatwhatpercentage
percentageofofeach
eachsliding
slidingwearwearprocess
processparameter
parameter
contributesto
contributes towear
wearloss
lossofofcopper-free
copper-freesemi-metallic
semi-metallicfriction
frictionmaterial
material[20,21].
[20,21].
As a result, Taguchi’s experimental method provides a solid
As a result, Taguchi’s experimental method provides a solid instrument for instrument forexamining
examining
the impact of diverse process variables on brake wear when paired
the impact of diverse process variables on brake wear when paired with ANOVA analysis with ANOVA analy-
sis [22–29]. The research aims to achieve optimal results in establishing
[22–29]. The research aims to achieve optimal results in establishing minimum wear rates minimum wear
by
rates by analyzing the effect of various process variables, i.e., load, sliding
analyzing the effect of various process variables, i.e., load, sliding distance, and sliding veloc-distance, and
sliding
ity, velocity, on
on copper-free copper-free friction
semi-metallic semi-metallic friction
material undermaterial
dry slidingunder dry sliding conditions.
conditions.
2. Methodology
2. Methodology
“According to Archard’s wear law, the wear volume is proportional to the normal force,
“According to Archard’s wear law, the wear volume is proportional to the normal
the sliding distance, and inversely proportional to the softer contact partners’ hardness”.
force, the sliding distance, and inversely proportional to the softer contact partners’ hard-
The selection of factors was made, keeping this law into consideration. It was followed by
ness.” The selection of factors was made, keeping this law into consideration. It was fol-
the design of experiments, conducting experiments, and validating the model, as shown in
lowed by the design of experiments, conducting experiments, and validating the model,
Figure 2. Sliding distance, sliding velocity, and normal load were the parameters varied
as shown
for the dryin sliding
Figure 2. Sliding
wear test.distance, sliding
The model’s velocity,
response is and normal
the least wearload were
rate forthe
theparam-
copper-
eters varied for the dry sliding wear test. The model’s response is the least wear
free semi-metallic friction material. The interaction between parameters is also analyzed. rate for
the
Thecopper-free semi-metallic
SN ratio, which frictionthe
sums together material.
variousThe interaction
input parameterbetween parameters
arrangements is also
of the run,
analyzed. The SN ratio, which sums together the various input parameter
is determined by the type of output being examined. To examine dry sliding wear, the arrangements
‘smaller is better’ features were chosen [30–35].
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 3 of 16

of the run, is determined by the type of output being examined. To examine dry sliding
wear, the 'smaller is better' features were chosen [30–35].

Figure
Figure 2. Process methodology
2. Process methodology flow
flow chart.
chart.

2.1. Design of
2.1. Design of Experiment
Experiment
The design of
The design of experiments
experiments isis the
the most
most essential
essential approach
approach forfor the
the simultaneous
simultaneous inves-
inves-
tigation of the various factors affecting the process. It does not only reduce the
tigation of the various factors affecting the process. It does not only reduce the number of number
of experiments
experiments to be
to be conducted
conducted butbut
alsoalso
layslays
downdownthethe investigations
investigations needed
needed to achieve
to achieve the
the goal. The correct identification of factors is required in order to analyze the
goal. The correct identification of factors is required in order to analyze the scientific scientific
pro-
process [35–38].
cess [35–38]. To construct
To construct the the engineering
engineering optimization
optimization andand analysis
analysis experiment
experiment plan,
plan, the
the Taguchi method uses standard orthogonal arrays. The experiment’s findings are then
Taguchi method uses standard orthogonal arrays. The experiment’s findings are then an-
analyzed using ANOVA. An L9 orthogonal array was chosen to comprehend the impact of
alyzed using ANOVA. An L9 orthogonal array was chosen to comprehend the impact of
three separate factors, each with three levels. It is a balanced array and makes sure that
three separate factors, each with three levels. It is a balanced array and makes sure that all
all parameter levels are taken into account equally. The range of brake loads, from mild to
parameter levels are taken into account equally. The range of brake loads, from mild to
heavy, has been considered. Less time is needed to conduct and analyze the experiments.
heavy, has been considered. Less time is needed to conduct and analyze the experiments.
The factors chosen are explained below.
The factors chosen are explained below.
2.1.1. Load
2.1.1. Load
A stationary pin is held against a spinning disc in a pin-on-disc tribometer. The pin can
be inA stationary
any pin is held
form to imitate against
accurate a spinning
contact, disc in a pin-on-disc tribometer.
but cylindrical/rectangular The pin
tips are commonly
can be intoany
utilized form tothe
streamline imitate accurate
contact contact,
geometry. Thebut cylindrical/rectangular
ratio tips
of the frictional force to theare com-
normal
monly utilized to streamline the contact geometry. The ratio of the frictional force
force determines the coefficient of friction. When the normal load increases, friction occurs to the
normal force determines the coefficient of friction. When
at the contact surface, resulting in the loss of material [28]. the normal load increases, fric-
tion occurs at the contact surface, resulting in the loss of material [28].
2.1.2. Sliding Distance
2.1.2.Sliding
Slidingdistance
Distanceis obtained by the product of the linear speed and the time taken. The
wearSliding
rate increases
distancewith the distance
is obtained by traveled by the
the product of pin. However,
the linear speedtheand
rate the
of wear
time during
taken.
travel is also
The wear rateimpacted
increasesby other
with thefactors,
distancesuch as the by
traveled roughness
the pin. of the profile,
However, the the
ratebehavior
of wear
of the interface
during travel isandalsothe genuineby
impacted contact
otherzone, etc.such
factors, Asperity
as theinteraction
roughnessthrough the contact
of the profile, the
zone also of
behavior alters
the the wear rate
interface and [29–31]. Sliding
the genuine distance
contact zone,inetc.
meters is calculated
Asperity by: through
interaction
the contact zone also alters the wear rate [29–31]. Sliding distance in meters is calculated
x = Π × d × N × t, (1)
by:
where d = wear track diameter in meters; N = rotor speed in RPM; t = time in mins.
𝑥 = 𝛱 × 𝑑 × 𝑁 × 𝑡, (1)
2.1.3.
whereSliding Velocity
d = wear track diameter in meters; N = rotor speed in RPM; t = time in mins.
Sliding velocity is relative to the product of the rotor’s spinning speed and the track
diameter of the pin. An increase in the sliding velocity also alters the temperature of the
pin–rotor contact zone, leading to changes in the wear value [30,31]. Sliding velocity in
m/s is provided by:
Π×D×N
v= (2)
60
Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 4 of 16

D = diameter of the rotor in meters.

N = revolution per min.
Table 1 lists the identified input factors against corresponding levels.
Table 1. Selected control factors and respective levels for wear tests of the friction material.

Factors
Level
Load (N) Sliding Distance (m) Sliding Velocity (m/s)
1. 40 1500 1.047
2. 50 3000 2.094
3. 60 4500 3.141

The research objective was to determine the relation between variation in operating
conditions and the wear of the copper-free semi-metallic brake pad material. The SN ratio was
chosen as the performance criterion, as illustrated in Table 2. This ratio under different noise
conditions assesses the convergence of the output to the objective. The formula is as follows:
1  2
SN = −10 log Σyi (3)
n
where ‘n’ signifies the number of observations, while ‘yi ’ denotes the data. The signal
is represented by the letter ‘S’. In contrast, the noise is represented by the letter ‘N’. SN
ratios were calculated based on the experiment objective ‘smaller is better’, in alignment
with the reduction of wear rate. When a process parameter was altered, the results were
used to compute the wear response. The optimum conditions for the wear process of
semi-metallic brake pad material were determined. The noise was reduced through a
change in the dependent variables. It is challenging to change the external inputs to modify
noise. These constitute sliding distance, sliding velocity, and load. The process finds the
best process parameters for reducing the wear rate. The interaction between the factors
was also considered. Table 3 shows the design of the experiment in the L9 array.
Table 2. SN ratios and their meanings.

SN Ratio Objective Meaning

1 2)
−10 log n (Σ1/yi Higher is better Response maximization
10 log (µ/σ)2 Nominal is the best Shifts mean to a target value
1
−10 log n (Σyi 2 ) Smaller is better Response minimization

Table 3. An orthogonal array of variables (load, sliding distance, and sliding velocity) for
process optimization.

S. No. Load (N) Sliding Distance (m) Sliding Velocity (m/s)

1 40 1500 1.047
2 40 3000 2.094
3 40 4500 3.141
4 50 1500 2.094
5 50 3000 3.141
6 50 4500 1.047
7 60 1500 3.141
8 60 3000 1.047
9 60 4500 2.094

3. Experimental Procedure
3.1. Materials
The friction behavior of copper-free friction material was investigated by using a
pin-on-disc tribometer. Pin specimens of the friction material were fabricated, as shown
 Si 0.187
Ni 1.827
S 1.013
Ca 1.229
Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 Mn 0.448 5 of 16
Cr 0.258
Ti 0.133
Fe 18.063
in Figure 3a, with 15 mm height and 8 mm × 8 mm base, according to ASTM G99 test
standards. AsP shown in Figure 3b, a GCI disc with 6 mm 0.089
thickness and 50 mm diameter
was employedZn as a counter-rotor. Table 4 depicts the composition
0.276 of friction material found
by XRF analysis.
Ba The various semi-metallic constituents of the friction material can be
3.140
seen. FigureBal.
4a depicts the SEM image of the cross-sectionNDof the copper-free semi-metallic
friction material, while Figure 4b–f depicts the EDS mapping of the elements present within
the matrix. Carbon, along with iron, is the most profuse element present in the material
matrix. The presence of nickel, barium, and oxygen is also visible.

Figure 3. (a) Semi-metallic brake pad pin; (b) cast iron brake rotor with actual dimensions used in
the friction test.
Figure 3. (a) Semi-metallic brake pad pin; (b) cast iron brake rotor with actual dimensions used in
the friction
Tabletest.
4. Friction material composition as examined by XRF.

Element Wt. (%)

Si 0.187
Ni 1.827
S 1.013
Ca 1.229
Mn 0.448
Cr 0.258
Ti 0.133
Fe 18.063
P 0.089
Zn 0.276
Ba 3.140
Bal. ND

3.2. Wear Experiment

The dry sliding wear tests at ambient thermal conditions were conducted by a com-
puterized pin-on-disc tribometer (Model: Magnum, India). The study strictly followed
ASTM G99 procedures. A digital weight balance (Shimadzu UniBloc, Model AUW220D,
Tokyo, Japan) was used to find the initial weight of the virgin pins and the final weight of
the worn friction material pins. The precision was up to four decimal places. An 800-grit
SiC abrasive paper was used to abrade the surface before the friction test in order to have
a flat contact with the counter GCI disc. The pin was loaded into the tribometer through
the connected lever. The GCI disc was used as counter-face material with a hardness of
350 HV60 (measured with a Mitutoyo Vickers hardness testing machine; Model HM-200,
USA). The disc had a roughness profile of 0.16 µ at the start (measured with a Mitutoyo
surface roughness tester; Model SJ 410, Aurora, IL, USA). Measurements of the samples
were done with Vernier calipers (Mitutoyo; Model 500-196-20, Aurora, IL, USA). The wear
rate of the brake material was obtained by the ratio of material volume loss to sliding
distance. The formula is as follows:
W f − Wi
Q= (4)
ρl
Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 6 of 16

Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

where Q = wear rate (mm3 /m), Wf = final weight of the pin in g, Wi = initial weight of the
pin in g, ρ = density of pin in g/mm3 , and l = sliding distance in meters.

Figure 4. (a) SEM microstructure of the starting brake-pad material; (b–f) corresponding EDX ele-
Figure 4. (a) SEM microstructure of the starting brake-pad material; (b–f) corresponding EDX
mental mapping of Fe, Ni, Ba, C, and O, respectively.
elemental mapping of Fe, Ni, Ba, C, and O, respectively.
3.2. Wear
The Experiment
tribometer with a counterweight and a rotating rotor delivered the braking force,
The dry
as shown in sliding
Figure 5.wearDrytests at ambient
sliding thermal
experiments conditions
were conducted wereat conducted
4500 m, 3000 by am,com-
and
puterized
1500 m with pin-on-disc tribometer
sliding velocities (Model:
of 3.141 m/s, Magnum,
2.094 m/s,India). Them/s,
and 1.047 study
at astrictly
standard followed
contact
ASTM
force ofG99
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW procedures.
60 N, 50 N, and A 40 digital
N, andweight
a track balance
radius of(Shimadzu
20 mm. The UniBloc,
contact Model AUW220D,
was equipped 7 with
of 18
Tokyo, Japan) was used to find the initial weight of the virgin pins and
an LVDT and a strain gauge to monitor the displacement and frictional force. The gadget the final weight of
the
wasworn
linkedfriction material that
to a computer pins.ran
Thethe precision
‘Magview’ wasprogram,
up to four decimal
which places.
allowed theAn 800-grit
changes in
SiC abrasive
wear, paper
frictional was
force, used
and to
slidingabrade
velocitythe surface
to be before
monitored the
andfriction test
assessed. in
The
data were stored in the software file. Each friction test was carried out three times in order order to
sliding have
wear
data
atoflat were
contact
obtain stored
withinthe
statisticallythe software
counter
reliable file.
GCI
and Each
disc.
repeatable friction
The test
pin was
wear data. was carried
loaded out tribometer
into the three timesthrough
in order
to obtain
the statistically
connected reliable
lever. The GCI anddiscrepeatable
was used wear data.
as counter-face material with a hardness of
350 HV60 (measured with a Mitutoyo Vickers hardness testing machine; Model HM-200,
USA). The disc had a roughness profile of 0.16 µ at the start (measured with a Mitutoyo
surface roughness tester; Model SJ 410, Aurora, IL, USA). Measurements of the samples
were done with Vernier calipers (Mitutoyo; Model 500-196-20, Aurora, IL, USA). The wear
rate of the brake material was obtained by the ratio of material volume loss to sliding
distance. The formula is as follows:
𝑊 −𝑊
𝑄= (4)
𝜌𝑙
where Q = wear rate (mm3/m), Wf = final weight of the pin in g, Wi = initial weight of the
pin in g, ρ = density of pin in g/mm3, and l = sliding distance in meters.
The tribometer with a counterweight and a rotating rotor delivered the braking force,
as shown in Figure 5. Dry sliding experiments were conducted at 4500 m, 3000 m, and
1500 m with sliding velocities of 3.141 m/s, 2.094 m/s, and 1.047 m/s, at a standard contact
force of 60 N, 50 N, and 40 N, and a track radius of 20 mm. The contact was equipped with
Figure 5. Pin-on-disc tribometer used for friction test.
an LVDT
Figure and a strain
5. Pin-on-disc gauge to
tribometer monitor
used the displacement
for friction test. and frictional force. The gadget
was linked to a computer that ran the ‘Magview’ program, which allowed the changes in
wear,The accuracy
frictional andand
force, precision
slidingof the measuring
velocity instruments
to be monitored are shownThe
and assessed. in Table
sliding5.wear

Table 5. Accuracy and precision of measuring instruments.

Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 7 of 16

The accuracy and precision of the measuring instruments are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Accuracy and precision of measuring instruments.

Equipment Accuracy Precision

Pin-on-disc tribometer LVDT ± 1 µm LVDT 10−8 µm
Weighing balance ±10−4 g 10−4 g
Vernier caliper ±10−2 mm 10−2 mm
Vickers hardness tester ±10 HV60 10−1 HV60
Surface roughness tester ±10−2 µm 10−3 µm

3.3. Characterization Techniques

To investigate the worn surfaces of the pin and disc, a scanning electron microscope
(SEM) was used. The ED-XRF (PANalytical, Model: Epsilon-1, Malvern, UK) equipment was
used to trace the presence of elements in the copper-free semi-metallic friction material. X-ray
fluorescence emissions were analyzed using the inbuilt library functions. SEM (FEI, Model:
Apreo LoVac, Waltham, NJ, USA) was used to analyze the worn-out friction material surface
and disc surface. The coating on the specimens was done by the sputtering of 10 nm gold
nanoparticles (Leica Ultra Microtome, Model: EM UC7, Wetzlar, Germany).

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Signal to Noise (SN) Analysis of Wear
The research goal was to identify the essential parameters affecting the wear process
and the corresponding conditions for minimum wear. The SN ratio results from the orthog-
onal array for various parameter combinations are displayed in Table 6. By translating the
experiment results into ratios, MINITAB 18 was used to calculate the multiple functions
related to the performance of the friction material. The standard deviations for the repeated
tests were obtained in addition to the wear rate data.

Table 6. An orthogonal array of process variables for semi-metallic friction material.

Sliding Sliding Wear Rate

Load
S. No. Distance Velocity (mm3 /m) St. Dev. SN Ratio
(N)
(m) (m/s) ×10−4
1 40 1500 1.047 2.3814 0.00032 72.4633
2 40 3000 2.094 1.7933 0.0006 74.9269
3 40 4500 3.141 1.3671 0.00101 77.2839
4 50 1500 2.094 3.1752 0.00153 69.9645
5 50 3000 3.141 2.3152 0.00141 72.7080
6 50 4500 1.047 5.4243 0.00162 65.3130
7 60 1500 3.141 3.8367 0.00178 68.3208
8 60 3000 1.047 9.1288 0.00243 60.7917
9 60 4500 2.094 6.1746 0.00126 64.1877

The impact of wear on control test limits was studied with the corresponding optimum
condition and wear mechanism. The influence of input constraints was analyzed based
on the data means and SN ratios, as shown in Tables 7 and 8. The current levels for each
factor were defined with the understanding that these represented the range of low to high
loading circumstances required for braking to occur. The raw response variable means for
each factor/level combination were the ‘data means’, as shown in Table 7. The difference
between the highest and lowest characteristic averages for a factor was used to calculate the
amount of the effect or delta. It is easier to see which factors have the biggest impact when
analyzing the ranks in a response table. The factor with the biggest delta value was given
rank 1, the second-biggest delta was given rank 2, and so on. The SN ratios were statistically
significant for input parameter behaviors. The signal-to-noise ratio for each factor level,
 difference between the highest and lowest characteristic averages for a factor was used to
calculate the amount of the effect or delta. It is easier to see which factors have the biggest
impact when analyzing the ranks in a response table. The factor with the biggest delta
value was given rank 1, the second-biggest delta was given rank 2, and so on. The SN
ratios
Lubricants 2022, were statistically significant for input parameter behaviors. The signal-to-noise ratio
10, 161 8 of 16

for each factor level, delta, and rank is listed in a row in Table 8. Each factor has its own
column in the table. Delta and rank were calculated in the same manner as explained be-
fore. The applied load delta,was
and the
rankmost
is listed in a element
critical row in Table 8. Each the
impacting factor has phenomenon
wear its own columninin the table.
Delta and rank were calculated in the same manner
the experiment, followed by sliding velocity and sliding distance. The principal as explained before. The applied load
control
was the most critical element impacting the wear phenomenon in the experiment, followed
design for the SN ratio, for the mean, for wear, and for the interaction effect with govern-
by sliding velocity and sliding distance. The principal control design for the SN ratio, for
ing inputs are featured in Figures 6a,b and 7. The tilts of the primary impression curves
the mean, for wear, and for the interaction effect with governing inputs are featured in
show the influenceFiguresof each parameter.
6a,b and 7. TheThe tilts factor with theimpression
of the primary highest inclination
curves showofthetheinfluence
line of each
was the most critical. The main effect charts for wear in Figure 6a and the SN ratio in
parameter. The factor with the highest inclination of the line was the most critical. The
Figure 6b depict that mainthe applied
effect chartsload wasin
for wear the most6acritical
Figure and thefactor.
SN ratio in Figure 6b depict that the applied
load was the most critical factor.

, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18

Figure 6. Main effects plot

Figure 6. for
Main (a)effects
wear plot
ratefor
of (a)
thewear
friction
rate material, andmaterial,
of the friction (b) SN ratio at SN
and (b) different
ratio at different
operating conditions of load,conditions
operating sliding distance, and sliding
of load, sliding velocity.
distance, and sliding velocity.

Table 7. Responses for mean wear and corresponding ranking of process variables.

Level Load Sliding Distance Sliding Velocity

1 0.0001847 0.0003131 0.0005645
2 0.0003638 0.0004412 0.0003344
3 0.0006009 0.0003951 0.0002506
Delta (∆) 0.0004162 0.0001281 0.0003139
Rank 1 3 2
Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 9 of 16

Table 8. Response for SN ratio for wear and corresponding ranking of process variables.

Level Load Sliding Distance Sliding Velocity

1 74.89143 70.24956 66.18937
2 69.32861 69.47563 70.26794
3 65.00826 69.50311 72.77099
Figure 6.Delta
Main(∆)
effects plot for (a)9.88317
wear rate of the friction0.77393
material, and (b) SN ratio at different
6.58162
operating Rank
conditions of load, sliding 1distance, and sliding velocity.
3 2

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Interaction
Interaction effect
effect of
of load,
load, sliding
sliding distance,
distance, and
and sliding
sliding speed
speed on
on the
the wear
wear rate
rate of
of friction
friction
material at different operating conditions.
material at different operating conditions.

TableThe
7. Responses
presenceforofmean wear and factor
non-parallel corresponding ranking
effects can of process variables.
be determined using an interaction
plot. If the behavior of an interaction plot is non-parallel, there is only a minor inter-
Level Load Sliding Distance Sliding Velocity
action; if the lines are complementary, there is an intense interaction. As illustrated in
1 component’s load
Figure 7, the 0.0001847 0.0003131
and sliding velocity 0.0005645
interacted significantly. The other
2 0.0003638 0.0004412
factors, on the other hand, had minor interactions. According to the findings 0.0003344
of this re-
search, the3normal force had the0.0006009 0.0003951
most significant impact on the copper-free0.0002506
friction material
Delta (Δ)
wear characteristics. 0.0004162 0.0001281 0.0003139
TheRank
interaction plot in Figure17 and contour images in3 Figure 8a–c shows the2 interaction
of the different inputs and their effect on the wear intuitively. The load outperformed the
variance in the other two inputs, as shown in Figure 7. Most of the load vs. sliding velocity
fluctuations were in the 40–45 N range (Figure 8a). The influence of sliding distance was in
the range of 2400 m to 4500 m for the 40–50 N load, as seen in the distance vs. load curve
(Figure 8b). The impact of sliding velocity and sliding distance was comparatively lesser
(Figure 8c). The contour map makes it intuitive and straightforward to examine the effect
of the deviation of each factor on the wear process.

4.2. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of Wear

ANOVA is a statistical tool for estimating processes and analyzing mean differences.
It is utilized to determine the statistical significance of the test. It is employed to study the
impact of sliding distance, normal load, and sliding velocity on the output wear control
process. The F-value (factor value) is calculated by the division of the difference between
specimen averages by the difference among specimens. The greater the F-value, the
 Table 8. Response for SN ratio for wear and corresponding ranking of process variables.

Level Load Sliding Distance Sliding Velocity

1 74.89143 70.24956 66.18937
2 69.32861 69.47563 70.26794
Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 10 of 16
3 65.00826 69.50311 72.77099
Delta (Δ) 9.88317 0.77393 6.58162
Rank 1 3 2
more significant the difference between specimen averages and variation within the speci-
men. If the F-value is higher, the corresponding p-value (probability value) is lower. The
The presence of non-parallel factor effects can be determined using an interaction
p-value indicates the chances of an error. The results were adjusted at three levels, and
plot. If the behavior of an interaction plot is non-parallel, there is only a minor interaction;
their relationships are shown in Table 9. They were used to determine which component
if the lines are complementary, there is an intense interaction. As illustrated in Figure 7,
controls which and how much each individual factor contributes. In this investigation, a
the
95%component’s load was
confidence level and used.
sliding velocity
Sources interacted significantly.
contributing The other
to the performance factors,
measures on
were
the other hand, had minor interactions. According to the findings of this
statistically significant contributors with a p-value of less than 0.05. In the ANOVA analysis,research, the
normal force had
the following the most
equations weresignificant
used [37]:impact on the copper-free friction material wear
characteristics.
The interaction plot in Figure = PS
PQ7Tand L + PSimages
contour D + PSV in Figure 8a–c shows the interac- (5)
tion of the different inputs and their effect onn the wear intuitively. The load outperformed
the variance in the other two inputs, Σ1 d2i –inR2Figure
PQ Tas=shown /n 7. Most of the load vs. sliding (6)
 
velocity fluctuations were in the PS40–45 tN range2 (Figure2 8a). The influence of sliding dis-
l = Σi =1 Sdi /t − R /n (7)
tance was in the range of 2400 m to 4500 m for the 40–50 N load, as seen in the distance
where
vs. loadPQ T is the
curve net-addition
(Figure 8b). The of squares,
impact PSL is the
of sliding load-addition
velocity and sliding distance PS
of squares, wasD is the
com-
sliding distance-addition
paratively lesser (Figure 8c).of squares, PSV ismap
The contour the sliding
makes velocity addition
it intuitive of squares, n is the
and straightforward to
number of Sdof 2 is the addition of the experiments relating constraint l at level i, and R
examine thedata,
effect i the deviation of each factor on the wear process.
is the resultant for all the tests.

Figure 8. Contour plot of (a) wear rate of friction material vs. sliding velocity and load, (b) wear rate
of friction vs. sliding distance and load, and (c) wear rate of friction material vs. sliding velocity and
sliding distance.

The normal load had the most significant impact on the wear rate of the friction
material. As a result, the load, followed by sliding velocity and sliding distance, is a crucial
control component to consider during the wear process. The interaction within different
inputs had a minor impact on the wear rate.
 Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 11 of 16

Table 9. ANOVA for SN ratios.

Seq. SS Adj. SS Adj. MS

DF F p
(Sequential (Adjusted (Adjusted
Source (Degree of (Factor (Probability
Sums of Sum of Mean
Freedom) Value) Value)
Squares) Squares) Squares)
Load 2 164.277 164.277 82.1383 558.47 0.002
Sliding
2 2.644 2.644 1.3222 8.99 0.1
Distance
Sliding
2 65.065 65.065 32.5327 221.2 0.005
Velocity
Residual
2 0.294 0.294 0.1471
Error
Total 8 231.281

Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5. Multiple Linear Regression Model for Wear Rate 12 of 18

The multiple linear regression equation confirmed the experimental findings with an
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW equation to form a connection between three independent variables and a response 12 of 18 variable.
able.It Itisisused
usedtotocreate
createaamultiple
multiplelinear
linearregression
regressionconfiguration.
configuration. The resultant regres- regression
sionequation
equationlinks linksthethecontrol
control parameters
parameters to the output through through an an equation.
equation.The Themulti-
multiple
ple linear regression model is used for n data. [37,38]:
able. It is used to create a multiple linear regression configuration. The resultant regres-
sion equation links the control parameters 𝑦 =y 𝛽˳ = β+to
0+ 𝛽the
β𝑥1 output
x1++⋯ . . ..through
+𝛽
. + β𝑥n xn+ + ꞓ,
an ,
equation. The multi- (8) (8)
ple linear
where regression model isvalue
‘y’ =‘y’forecasted used offor n data. [37,38]: ‘𝛽˳’=
where = forecasted valuedependent
of dependent variable,
variable, ‘β 0y-intercept, ‘x’ =‘x’independent
’= y-intercept, = independent
variable, ‘n’ = number
variable, ‘n’ = number of independent
𝑦 =of𝛽˳ variables,
+ 𝛽 𝑥 +variables,
independent and
⋯ . +𝛽 𝑥 and ‘ꞓ’ = error.
+ ‘ ꞓ,’ = error. (8)
Least estimator
Least is derived
estimator by: by:
is derived
where ‘y’ = forecasted value of dependent variable, ‘𝛽˳’= y-intercept, ‘x’ = independent
variable, ‘n’ = number of independent 𝛽 = 𝛴(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) (𝑦 − 𝑦
= )/𝛴(𝑥
error. − 𝑥̅ )2 , (9)
β 1 variables,
= Σ( xi − and x ) (y‘ꞓ’
i − y ) /Σ ( xi − x ) , (9)
Least estimator is derived by:
where β1 = slope parameter/regression coefficient; xi = value of ith independent variable;
yi = where = slope parameter/regression coefficient; x = value of ith independentofvariable;
− 𝑥̅ )𝑥̅(𝑦= mean −i 𝑥̅ ) , variables; 𝑦 = mean
value of β1ith dependent variable; of independent
𝛽 = 𝛴(𝑥 − 𝑦)/𝛴(𝑥 (9) de-
y
pendenti = value of
variables. ith dependent variable; x = mean of independent variables; y = mean of
where β1 dependent
=When
slope the variables.
parameter/regression
control factors of acoefficient;
model arexlinear, i = value ofsaid
it is ith independent
to be linear. variable;
Thus, 𝜕𝑦/𝜕𝛽𝑖
yi = value
shouldof ith When
not the control
dependent
depend onvariable;
any β. 𝑥̅ =ofmean
factors a modelof independent is said to𝑦be
are linear, itvariables; linear.ofThus,
= mean de- ∂y/∂βi
should
pendent variables. not depend on any β.
The following is the wear rate regression equation for the semi-metallic brake pad:
When theThe following
control factorsis of
theawear
model rateareregression
linear, it equation
is said tofor be the Thus, 𝜕𝑦/𝜕𝛽𝑖
semi-metallic
linear. brake pad:
𝑄 = −0.00044926
should not depend + (𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 on any𝑁 )β.× (1.86𝐸 − 5) + (𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚 ) × (3.97𝐸 −
Q = −0.00044926 + ( Load [ N ]) × 1.86 × 10−5
+ (Sliding distance [m]) × 3.97 × 10−8



(10)
8)– 𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
The following is the𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × (0.00011154)
wear rate regression equation for the semi-metallic brake pad: (10)
− Sliding velocity ms × (0.00011154)
(𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑁(10)
𝑄 = −0.00044926 + Equation ) ×depicts
(1.86𝐸that
− 5) + (𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
normal 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
load has 𝑚 ) × impact
a considerable (3.97𝐸on
− wear rate and is
(10)
Equation (10) depicts that normal load has a considerable impact on wear rate and is
8)– 𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
strongly 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
influenced × (0.00011154)
by sliding velocity followed by sliding distance.
strongly influenced by sliding velocity followed by sliding distance.
Equation (10) depicts
6. Validation TestTestand that normal
Wear load has a considerable impact on wear rate and is
Mechanism
6. Validation and Wear Mechanism
strongly influenced by sliding velocity followed by sliding distance.
TheThe
validation
validationassessment comes
assessment at theatend
comes theofend the experiment design phase.
of the experiment designAphase.
veri- A
fication test is required
verification testWear to guarantee
is required that the
to guarantee thattrials were were
the trials donedone
correctly afterafter
correctly determining
determining
6. Validation Test and Mechanism
the optimal level for a process parameter. Dry sliding tests with
the optimal level for a process parameter. Dry sliding tests with pre-defined sets pre-defined sets of limits
of limits
The
were validation
used to assessment
validate the comes at the
statistical end of
inquiry, as the experiment
indicated in design
Table 10. phase.
Table A shows
11 veri- the
were used to validate the statistical inquiry, as indicated in Table 10. Table 11 shows the
fication
testtest is required
results, deemed to confirmatory
guarantee thatwith the trials were
an error ratedone correctly
ofrate
less after The
determining
test results, deemed confirmatory with an error ofthan
less10%.
than 10%. difference be-
The difference
the optimal
tween level for a process
experimental and parameter.
numerical Dry slidingshould,
validation tests with in pre-defined
general, be setsthan
less of limits
10%, but
between experimental and numerical validation should, in general, be less than 10%, but
were this
useddepends
to validate
on athe statistical
number inquiry,
of factors, as indicated
most notably in Table
the 10. Table
complexity 11 process.
of the shows theThe re-The
this depends on a number of factors, most notably the complexity of the process.
test results,
liabilitydeemed confirmatory
of theofmodel with
is indicated an error
by a by rate
lowa error of less
[39–41]. than 10%.
The The The
wearwear difference
rate rate be-
for confirmation
reliability the model is indicated low error [39–41]. for confirmation
tweentesting
experimental
is shown
testing and
is shown numerical
in Figure 9. 9.validation should, in general, be less than 10%, but
in Figure
this depends on Thea number
development of factors, most
of wear notably
debris the complexity
is triggered by shear of the process.
stresses and The re- motion.
relative
liability of
Table the
10. model is
Confirmatory indicated
test by
table ofa low
process error [39–41].
variables. The wear rate
As determined by the analysis, the optimal state produced the least amount of wear. The for confirmation
testing is SEM
shown in Figure
image (at 409.N, 1500 m, 3.141 m/s) also confirmed it, as seen in Figure 10a. At the
Sliding Velocity
Experiment
interface of No.the pin and disc Loadwas (N)the friction
Sliding Distance
layer. (m) layer was generated by
The friction
Table 10. Confirmatory test table of process variables. (m/s)
1 40 3000 1.047
Sliding Velocity
Experiment No. 2 Load (N) 40 Sliding Distance (m)4500 3.141
(m/s)
Table111. Result of confirmation 40 test for wear rate of semi-metallic
3000 1.047
friction material.
 Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 12 of 16

the progressive compaction and sintering of worn-out particles from both the pin and the
disc [5,6]. It functioned as a third body mechanism, lowering the wear rate and possibly
resulting in optimal wear. Furthermore, at 40 N, 1500 m, and 3.141 m/s in Figure 11a
is shown the detachment of the friction layer on the GCI disc, confirms the adhesive
wear mechanism.

Table 10. Confirmatory test table of process variables.

Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18
Experiment No. Load (N) Sliding Distance (m) Sliding Velocity (m/s)
1 40 3000 1.047
2 40 4500 3.141

Table 11. Result of confirmation test for wear rate of semi-metallic friction material.

Experimental Predicted
Experiment No. % Error
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW Wear Rate (mm3 /m) × 10−4 Wear Rate (mm3 /m) × 10−13
4
of 18
1 2.72 2.97 9.19
2 1.36 1.23 9.55

Figure 9. Bar graph showing the predicted wear rate and difference with experimental wear rate for
friction material tested for (40 N, 3000 m, 1.047 m/s) and (40 N, 4500 m, 3.141 m/s).

The development of wear debris is triggered by shear stresses and relative motion.
As determined by the analysis, the optimal state produced the least amount of wear. The
SEM image (at 40 N, 1500 m, 3.141 m/s) also confirmed it, as seen in Figure 10a. At the
interface of the pin and disc was the friction layer. The friction layer was generated by the
progressive compaction and sintering of worn-out particles from both the pin and the disc
[5,6]. It functioned as a third body mechanism, lowering the wear rate and possibly result-
ing in optimal wear. Furthermore, at 40 N, 1500 m, and 3.141 m/s in Figure 11a is shown
the detachment
Figure of the friction
9. Bar graph showing layer
the on the GCI wear
predicted disc, confirms
rate andthe adhesivewith
difference wearexperimental
mecha- wear rate for
Figure 9. Bar graph showing the predicted wear rate and difference with experimental wear rate for
nism.
frictionfriction
materialmaterial
tested fortested
(40 N,for
3000(40
m,N, 3000
1.047 m,and
m/s) 1.047
(40m/s) and
N, 4500 m,(40 N,m/s).
3.141 4500 m, 3.141 m/s).

The development of wear debris is triggered by shear stresses and relative motion.
As determined by the analysis, the optimal state produced the least amount of wear. The
SEM image (at 40 N, 1500 m, 3.141 m/s) also confirmed it, as seen in Figure 10a. At the
interface of the pin and disc was the friction layer. The friction layer was generated by the
progressive compaction and sintering of worn-out particles from both the pin and the disc
[5,6]. It functioned as a third body mechanism, lowering the wear rate and possibly result-
ing in optimal wear. Furthermore, at 40 N, 1500 m, and 3.141 m/s in Figure 11a is shown
the detachment of the friction layer on the GCI disc, confirms the adhesive wear mecha-
nism.

Figure
Figure 10.10.
SEMSEM images
images of brake
of worn wornpin brake pinatsurfaces
surfaces at different
different operating operating
conditions (load,conditions
sliding (load, sliding
distance, and sliding velocity): (a) Least wear debris at (40 N, 1500 m, 3.141 m/s), (b) maximized
distance, and sliding velocity): (a) Least wear debris at (40 N, 1500 m, 3.141 m/s), (b) maximized
wear debris at (60 N, 4500 m, 1.047 m/s), (c) wear debris at (50 N, 3500 m, 3.141 m/s), and (d) wear
wear debris at (60 N, 4500 m, 1.047 m/s), (c) wear debris at (50 N, 3500 m, 3.141 m/s), and (d) wear
debris at (50 N, 4500 m, 2.09 m/s), respectively.
debris at (50 N, 4500 m, 2.09 m/s), respectively.
 Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16 14 of 18

Figure 11. SEM image of worn surface of GCI disc: (a) 40 N, 1500 m, 3.141 m/s; (b) 60 N, 4500 m, 1.047
m/s.

At the high
Figureoperating condition
11. SEM image of worn
Figure of
11. SEM 60image
surfaceN, maximum
of GCI
of worn (a) 40wear
disc:surface N,
of GCIdebris
1500 (a)generation
m, 3.141
disc: 40m/s; (b) m,
N, 1500 could
60 N, 4500
3.141 be(b)
m,
m/s; 1.047 m/s.
60 N, 4500 m, 1.047
m/s.
noticed, as shown in Figure 10b. Figure 10c,d show wear debris formation under 50 N
At the high operating condition of 60 N, maximum wear debris generation could be
conditions. The wear process is inherently
At the high
dynamic. The friction layer’s constant build-up
noticed, as shown in Figure 10b.operating condition
Figure 10c,d show of 60 N, maximum
wear wear debris
debris formation generation
under 50 N could be
and break-up can be seen. Thenoticed,wear process
as shown isinabrasive
Figure in
10b. nature,
Figure as
10c,d shown
show in
wear Figure
debris 11b.
formation under 50 N
conditions. The wear process is inherently dynamic. The friction layer’s constant build-up
Plowing action could be clearly seen on the GCI disc by the abrasive particles of
and break-up can be seen. The wear process is abrasive in nature, as shown in Figure 11b.build-up
conditions. The wear process is inherently dynamic. The the
friction fric-
layer’s constant
tion materialPlowing
at 60 N,action
4500 m, and
and break-upm/s.can be seen. The wear process is abrasive in nature, as shown in Figure 11b.
could be1.047
clearly seen on the GCI disc by the abrasive particles of the friction
The radar chart depicting Plowing
the action could be clearly seenprocess
on the GCI disc by is
theshown
abrasiveinparticles of the fric-
material at 60 N, 4500 m, and 1.047ofm/s.
relations the various
tion material at 60 N, 4500 m, and 1.047 m/s.
elements
Figure 12a. It is aThe
graphical waydepicting
radar chart of showing the proportion of participation of the three
The radar thechartrelations
depictingofthe the various
relations ofprocess
the variouselements
processiselements
shown isinshown in
input parameters
Figurein12a.
multivariate
It is a Figuredata.
graphical The
way normal
of load
showing has
the the most
proportion significant
of influence
participation
12a. It is a graphical way of showing the proportion of participation of the threeof the three
on wear rate,input
as shown in Figure
parameters in 12b, followed
multivariate
input parametersdata. by the sliding
The normal
in multivariate velocity
data.load
The has and
normal sliding
the load
mosthas distance.
significant influenceinfluence
the most significant
on wear rate, as shown in rate,
on wear Figure 12b, followed
as shown in Figureby the
12b, slidingby
followed velocity andvelocity
the sliding slidingand
distance.
sliding distance.

2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

Figure
Figure 12. (a) Radar 12. (a)
graph Radar graph
showing showing thebetween
the interaction interaction between
factors factors
of wear. ofBar
(b) wear. (b) Bar
graph graph represent-
repre-
ing the contribution
senting the contribution of each
of each process process
factor factor
to the wear torate
the wear rate of semi-metallic
of semi-metallic friction material.
friction material.

7. Conclusions
The Taguchi design of the experiment coupled with ANOVA was used to identify
the best operating parameters for copper-free semi-metallic friction material against a
Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 14 of 16

7. Conclusions
The Taguchi design of the experiment coupled with ANOVA was used to identify the
best operating parameters for copper-free semi-metallic friction material against a grey cast
iron disc in dry sliding. Validation tests were carried out to ensure that the ideal wear rate
was achieved. The process can be further studied and optimized with the inclusion of more
factors that affect the wear rate of semi-metallic friction material, such as temperature and
humidity, etc. The following conclusions can be drawn from the research:
• Normal load significantly impacts copper-free semi-metallic friction material wear
rate, followed by sliding velocity and sliding distance.
• The wear rate at intermediate conditions can be calculated using the regression equa-
tion of semi-metallic friction material.
• Test results confirmed an error of less than 10% linked to the dry sliding wear rate. As
a result, the wear rate estimation regression model was effectively tested.
• The normal load had the most significant impact on the wear process (71.02%), fol-
lowed by sliding velocity (27.84%) and sliding distance (1.14%).
• The dynamic high wear at 60 N, 4500 m, and 1.047 m/s was confirmed by SEM
analysis, and the optimal wear conditions were found at 40 N, 1500 m, and 3.141 m/s.
• At lower loading conditions, i.e., 40 N transfer of the friction layer found on the
GCI disc, the adhesive wear dominance at the lower load was confirmed, whereas at
60 N, the plowing action that could be seen on the GCI disc confirmed the abrasive
wear mechanism.

Author Contributions: A.S.: Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Validation, Writing—original

draft, Data curation. K.J.: Visualization, Writing—original draft, Methodology. A.M.: Investigation,
Data curation. P.C.V.: Writing—review and editing, Fund acquisition, Conceptualization, Supervision.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), under
the start-up research grant (SRG) number SRG/2021/001174, and the APC was funded by the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani-Hyderabad Campus.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are
available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: The authors are thankful to the BITS Pilani-Hyderabad campus central library for
providing access to different journals and the Central Analytical Laboratory (CAL) for SEM observations.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests.

Nomenclature
CoF coefficient of friction
DOE design of experiment
x Sliding distance (meters)
d wear track diameter (meters)
N rotor speed (RPM)
t time (mins)
v sliding velocity (m/s)
D diameter of the rotor (meters)
SN signal to noise
N number of observations
Wf final weight of the pin (g)
Wi initial weight of the pin (g)
ρ density of pin (g/mm3)
Q wear rate (mm3 /m)
l sliding distances (meters)
 SN signal to noise
N number of observations
Wf final weight of the pin (g)
Wi initial weight of the pin (g)
ρ density of pin (g/mm3)
Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 15 of 16
Q wear rate (mm3/m)
l sliding distances (meters)
µ arithmetic mean
µ
ND arithmetic mean not defined
ND
xi not defined value of ith independent variable
xi value of ith independent variable
𝑥̅ mean of independent variables
x mean of independent variables
SEM scanning electron microscope
SEM scanning electron microscope
Bal. balance
Bal. balance
St. dev. standard deviation
St. dev. standard deviation
PQT net-addition of squares
PQT net-addition of squares
PSL load-addition of squares
PSL load-addition of squares
PSD sliding distance addition of squares
PSD sliding distance addition of squares
PSV
PS sliding
sliding velocity addition of velocity
squaresaddition of squares
V
Sdi22
Sd addition ofatthe
addition of the experiments experiments
level i at level i
i
DF
DF degree of freedomdegree of freedom
Seq. SS
Seq. SS sequential sums ofsequential
squares sums of squares
Adj. SS
Adj. SS adjusted sum of squares
adjusted sum of squares
Adj. MS
Adj. MS adjusted mean squares
adjusted mean squares
F
F factor value factor value
p probability value probability value
y forecasted value forecasted value
ββ y-intercept y-intercept
ꞓ error error
σ standard deviationstandard deviation
β11 slope parameter slope parameter
yi value of ith dependent
valuevariable
of ith dependent variable
y 𝑦 of dependentmean
mean variables
of dependent variables
XRF
XRF X-ray fluorescenceX-ray
spectroscopy
fluorescence spectroscopy
EDS
EDS energy dispersive energy
X-ray spectroscopy
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

References
References
1.
1. Gramstat, S.;
Gramstat, S.; Mertens,
Mertens, T.;
T.; Waninger, R.; Lugovyy,
Waninger, R.; Lugovyy, D. D. Impacts
Impacts onon Brake
Brake Particle
Particle Emission
Emission Testing.
Testing. Atmosphere
Atmosphere 2020,
2020, 11,
11, 1132.
1132.
https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101132.
[CrossRef]
2.
2. di Confiengo,
di Confiengo, G.G.;
G.G.; Faga,
Faga, M.G.
M.G. Ecological
Ecological Transition
Transition inin the
the Field
Field ofof Brake
Brake Pad
Pad Manufacturing:
Manufacturing: An An Overview
Overview of of the
the Potential
Potential
Green Constituents.
Green Constituents. Sustainability
Sustainability 2022,
2022, 14,
14, 2508.
2508. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14052508.
[CrossRef]
3.
3. Rajaei, H.;
Rajaei, H.; Menapace,
Menapace,C.;C.;Amirabdollahian,
Amirabdollahian,S.; S.;Perini,
Perini,M.;
M.;Straffelini,
Straffelini,G.;
G.;Gialanella,
Gialanella,S. S. Microstructural
Microstructural andand Tribological
Tribological Evalua-
Evaluation
tion of Brake Disc Refurbishing Using Fe-Based Coating via Directed Energy Deposition.
of Brake Disc Refurbishing Using Fe-Based Coating via Directed Energy Deposition. Metals 2022, 12, 465. [CrossRef] Metals 2022, 12, 465.
4. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12030465.
Verma, P.C. Automotive Brake Materials: Characterization of Wear Products and Relevant Mechanisms at High Temperature.
4. Verma,
Ph.D. P.C. Automotive
Thesis, Brake
University of Materials:
Trento, Trento, Characterization
Italy, 2016. of Wear Products and Relevant Mechanisms at High Temperature.
5. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Trento, Trento, Italy, 2016.
Verma, P.C.; Menapace, L.; Bonfanti, A.; Ciudin, R.; Gialanella, S.; Straffelini, G. Braking Pad-Disc System: Wear Mechanisms and
Formation of Wear Fragments. Wear 2015, 322–323, 251–258. [CrossRef]
6. Straffelini, G.; Verma, P.C.; Metinoz, I.; Ciudin, R.; Perricone, G.; Gialanella, S. Wear Behavior of a Low Metallic Friction Material
Dry Sliding against a Cast Iron Disc: Role of the Heat-Treatment of the Disc. Wear 2016, 348–349, 10–16. [CrossRef]
7. Straffelini, G.; Verlinski, S.; Verma, P.C.; Valota, G.; Gialanella, S. Wear and Contact Temperature Evolution in Pin-on-Disc
Tribotesting of Low-Metallic Friction Material Sliding Against Pearlitic Cast Iron. Tribol. Lett. 2016, 62, 36. [CrossRef]
8. Verma, P.C.; Ciudin, R.; Bonfanti, A.; Aswath, P.; Straffelini, G.; Gialanella, S. Role of the Friction Layer in the High-Temperature
Pin-On-Disc Study of a Brake Material. Wear 2016, 346–347, 56–65. [CrossRef]
9. Mulani, S.M.; Kumar, A.; Shaikh, H.N.E.A.; Saurabh, A.; Singh, P.K.; Verma, P.C. A Review on recent Development and Challenges
in Automotive Brake Pad-Disc System. Mater. Today Proc. 2022, 56, 447–454. [CrossRef]
10. Sethupathi, P.B.; Chandradass, J.; Saibalaji, M. Comparative study of Disc Brake Pads Sold in Indian Market—Impact on Safety
and Environmental Aspects. Environ. Technol. Innov. 2021, 21, 101245. [CrossRef]
11. Tavangar, R.; Ansari Moghadam, H.; Khavandi, A.; Banaeifar, S. Comparison of Dry Sliding Behavior and Wear Mechanism of
Low Metallic and Copper-Free Brake Pads. Tribol. Int. 2020, 151, 106416. [CrossRef]
12. Shi, X.; Wen, D.; Wang, S.; Wang, G.; Zhang, M.; Li, J.; Xue, C. Investigation on Friction and Wear Performance of Laser Cladding
Ni-Based Alloy Coating on Brake Disc. Optik 2021, 242, 167227. [CrossRef]
13. Alves, C.; Evtyugina, M.; Vicente, A.; Conca, E.; Amato, F. Organic Profiles of Brake Wear Particles. Atmos. Res. 2021, 255, 105557.
[CrossRef]
14. Perricone, G.; Alemani, M.; Wahlström, J.; Olofsson, U. A Proposed Driving Cycle for Brake Emissions Investigation for Test
Stand. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng. 2020, 234, 122–135. [CrossRef]
Lubricants 2022, 10, 161 16 of 16

15. Rahimi, M.; Bortoluzzi, D.; Wahlström, J. Input Parameters for Airborne Brake Wear Emission Simulations: A Comprehensive
Review. Atmosphere 2021, 12, 871. [CrossRef]
16. Sinha, A.; Ischia, G.; Menapace, C.; Gialanella, S. Experimental Characterization Protocols for Wear Products from Disc Brake
Materials. Atmosphere 2020, 11, 1102. [CrossRef]
17. Kim, S.-H.; Jeong, M.H.; Kim, J.; Shim, W.; Kwon, S.-U.; Lee, J.-J.; Huh, S.H.; Pee, J.-H.; Kim, J.-Y. Dynamometric Investigation on
Airborne Particulate Matter (PM) from Friction Materials for Automobile: Impact of Abrasive and Lubricant on PM Emission
Factor. Lubricants 2021, 9, 118. [CrossRef]
18. Stojanovic, N.; Abdullah, O.I.; Grujic, I.; Boskovic, B. Particles Formation Due to the Wear of Tires and Measures for the Wear
Reduction: A Review. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng. 2021. [CrossRef]
19. Shinde, D.; Bulsara, M.; Patil, J. Wear Analysis of Eco-Friendly Non-Asbestos Friction-Lining Material Applied in an Automotive
Drum Brake: Experimental and Finite-Element Analysis. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part J J. Eng. Tribol. 2022, 236, 552–562. [CrossRef]
20. Liati, A.; Schreiber, D.; Lugovyy, D.; Gramstat, S.; Eggenschwiler, P.D. Airborne Particulate Matter Emissions from Vehicle Brakes
in Micro- and Nano-Scales: Morphology and Chemistry by Electron Microscopy. Atmos. Environ. 2019, 212, 281–289. [CrossRef]
21. Kumar, S.; Priyadarshan; Ghosh, S.K. Statistical and Computational Analysis of an Environment-Friendly MWCNT/NiSO4
Composite Materials. J. Manuf. Process. 2021, 66, 11–26. [CrossRef]
22. Luo, S.-Y.; Weng, C.-Y. A Study of the Metal Matrix Friction Materials of Hot Pressing Using Taguchi Method. Adv. Mater. Process.
Technol. 2018, 4, 7–15. [CrossRef]
23. Veličković, S.; Stojanović, B.; Babić, M.; Bobic, I. Optimization of Tribological Properties of Aluminum Hybrid Composites Using
Taguchi Design. J. Compos. Mater. 2017, 51, 2505–2515. [CrossRef]
24. Lyu, Y.; Ma, J.; Åström, A.H.; Wahlström, J.; Olofsson, U. Recycling of Worn Out Brake Pads—Impact on Tribology and
Environment. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 8369. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Borawski, A. Impact of Operating Time on Selected Tribological Properties of the Friction Material in the Brake Pads of Passenger
Cars. Materials 2021, 14, 884. [CrossRef]
26. Mehboob, H.; Chang, S.-H. Optimal Design of a Functionally Graded Biodegradable Composite Bone Plate by Using the Taguchi
Method and Finite Element Analysis. Compos. Struct. 2015, 119, 166–173. [CrossRef]
27. Pattanaik, A.; Satpathy, M.P.; Mishra, S.C. Dry Sliding Wear Behavior of Epoxy Fly Ash Composite with Taguchi Optimization.
Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J. 2016, 19, 710–716. [CrossRef]
28. Banker, V.J.; Mistry, J.M.; Thakor, M.R.; Upadhyay, B.H. Wear Behavior in Dry Sliding of Inconel 600 Alloy Using Taguchi Method
and Regression Analysis. Procedia Technol. 2016, 23, 383–390. [CrossRef]
29. Li, G.; Hao, S.; Gao, W.; Lu, Z. The Effect of Applied Load and Rotation Speed on Wear Characteristics of Al-Cu-Li Alloy. J. Mater.
Eng. Perform. 2022, 31, 5875–5885. [CrossRef]
30. Pai, D.; Pai, A.; Kumar, S.; Deb, A. The Response of Two-Wheeler Tires to Three-Body Wear Phenomena by Experimental
Simulation of Off-Road Terrains. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng. 2019, 233, 3504–3514. [CrossRef]
31. Neog, S.P.; Kumar, A.R.; Das Bakshi, S.; Das, S. Understanding the Complexities of Dry Sliding Wear Behaviour of Steels. Mater.
Sci. Technol. 2021, 37, 504–518. [CrossRef]
32. Yun, R.; Filip, P.; Lu, Y. Performance and Evaluation of Eco-Friendly Brake Friction Materials. Tribol. Int. 2010, 43, 2010–2019.
[CrossRef]
33. Jerbi, A.; Ammar, A.; Krid, M.; Salah, B. Performance Optimization of a Flexible Manufacturing System Using Simulation: The
Taguchi Method versus OptQuest. Simulation 2019, 95, 1085–1096. [CrossRef]
34. Shah, R.; Chen, R.; Woydt, M. The Effects of Energy Efficiency and Resource Consumption on Environmental Sustainability.
Lubricants 2021, 9, 117. [CrossRef]
35. Reddy, V.V.; Mandava, R.K.; Rao, V.R.; Mandava, S. Optimization of Dry Sliding Wear Parameters of Al 7075 MMC’s Using
Taguchi Method. Mater. Today Proc. 2022, 62, 6684–6688. [CrossRef]
36. Taguchi, G.; Rafanelli, A.J. Taguchi on Robust Technology Development: Bringing Quality Engineering Upstream; ASME Press: New
York, NY, USA, 1993.
37. Mustapha, A.N.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, Z.; Ding, Y.; Yuan, Q.; Li, Y. Taguchi and ANOVA Analysis for the Optimization of the
Microencapsulation of a Volatile Phase Change Material. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2021, 11, 667–680. [CrossRef]
38. Schon, A.F.; Castro, N.A.; Barros, A.D.S.; Spinelli, J.E.; Garcia, A.; Cheung, N.; Silva, B.L. Multiple Linear Regression Approach to
Predict Tensile Properties of Sn-Ag-Cu (SAC) Alloys. Mater. Lett. 2021, 304, 130587. [CrossRef]
39. Aamir, M.; Tu, S.; Tolouei-Rad, M.; Giasin, K.; Vafadar, A. Optimization and Modeling of Process Parameters in Multi-Hole
Simultaneous Drilling Using Taguchi Method and Fuzzy Logic Approach. Materials 2020, 13, 680. [CrossRef]
40. Chan, S.N.; Wong, W.Y.; Walvekar, R.; Kadhum, A.A.H.; Khalid, M. Parametric Optimization of Pulsed Laser Ablation on Stainless
Steel for Improving Corrosion Resistance by Taguchi Method. Mater. Res. Express 2018, 6, 026533. [CrossRef]
41. Hora, J.; Campos, P. A Review of Performance Criteria to Validate Simulation Models. Expert Syst. 2015, 32, 578–595. [CrossRef]