From previous class

In three dimensions, the location of a particle is specified by its location

vector, 𝒓 :
෡
𝒓 = 𝑥𝒊Ƹ + 𝑦𝒋Ƹ + 𝑧𝒌

If during a time interval t the position vector of the particle changes from
𝒓1 to 𝒓2, the displacement ∆𝒓 for that time interval is

෡
∆𝒓 = 𝒓2 − 𝒓1 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝒊Ƹ + 𝑦2 − 𝑦 𝒋Ƹ + 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝒌
If a particle moves through a displacement ∆𝒓 in a time interval ∆𝑡 then its
average velocity for that interval is
∆𝒓 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧
𝒗𝑎𝑣 = = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒌 ෡
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

The instantaneous velocity 𝒗, which is the limit of the average velocity

when we shrink the time interval ∆𝑡 to zero.
𝑑𝒓 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝒗= = ෡
𝑥𝒊Ƹ + 𝑦𝒋Ƹ + 𝑧𝒌 = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒌 ෡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

෡
𝒗 = 𝑣𝑥 𝒊Ƹ + 𝑣𝑦 𝒋Ƹ + 𝑣𝑧 𝒌
If a particle’s velocity changes by ∆𝒗 in a time period ∆𝑡 , the average
acceleration 𝒂𝑎𝑣 for that period is
∆𝒗 𝒗2 − 𝒗1 ∆𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑣𝑦 ∆𝑣𝑧
𝒂𝑎𝑣 = = = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ + ෡
𝒌
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

The instantaneous velocity 𝒂, which is the limit of the average acceleration

when we shrink the time interval ∆𝑡 to zero,

𝑑𝒗 𝑑 𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧

𝒂= = ෡
𝑣𝑥 𝒊Ƹ + 𝑣𝑦 𝒋Ƹ + 𝑣𝑧 𝒌 = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ + ෡
𝒌
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

෡ 𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧 𝑑 2 𝑧

𝒂 = 𝑎𝑥 𝒊Ƹ + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋Ƹ + 𝑎𝑧 𝒌 𝑎𝑥 = = 2 , 𝑎𝑦 = = 2 , 𝑎𝑧 = = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Let’s return to the motions of the Mars rover in Example 3.1. (a) Find
the components of the average acceleration for the interval t = 0.0 s to
t = 2.0 s. (b) Find the instantaneous acceleration at t = 2.0 s.
∆𝒗 ∆𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑣𝑦 ∆𝑣𝑧
𝒂𝑎𝑣 = = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ + ෡
𝒌
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑣𝑥 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥
𝑎𝑎𝑣−𝑥 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
∆𝑣𝑦 𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦
𝑎𝑎𝑣−𝑦 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Let’s return to the motions of the Mars rover in Example 3.1. (a) Find
the components of the average acceleration for the interval t = 0.0 s to
t = 2.0 s. (b) Find the instantaneous acceleration at t = 2.0 s.
𝑑𝒗 𝑑
𝒂= = ෡
𝑣𝑥 𝒊Ƹ + 𝑣𝑦 𝒋Ƹ + 𝑣𝑧 𝒌
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧
= 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ + ෡
𝒌
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
෡
𝒂 = 𝑎𝑥 𝒊Ƹ + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋Ƹ + 𝑎𝑧 𝒌
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Instantaneous acceleration
• The velocity vector is always
tangent to the particle’s path, but
the instantaneous acceleration
vector does not have to be
tangent to the path.
• If the path is curved, the
acceleration points toward
the concave side of the path.

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Parallel and perpendicular components of
acceleration
The acceleration can be resolved into a component 𝑎∥ parallel to the path (that is, along
the tangent to the path) and a component 𝑎⊥ perpendicular to the path (that is, along the
normal to the path).

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 Parallel and perpendicular components of
acceleration
• Velocity and acceleration vectors for a particle moving through a
point P on a curved path with constant speed

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 Parallel and perpendicular components of
acceleration
• Velocity and acceleration vectors for a particle moving through a
point P on a curved path with increasing speed

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 Parallel and perpendicular components of
acceleration
• Velocity and acceleration vectors for a particle moving through a
point P on a curved path with decreasing speed

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For the rover of Examples 3.1 and 3.2, find the parallel and perpendicular components of
the acceleration at t = 2.0 s.

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A skier moves along a ski-jump ramp (Fig. 3.14a). The ramp is straight from point A to point C and curved from point
C onward. The skier speeds up as she moves downhill from point A to point E, where her speed is maximum. She
slows down after passing point E. Draw the direction of the acceleration vector at each of the points B, D, E, and F.

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 Projectile motion
• A projectile is any body given an initial velocity that then follows a
path determined by the effects of gravity and air resistance.
• Begin by neglecting resistance and the curvature and rotation of the
earth.

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 The x- and y-motion are separable
• The red ball is dropped at the same time that the yellow ball is fired
horizontally.
• The strobe marks equal time
intervals.
• We can analyze projectile motion
as horizontal motion with constant
velocity and vertical motion with
constant acceleration:

• The key to analyzing projectile motion

is that we can treat the x- and y-coordinates
separately.
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 Projectile motion
• If air resistance is negligible, the trajectory of a projectile is a
combination of horizontal motion with constant velocity and vertical
motion with constant acceleration.

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 Projectile motion – Initial velocity
• The initial velocity
components of a
projectile (such as a
kicked soccer ball)
are related to the
initial speed and
initial angle.

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 The equations for projectile motion
• If we set x0 = y0 = 0, the equations describing projectile motion are
shown below:

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 A motorcycle stunt rider rides off the edge of a cliff. Just at the edge his velocity is
horizontal, with magnitude 9.0 m/s. Find the motorcycle’s position, distance from the
edge of the cliff, and velocity 0.50 s after it leaves the edge of the cliff.

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• The motorcycle’s x- and y-coordinates at t = 0.50 s are

• The motorcycle’s distance from the origin at t = 0.50 s is

• The velocity components at t = 0.50 s are

 A batter hits a baseball so that it leaves the bat at speed v0 = 37.0 m/s at an angle 𝛼𝑜 =
53.1. (a) Find the position of the ball and its velocity (magnitude and direction) at t = 2.00
s. (b) Find the time when the ball reaches the highest point of its flight, and its height h at
this time. (c) Find the horizontal range R—that is, the horizontal distance from the starting
point to where the ball hits the ground—and the ball’s velocity just before it hits.

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 The initial velocity of the ball has components

• The position of the ball at t = 2.00 s.

• The velocity of the ball at t = 2.00 s.

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(b) At the highest point, the vertical velocity vy is zero. Call the time when this happens
t1; then

The height h at the highest point is the value of y at time t1:

• To find the horizontal range, let the time t2 when
y = 0 (the ball is at ground level):

• The vertical component of velocity when the ball hits the ground is
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 The maximum value of sin 2o is 1; this
occurs when 2o = 90, or o = 45. This
angle gives the maximum range for a
given initial speed if air resistance can be
ignored.
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© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 The effects of air resistance
• Calculations become more complicated.
• Acceleration is not constant.
• Effects can be very large.
• Maximum height and
range decrease.
• Trajectory is no longer
a parabola.

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 Motion in a circle
• Uniform circular motion is constant speed along a circular path.

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 Motion in a circle
• Car speeding up along a circular path

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 Motion in a circle
• Car slowing down along a circular path

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 Acceleration for uniform circular motion

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 Acceleration for uniform circular motion
• For uniform circular motion,
the instantaneous acceleration
always points toward the
center of the circle and is
called the centripetal
acceleration.
• The magnitude of the
acceleration is arad = v2/R.
• The period T is the time for one revolution, and
arad = 4π2R/T 2.

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Uniform circular motion

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 Projectile motion

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 Nonuniform circular motion
• If the speed varies, the motion is nonuniform circular motion.
• The radial acceleration component is still arad = v2/R, but there is also
a tangential acceleration component atan that is parallel to the
instantaneous velocity.

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 Relative velocity
• The velocity of a moving body seen by a particular observer is called
the velocity relative to that observer, or simply the relative velocity.
• A frame of reference is a coordinate system plus a time scale.
• In many situations
relative velocity is
extremely important.

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 Relative velocity in one dimension
• If point P is moving relative to reference frame A, we denote the
velocity of P relative to frame A as vP/A.
• If P is moving relative to frame B and frame B is moving relative to
frame A, then the x-velocity of P relative to frame A is vP/A-x = vP/B-x +
vB/A-x.

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 The relative velocities are 𝒗𝑆/𝐹 , the velocity of the scooter relative
to the flatcar, 𝒗𝑆/𝐺 , the scooter relative to the ground and 𝒗𝐹/𝐺 , the
flatcar relative to the ground.

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