Effective Techniques

A Cognitive Information
Processing Approach
to Employment Problem
Solving and
Decision Making

James P. Sampson Jr.

Janet G. Lenz
Robert C. Reardon
Gary W. Peterson
This article applies a cognitive information processing approach to career problem
solving and decision making to the specific process of employment problem solving
and decision making. Definitions and accompanying employment examples are
followed by a n exploration of t h e n a t u r e of employment problems. Content
and process dimensions are described by applying information processing con-
cepts to employment problem solving and decision making. Examples of posi-
tive and negative cognitions t h a t have an impact on t h e effectiveness of em-
ployment problem solving and decision making are also provided.

The career development process is generally thought of as a compre-

hensive system that includes not only the choice process, but also
the implementation of that choice through acquiring or demonstrating
the necessary s k d s and training, seeking employment, and adjust-

James P. Sampson Jr. is aprofessor in the Department of Human

Services and Studies, Janet G. Lenz is an associate director for
Career Advising, Counseling, and Programming in the Career Center,
Robert C. Reardon is aprofessor and director of Instruction, Re-
search, and Evaluation in the Career Center, and Gary W Peterson
is aprofessor in the Department of H u m a n Services and Studies,
all a t Florida State University, Tallahassee. The first and third
authors also codirect the Center for the Study of Technology in
Counseling and Career Development at Florida State University.
The authors thank Virginia E. Seaver for her assistance. Corre-
spondence should be sent to James P. Sampson Jr., University
Center, Suite A41 00, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL,,
32306-2490(e-mail:jpsampso@garnet. acns.fsu.edu).

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY I SEPTEMBER 1999 I VOL. 48 3

ing to employment. However, the literature in the career develop-
ment field generally tends to reflect a spilt between theories describ-
ing how individuals make choices or develop their career paths and
the strategies designed to help them locate suitable employment.
Indeed, a review of the indexes of three of the more popular texts on
career theory, Career Choice and Deuelopment (Brown & Brooks,
1996), Convergence in Career Development Theories (Savickas &
Lent, 1994),and Theories of Career Development (Osipow & Fitzgerald,
1996) revealed no entries for job-hunting or job-search strategies. In
his book Applying Career Development Theory to Counseling, Shad
(1997) noted that “Most career development theories have been more
concerned with career selection and career adjustment than they
have been with issues of finding a job” (p. 442). Similarly, popular
books devoted to job search strategies, for example, What Color is
Your Parachute? (Bolles, 1996), The Very Quick Job Search (Farr,
1996), and Job Hunting for Dummies (Messmer, 1995) do not make
t h e connection between career theory a n d t h e employment
problem-solving and decision-making process, except in some cases
demonstrating how Holland’s typology (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996)
can be useful in locating suitable occupational alternatives.
This split between theory and practice is also often reflected in the
design and delivery of career services. In some settings, particu-
larly those based in educational institutions, career counseling oc-
curs in one location (i.e., the counseling center) whereas employ-
ment services are provided in another (i.e., the career placement
services office). Furthermore, community-based employment ser-
vices offices have not traditionally been seen a s a place where one
could go for career counsehg. However, with the emergence of one-
stop centers (Sampson & Reardon, 1998),this perception is gradu-
ally beginning to change. We believe that this separation of theory
and practice is a n artificial and unnecessary gap in our approach to
career services. Clients would be better served by a comprehensive
and uniform approach that not only guides them through the choice
process but also provides a framework for the employment search
process.
This article demonstrates how a career theory, the cognitive mfor-
mation processing (CIP) approach to career problem solving and de-
cision making (Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon, 1991; Peterson,
Sampson, Reardon, & Lenz, 1996;Sampson, Peterson, Lenz & Reardon,
1992), can be applied not only to the career decision-making process,
but also to the goalof obtaining employment. We view employment
problem solving and decision making as one component of a larger
career problem-solving and decision-making process. The article be-
gins with a brief review of key concepts in the CIP approach. The
article continues with an application of CIP concepts to employment
problem solving and decision making and ends with a brief hypo-
thetical case example and a conclusion.

KEY CONCEPTS IN THE CIP APPROACH

In relation to employment, the aim of the CIP approach is to help
indwiduals learn how to solve employment problems and make em-

4 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENTQUARTERLY / SEPTEMBER 1999 / VOL. 48

ployment decisions for the present while also helping them apply
these improved problem-solving and decision-makingskills to the
many employment decisions they will face in a lifetime. Key CIP
concepts include the following: (a) problem, (b) problem solving, (c)
decision makmg, (d) the Pyramid of Information Processing Domains,
and (e) the Communication, Analysis, Synthesis, Valuing, Execu-
tion (CASVE) Cycle. In CIP theory, a “problem” is defined as a gap
between a n existing and a desired state of affairs. Or stated more
simply, a gap is the dlfference between where a person is and where
he or she wants to be. Here are some examples of gap statements for
persons who might be seeking employment.

Now that I am about to finish school, I am going to need to get a job.

I have two job offers and need to decide which one to take.

This job is not leading anywhere. I need to find an employer who will
give me the opportunity to get into management.

With a new baby, I don’t want to work full time. But we need for me
to earn some money. I need a part-time job and good childcare.

My company has been sold and my job was eliminated in the

downsizing. I need a job to survive. What am I going to do?

I retire soon, but I don’t want to just sit around the house. I want to
find a part-time job that will be interesting, but not too stressful.

“Problem solving” involves inhiduals acquiring information and learn-

ing cognitive strategies that enable them to remove the gap between
their existing and desired state of af€airs.The outcome of the problem-
solving process is a choice that has a reasonable probabihty for nar-
rowing the gap between where a person is and where they want to
be. “Decision making” involves transforming the choice into specific
action steps (Peterson et al., 1991; Peterson et al., 1996; Sampson,
Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996a).Bothprocesses are needed
to make effective employment decisions. An employment choice is an
outcome of the employment problem-solving process, whereas taking
action is a result of the decision-making process.
The “Pyramid of Information Processing Domains” (see Figure 1)
depicts the content of career problem solving and decision making,
for example, what indwiduals need to know as they attempt to solve
problems and make decisions. Speclfic domains of information pro-
cessing in the pyramid include knowledge of self(e.g., values, inter-
ests, skills) and options (e.g., occupations, programs of study, jobs),
decision-making skllls (e.g., the CASVE Cycle), and metacognitions
(self-talk, self-awareness, and the monitoring and control of the de-
cision-making process). The CASVE Cycle shown in Figure 2 de-
picts one approach to the process associated with problem-solving
and decision-making skills, that is, what indwiduals need to do (the
sequence of steps) to solve problems and make decisions. During the
Communication (C) phase, indwiduals become aware that there is a
gap between a n existing and a desired state of affairs as a result of

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY I SEPTEMBER 1999 I VOL. 48 5

 Decision Making
(Metacognitions)

How I Make

(Decision-Making Skills)

(Self-Knowledge) (Options Knowledge)

FIGURE 1

What Is Involved in Career Choice:The Pyramid of Information

Processing Domains
Note. Adapted from “A Cognitive Approach to Career Services: Translating
Concepts Into Practice,” by J. P. Sampson Jr., G. W. Peterson, J. G. Lenz, & R. C.
Reardon, 1992, The Career Development Quarterly, p. 70.

external cues (such a s events or input from significant others) or

internal cues (such as client perceptions of negative emotions). Dur-
ing the Analysis (A) phase, individuals create a mental model of
their problem and perceive relationships among the elements (such
as relating selt-knowledge with their knowledge of options) to better
understand the attributes of a preferred occupation, program of study,
or job. During the Synthesis (S) phase, individuals expand (elabo-
rate) and narrow (crystahze) the options that they are considering.
During the Valuing (V) phase, individuals evaluate the costs and
benefits of each of their options to themselves, signlficant others,
their cultural group, and their community or society in general,
finally leading to a tentative first choice. During the Execution (E)
phase, individuals first create and then commit to a plan for imple-
menting the tentative choice made in the Valuing phase (Peterson
et al., 1991; Peterson et al., 1996;Sampson et al., 1992). Given the
complicated nature of most employment problems, clients can ben-
efit from help in managing the employment problem-solving and
decision-making process. Models can be used to simp@ the content
and process of problem solving and decision making, helping clients
to know what to pay attention to at what time. I n CIP theory, the
Pyramid of Information Processing Domains and the CASVE Cycle
can be used to help clients monitor and evaluate their progress through
the employment problem-solving and decision-making process.

6 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENTQUARTERLY/ SEPTEMBER 1999 / VOL. 48

 Communication (C)

Knowing I Need

Good Choice

Implementing
Myaetl And
Choice My Options

Execution (E) Analysis (A)

T
ChoosingAn ExpsndingAnd
Occupation,
ProgramOf Study,
01 Options

Valuing (V) Synthesis (S)

FIGURE 2

A Guide to Good Decision Making:The CASVE Cycle

Note. Adapted from "A Cognitive Approach to Career Services: Translating

Concepts Into Practice," by J. P. Sampson Jr., G. W. Peterson, J. G. Lenz, & R. C.
Reardon, 1992, The Career Development Quarterly. p. 70.

THE PYRAMID OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

DOMAINS
The content of employment problem solving and decision making is
shown in the Pyramid of Information Processing Domains (Peterson
et al., 1991; Peterson et al., 1996). The base of the pyramid is con-
cerned with what clients know about themselves and their employ-
ment options. The mid-level of the pyramid involves the process
individual clients might typically use in solving important prob-
lems. The top of the pyramid is concerned with how thinking influ-
ences the way clients solve employment problems. These thoughts
(positive or negative) influence the way individuals go about prob-
lem solving and decision making, as well as what they think about
themselves and their options. The next section describes the con-
tent of employment problem solving and decision making, that is,
what individuals need to know.
Knowledge of Self

The self-knowledge necessary to make an appropriate employment

choice is similar to the knowledge necessary to make an appropriate
career choice (Peterson et al., 1991;Peterson et al., 1996). The val-
ues, interests, skdls, and related personal characteristics that indi-
viduals consider in making general occupational choices can also be
applied to a more specific employment choice. Clarifying values in
the job search process with instruments, card sorts, and exercises

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENTQUARTERLY1 SEPTEMBER 1999 IVOL. 48 7

can help incfividuals identify job targets and potential employers that
match their important values. Clanfylng values also helps clients identlfy
specdic positions that are hkely to satisfy their values. For example,
assume that a client values independence and variety. The client’s
employer research (recruitment literature, networking, and inter-
views) may indicate that a potential employer the client is consider-
ing generally encourages independence in makmg decisions as a method
to increase quick responsiveness to customer needs. The specifk de-
scription for management trainee also incficates that considerable va-
riety is included in the position. The client’s self-knowledge and the
knowledge gained about a specfic employer confirm that this employer
is potentially a good match for the client and should be targeted in the
job search process.
Another important component of self-knowledge is interests. In
the job search process, helping clients clardy their interests with
instruments, card sorts, and exercises helps them identify job tar-
gets or specific positions where they can be involved in activities
they enjoy. For example, assume that a client is interested in work-
ing with people and problem solving. Data from employer research
may indicate that the management trainee position with a potential
employer involves working with both employees and customers in
solving a wide variety of problems. This information about the re-
quirements of the position seems to fit with interests in people con-
tact and problem solving. However, researching the employer also
reveals that the management trainee position requires diverse data
management skills. In addition to evaluating d these skills cur-
rently exist in the client’s repertoire (or can llkely be developed in
the training program), it is important to clarify for the client if
manipulating data is an interest. This type of information can be a
stimulus to help clients further clarify their self-knowledge. Think-
ing about past experiences, an incfividual may decide that he or she
enjoyed the sense of order and control that sometimes results from
manipulating data. This clarification of interests helps to confirm
the client’s decision to pursue jobs that involve this type of activity
or to continue the selection process with the employer.
In the CIP approach, as well as in many popular job search strat-
egies, clarifying one’s skdls with instruments, card sorts, and exer-
cises helps an indwidual identlfy types ofjobs or specific positions in
which he or she will have the opportunity to competently complete
specific work tasks assigned to a particular position. For example,
assume that a client has skills in training and instruction, espe-
cially related to technical topics. Again, data from employer research
may indicate that training and instruction skills are very relevant
for management positions in a particular organization. This clarifi-
cation of skills affirms the client’s decision to target this organiza-
tion in the job search process.
Clients’ perceptions of their values, interests, and skills are also
influenced by reviewing employer recruitment information, posi-
tion listings, and by participating in job interviews. As a result of
new information, incfividuals may reconsider the relative impor-
tance of specific values, interests, and skills. For example, as indi-
viduals become more aware of the opportunity to develop cfiverse

8 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLYI SEPTEMBER 1999 / VOL. 48

skills in a management trainee position, they may then be willing
to forego the higher salary offered for a position that provides less
opportunity to develop skdls. Inhviduals also may misunderstand
the nature of a particular value, interest, or skill. For example,
reviewing employer recruitment information and participating in
the job interview process may clarify that the value of independence
is often associated with assuming considerable responsibhty for success
or failure in a job. The individual may decide that the benefit of
limited supervision offered by jobs characterized by high indepen-
dence is not worth the increased responsibility for success and fail-
ure in assigned responsibilities.
In addition to values, interests, and skills, clients’ employment
preferences and family situation may also influence their employ-
ment choices. Potential employment preferences include such fac-
tors as desired salary level, commuting time, physical demands,
environmental conhtions of work, hours of work, travel requirements
and related items. Clarlfication of employment preferences may oc-
cur as a result of reviewing occupational information, position de-
scriptions, and reflecting on past paid and unpaid work experience.
For example, a n individual imagines what it would be like to work
irregular hours after reading an occupational description and con-
ducting an informational interview with a retail store manager. Or
the individual may remember how working irregular hours in a sum-
mer job influenced his or her lifestyle.
An individual’s family situation may also influence an employment
choice. Potential family situations include the desire to live close to
family members, the employment opportunities for a spouse, fiancee,
or partner, the preferences (or bias) of family members, family em-
ployment contacts, or the existence of a family business. Clients may
need to clarify their family situation as it relates to their job search
by communicating honestly with signficant others and then reflect-
ing on what has been learned. For example, before accepting a pro-
motion that would involve relocation, some clients might view it as
important to consider the potential impact of such a decision on their
spouse, children, andparents. For some cultural groups, it may be
very important to include family members in the employment prob-
lem-solving and decision-making process. Counselors can help cli-
ents balance their desire for family input while being alert to signs
that a client’s excessive dependence on one or more family members
for guidance in the job search process is contributing to the client’s
indecisiveness or his or her pursuit of a n artificially restricted range
of options (e.g., “My family says I shouldn’t apply for any social ser-
vices jobs because I’ll never make enough money to support my-
self.”).In some cases, it may also be appropriate to use family coun-
s e h g to resolve clients’ employment problems.
Knowledge of Employment Options

The knowledge of employment options necessary to make an appro-

priate employment choice is similar to the knowledge necessary to
make a n appropriate occupational choice (Peterson et al., 1991;
Peterson et al., 1996).Knowledge of specific occupations and knowl-

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENTQUARTERLYI SEPTEMBER 1999 I VOL. 48 9

edge of occupational classifications that are used by clients in mak-
ing general occupational choices can also be applied to making more
specific employment choices.
Knowledge of specific industries, employers, and employmentpo-
sitions. Although many career counseling services deliver occupa-
tional information, it is not always the case that they contain em-
ployment information. In the CIP approach to employment problem
solving and decision making, knowledge about options includes knowl-
edge about not only occupations, but also knowledge about types of
jobs within a particular field or industry, as well as knowledge about
speclfic employers and positions within various types of organiza-
tions. Clients should be encouraged to briefly review occupational
information before reviewing the information available for a speclGc
position. In essence, occupational information provides the founda-
tion for using employment information. By becoming f a m h a r with
the typical work tasks for particular occupations, job hunters are
better prepared to research specific employers and positions. This
strategy has the potential advantages of helping the applicants to
clarify missing or conflicting data in employer literature, to ask more
focused questions in employment interviews, and to demonstrate to
interviewers that they have the skills needed for the position. Many
of the categories used in describing specific occupations also relate to
specific positions, such as salary, education and training required,
and physical demands. Clients should also be encouraged to use various
sources of information includmg employer directories, recruitment
information (text materials, videos, CD-ROMs, and Internet web
sites), official position descriptions, and informational interviews to
enable them to identify options that best match their employment
preferences.
Knowledge of employer classifications. Employer classification sche-
mata can help individuals to more quickly find and organize the mfor-
mation they need. For example, employers can be grouped into the ten
major categories of the Standard Industrial ClassifLcation(US. Office
of the President, 1987).Instead of being overwhelmed with numerous
options, indwiduals can begin identifymg job options and employing
organizations via a manageable number of categories.
Knowledge About Decision Making

As noted earlier, the mid-level of the Pyramid of Information Pro-

cessing Domains includes a problem-solving and decision process
known a s the CASVE Cycle. The CASVE Cycle is reviewed a s a
resource for helping individuals obtain and use the right informa-
tion at the right time in the employment problem-solving and deci-
sion-makingprocess.
The CASVE Cycle. Although the CASVE Cycle represents a “ge-
neric” decision-making process (Peterson et al., 1991;Peterson et
al., 1996), it can be easily applied to the job search process. The
CASVE Cycle depicts the process for obtaining employment, i.e.,
what indwiduals need to do to become employed. It is important to
note that the CASVE Cycle process may be revisited several times
during a person’s job search, such as during the initial stages of

10 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLYI SEPTEMBER 1999 IVOL. 48

 determining appropriate job targets, during a person’s focus on spe-
cific positions or openings for which they are applying, and during
the negotiating and evaluating offers stage when they are trying to
decide which offer to accept.
In the Communication phase, clients become aware that an em-
ployment decision needs to be made. Internal cues (such as anxiety)
or external cues (such as statements from close friends, the impend-
ing completion of a training program or degree, or a request from an
employer that a n offer be accepted or rejected by a certain date) sig-
nal that employment problem solving and decision making needs to
begin. Internal and external cues create pressure for change. Al-
though some pressure from cues is typically needed to encourage
clients to initiate change, too much pressure from cues may cause
indwiduals to use procrastination as a self-defeating coping strat-
egy, resulting in a f d u r e to change when needed. For example, anxiety
(“How am I going to pay my student loans if I don’t get a job?” or
“What if I turn this employer’s offer down and I don’t get another
one?”),or recommendations from significant others (“Why not take a
sure thing and accept our neighbor’s offer of a position?”), may be
motivational in small amounts but in large amounts may also lead
to procrastination as a defense. Respondmg to internal and external
cues at the appropriate time generally offers the best chance of initi-
ating successful employment problem solving and decision making.
In the AnaZysis phase, clients use employment self-knowledge and
knowledge of employment options to better understand the gap be-
tween where they are and where they want to be. As stated earlier,
employment self-knowledge includes such things as values, inter-
ests, skills, employment preferences, and family situation. Knowl-
edge of employment options includes such things as knowledge of
specific employers, knowledge of types of jobs, as well as specific
position openings, and knowledge of employer classifications. This
type of knowledge is especially critical in evaluating speclfic job of-
fers. Too often clients accept job offers on the basis of limited infor-
mation gained through brief interviews and short on-site visits, only
to find several weeks or months later that the job &d not meet their
initial expectations. In the Analysis phase, clients can also be en-
couraged to consider their typical approach to making important
decisions and to understand how their positive and negative thoughts
influence employment problem solving and decision making. Self-
assessment activities and information resources (self-help or pro-
vided by a practitioner) may help clients further clarlfy what they
know about themselves and their options. The Analysis phase can be
viewed as an ongoing process in which clients reflect on what they
know, obtain information, and reflect on what has been learned.
In the Synthesis phase, clients typically expand and narrow the
employment options they are considering. The goal is to avoid miss-
ing potentially appropriate options (expansion or elaboration) while
reducing the number of options to a small enough list to avoid being
overwhelmed when a choice is finally made (narrowing or crystalli-
zation). With clients who are going through the CASVE Cycle for
the purpose of decidmg between or among job offers, they may actu-
ally be dealing with a fairly small number of options.

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY I SEPTEMBER 1999 I VOL. 48 11

 For many clients, however, the concern is with expandmg options.
They seek assistance saying things like “What else could I do with
my major besides teach?” or “I’ve worked as a sales representative
for 10 years, but want to start looking for other types ofjobs.” Cli-
ents could explore two methods of expanding their employment op-
tions. First, they could be asked to generate a list of potential em-
ployers and positions they have considered in the past (similar to
their occupational daydreams or aspirations) or even positions they
have actually applied for in their current or previous search. Sec-
ond, they could use an information resource to generate options (such
as print or CD-ROM directories or Internet drrectories or job banks).
To narrow their options, clients would apply what was learned in
the Analysis phase. From a CIP perspective, they would likely keep
only those employers and positions that offer a reasonable chance of
helping them eliminate their “employment gap.” If none of the op-
tions identified provided them with a reasonable chance of eluninat-
ing the gap, they may need to expand the number of potential em-
ployers or types of positions they are considering or reconsider what
is really most important in terms of their criteria for acceptable
employment. The outcome of the Synthesis phase is a short list of
employment prospects.
In the Valuing phase, clients finalize their employment options.
For some clients this means specifying the job areas they plan to
target. For others it means they have identified speclfic positions
for which they wish to apply. For still others, this phase involves
weighing the pros and cons of speclfic offers, accepting a n employ-
ment offer and beginning work. Clients may consider the costs and
benefits of each options to themselves and significant others (e.g.,
family). Some individuals may also consider the costs and benefits
relative to their cultural group, community, and society at large.
After considering the costs and benefits, clients would typically pri-
oritize their options. For instance, in the case of job targets, they
may decide after considering many M e r e n t areas that account ex-
ecutive, sales manager, customer support representative are their
three top areas. Other clients, after reviewing multiple position an-
nouncements with varied types of employers, would identify those
options for which they wish to actually apply. Other job seekers
would use the Valuing process to decide between competing offers,
including a scenario that would involve declining one or more offers
because they do not seem to be a good match and continuing the job
search for a potentially more appropriate employment offer. If cli-
ents choose to continue seeking employment options, they would
hkely return to the Analysis phase to further examine the nature of
the employment problem and to generate a new list of options in the
Synthesis phase. Being discouraged or perceiving barriers to em-
ployment causes clients to cycle back to the Communication phase
to better understand the nature of their employment problem.
In the Execution phase, clients take steps to act on their priority
list of options in the Valuing phase. This could include identifying
speclfic organizations where they will send their r6sum6s or inform-
ing a n employer that a position offer has been accepted (this may
first be done verbally, followed by a written acceptance; e.g., letter,

12 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY I SEPTEMBER 1999 I VOL. 48

FAX, or e-mail), and if multiple employment offers exist, d e c h i n g
the other offers in writing. Other steps might include planning for a
transition to new employment. Potential transition issues include
relocation, spouse employment, and acquiring necessary tools and
working clothes. The final step involves actually beginning employ-
ment or an employer-delivered training program.
The final phase involves a return to Communication to determine
lfinternal and external cues indicate whether or not the original
employment gap has been successfully closed. If the cues indicate
appropriate employment, then the problem-solving and decision-
making process pauses until the next gap is identlfied. If the cues
indicate that the problem still persists (such as not llking or not
succeeding in a n employer training program), then the cycle pro-
ceeds to the Analysis phase to better understand the gap and ulti-
mately choose another position or employer.
Understanding How Thoughts Influence Decisions

The executive processing domain is at the top of the Pyramid of

Information Processing Domains. From a CIP perspective, the
metacognitive skills in this domain influence how indwiduals think
and subsequently act in solving employment problems. The three
components of this domain are self-talk, self-awareness, and moni-
toring and control (Peterson et al., 1991; Peterson et al., 1996).
Self-talk.Self-talk can be described as the silent conversations cli-
ents have with themselves about their past, present, and future
capability to complete a specific task-in this case employmentproblem
solving and decision making. Positive self-talk can help individuals
to (a) remain motivated when delays occur in obtaining employ-
ment, @) actively seek the employment information needed to make
a decision, (c) stay focused on making a good employment choice
and avoid being distracted, (d) think clearly and realistically about
the good and bad points of employment options, (e) make better use
of the opinions of important people in their lives, (0 seek job search
assistance when needed, and (g) follow through with an action plan
after a decision is made. In terms of employment problem solving
and decision making, negative self-talk generally makes it more
difficult for clients to (a) clearly write a career objective for a r6sum6,
(b) accurately identlfy skills on a functional r6sum6, (c) be moti-
vated to identify potential employers and position openings, (d) fol-
low through with informational interviewing and networking op-
portunities, (e) be motivated to research an employer, (f) positively
articulate potential contributions in an employment interview, (g)
respond with clarity and enthusiasm to questions posed by an em-
ployment interviewer, and (h)follow through with interview thank
you letters (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996b).
Cognitive restructuring, within the context of career service deliv-
ery, can be used to help clients identify, challenge, and alter nega-
tive thoughts that contribute to the problems ident6ed above (Sampson
et al., 1996a).
For some individuals, employment decision making may provoke
more anxiety than occupational decision making. The reason for

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY I SEPTEMBER 1999 I VOL. 48 13

this potential dlfference is the specificity of each type of decision.
Choosing an occupation and related program of study is a more gen-
eral, future-oriented choice. Failure to obtain an employment posi-
tion related to an indwidual’s program of study is a possibility but
is typically far enough in the future to cause limited anxiety for
most persons. However, employment decision making offers the pos-
sibility of specific and immediate rejection from potential employ-
ers. As a result, potential failure is concrete and easily perceived.
Most job applicants are aware that they are llkely to receive many
rejections before actually receiving a job offer. As noted in the sec-
tion on the Communication phase of the CASVE Cycle, a little anxi-
ety may be motivational, but substantial anxiety may lead to self-
defeating coping behaviors, such as procrastination.
In summary, if inchiduals expect to do poorly (or to fail) in em-
ployment selection, they have little motivation to prepare for and
follow through with the steps in the process. In adhtion, negative
self-talk is llkely to influence individuals’ perceptions of their capa-
b h t i e s to perform successfully in a speclfic position. Subsequent
awareness that the individual is not making good progress in ob-
taining employment only reinforces negative self-talk (e.g., “Iknew
I wasn’t going to get a good job and it looks like I was right”). Be-
coming aware of negative thoughts is a key strategy for limiting the
potentially harmful impact of negative thinking in employment choice.
Self-awareness.From a CIP perspective, effective problem solvers
are aware of themselves as they are doing a task. Effective self-
awareness includes an awareness of the interaction among thoughts,
feehgs, and behaviors, especially the debllitating impact of negative
self-talkon employment choice. Self-awarenessfactors and sample state-
ments related to the job search process are listed in the Appendix.
Although it may be important for some clients to consider input
from signlficant others; not all input may be helpful. Counselors
can help individuals carefully consider all of the information they
have received, and then assist them in assuming responsibdity for
malung and following through with an appropriate employment choice.
Counselors may also involve clients in cognitive restructuring exer-
cises to improve their self-awareness of the impact of career thoughts
on feelings and behavior (Sampson et. al., 1996a).
Monitoring and control. Monitoring refers to a n individual’s abil-
ity to keep track of his or her progress through the problem-solving
and decision-making process, for example, knowing when it is nec-
essary to stop and get more information (e.g., further researching a
prospective employer), knowing when a task has been completed
successfully enough to continue on with the next step in the process
(e.g., having a n appropriate number ofjob targets to pursue), a n d
knowing when assistance wdl be needed to make an appropriate choice
(e.g., being overwhelmed by the number of prospective employers in
a particular location). Control refers to an individual‘s ability to pur-
posefully engage in the next appropriate problem-solving and deci-
sion-makingtask, includmg the a b h t y to control negative thinking
(e.g., controlling negative thoughts before a job interview) that cre-
ates ddficulties in problem solving and decision making (Peterson
et al., 1991; Peterson et al., 1996; Sampson et al., 1996a). Effective

14 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY / SEPTEMBER 1999 I VOL. 48

problem solvers and decision makers keep track of the “knowing”
and “doing” aspects of choice. For example, they are aware of what
they know and what they need to know, as well a s being aware of
what they need to do in the sequence of steps associated with
employment choice. One brief hypothetical example follows that
applies CIP theory to employment problem solving a n d decision
making.

A CASE EXAMPLE
Maria is 46 years old and has two children. Her husband is a police
officer who has just been promoted to sergeant. Until recently, Maria
was employed as the office manager of a large commercial real es-
tate agency. The agency has been sold and merged with another
real estate business, and Maria has been informed that she wdl not
be neededin the merged organization. Maria has been gwen 3 months
severance pay and a positive letter of recommendation but has not
been provided with outplacement services. To obtain a similar posi-
tion in another large agency would llkely require her to move to
another city. She was reluctant to consider this option in view of
her spouse’s recent promotion and her children’s desire to graduate
from the high school they are currently attendmg. Maria’s uncer-
tainty about her future employment prompted her to seek assis-
tance from the career center at the local community college (Com-
munication).
After a brief screening intervention and readmess assessment
(Sampson & Reardon, 1998) the counselor judged that Maria had a
moderate level of readiness for employment problem solving and
decision making and that a brief staff-assisted intervention in the
career library would be appropriate. The counselor clarified the na-
ture of Maria’s problem as a gap between being unemployed and
having a satisfying job that provided adequate income and more
time to be with her family. The counselor used printed client ver-
sions of the Pyramid of Information Processing Domains and the
CASVE Cycle (Sampson et al., 1992) to orient Maria to the employ-
ment problem-solving and decision-making process. Using a n indi-
vidual learning plan (Peterson et al., 1991; Peterson et al., 1996),
the counselor and Maria collaboratively established goals for ser-
vice delivery. The counselor then recommended a sequence of as-
sessment, information, and instructional resources to assist Maria
in achieving her goals of identifying potentially appropriate jobs and
restructuring the negative thoughts identified by the Career Thoughts
Inventory (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1998)
during readiness assessment. The individual learning plan was re-
negotiated several times because Maria’s needs evolved during ser-
vice delivery.
At the beginning of each session with Maria, the counselor used
the Pyramid and the CASVE Cycle to help her monitor where she
was in the problem-solving and decision-making process. Maria used
a computer-assisted career guidance system to clarify her values,
interests, and transferable skdls. Maria and her counselor used her
previous work experience to clanfy her employment preferences and

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENTQUARTERLY/ SEPTEMBER 1999 / VOL. 48 15

the interaction between her work and family issues (Knowledge of
Self and Analysis). Maria then used a combination of occupational
and employer information, along with a computer-assisted job bank
to generate and learn about various local employment options (Knowl-
edge of Employment Options, Analysis, and Synthesis-Elaboration).
The counselor would occasionally ask Maria to verbalize her thoughts
about the options she was considering to determine if negative thoughts
were compromising her problem-solving and decision-making pro-
cess. When negative thoughts were identlfied, the counselor used a
cognitive restructuring exercise (Sampson et al., 199613) to iden-
tify, challenge, a n d alter h e r negative career thoughts (Execu-
tive Processing).
With the support of her counselor, Maria used her self- and em-
ployment knowledge to narrow down the employment options she
was considering (Synthesis-Crystallization). Maria then used a theory
based written exercise to evaluate the costs and benefits of her em-
ployment options to herself, her family, her cultural group, and her
community. She tentatively decided to apply for a n administrative
position with a local employer (Valuing). Maria then prepared for
and interviewed for the position of administrative assistant to the
chief operating officer of a large local hospital (Execution). Maria
returned to the career center to inform her counselor that she had
received and accepted a n offer to work a s a n administrative assis-
tant a t the hospital. The counselor briefly reviewed the gap t h a t
had prompted Maria to seek career services and they then mutually
agreed that she had achieved her goals (return to Communication).
The counselor concluded service delivery by discussing with Maria
what she had learned from receiving services and how she might
apply this learning to inevitable employment choices that she will
make in the future.

CONCLUSION
In a stable economy with relatively slow change in employment, it
is easy to understand the limited interest in applying career theory
to employment choice. In a more volatile economy in which ongoing
job change is becoming the norm, greater attention needs to be paid
to the development and application of career theory to the employ-
ment process. Given the multiple job changes that indlviduals a t all
levels of society are making, parsimonious models are needed to
help clients better understand what they need to know (the content)
and what they need to do (the process) to effectively solve employ-
ment problems and make employment decisions. The Pyramid of
Information Processing Domains (the content) and the CASVE Cycle
(the process) from CIP theory represent one attempt to apply career
theory to employment choice.
The effectiveness of CIP theory in helping individuals to under-
stand and follow through with employment problem solving and
decision making depends on several factors. First, instructional
materials for various populations need to be developed to apply CIP
theory to employment choice that indwiduals can use on a self-help
basis and clients can use as homework in counseling. Second, coun-

16 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENTQUARTERLY / SEPTEMBER 1999 / VOL. 48

selors need training in how to use CIP theory to help clients with
varying levels of decision-making readiness to make appropriate
employment choices. Third, research is needed to investigate the
application of CIP theory to employment problem solving and deci-
sion makmg. For example, does CIP theory provide inhviduals with
a n effective schema for understanding the content and process of
employment choice? Does CIP theory help individuals to effectively
monitor and control their cognition, affect, and behavior during the
employment problem-solving and decision-making process? Does CIP
theory help individuals to consider the right information a t the ap-
propriate time during the employment choice process? I t is hoped,
by teaching clients a n approach that encompasses not only the ca-
reer choice process but also the implementation of that choice through
employment problem solving and decision making, counselors can
better assist clients throughout the careerme planning cycle.

REFERENCES
Bolles, R. N. (1996). The 1997 what color is your parachute? Berkeley, CA: Ten
Speed Press.
Brown, D., & Brooks, L. (Eds.). (1996). Career choice and development (3rd
ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Farr, J . M. (1996). The very quickjob search (2nd ed.). Indianapolis, IN: JIST Works.
Gottfredson, G., & Holland, J. (1996). Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes
(3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Messmer, M. (1995). Job hunting for dummies. Foster City, CA: IDG Books
Worldwide.
Osipow, S. H., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1996). Theories of career development (4th
ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Peterson, G. W., Sampson, J. P., Jr., & Reardon, R. C. (1991). Career develop-
ment and services: A cognitive approach. Pacific Grove, CA: BrookslCole.
Peterson, G. W., Sampson, J. P., J r . , Reardon, R. C., & Lenz, J . G. (1996). Be-
coming career problem solvers and decision makers: A cognitive informa-
tion processing approach. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and
development (3rd ed., pp. 423-475). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Sampson, J. P., Jr., Peterson, G. W., Lenz, J. G., & Reardon, R. C. (1992). A
cognitive approach to career services: Translating concepts into practice. The
Career Development Quarterly, 41, 67-74.
Sampson, J . P., Jr., Peterson, G. W., Lenz, J. G., Reardon, R. C., & Saunders,
D. E. (1996a). Career Thoughts Inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological
Assessment Resources.
Sampson, J. P., Jr., Peterson, G. W., Lenz, J . G., Reardon, R. C., & Saunders,
D. E. (1996b). Career Thoughts Inventory workbook. Odessa, FL: Psycho-
logical Assessment Resources.
Sampson, J. P., Jr., Peterson, G. W., Lenz, J. G., Reardon, R. C., & Saunders.
D. E. (1998). The design and use of a measure of dysfunctional career thoughts
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Sampson, J. P . , J r . , & Reardon, R. C. (1998). Maximizing staff resources in
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Savickas, M. L., & Lent, R. W. (Eds.). (1994). Convergence in career deuelop-
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APPENDIX
Self-Awareness Factors and Sample Statements Related to the
Job Search Process

Debhtating negative emotions, for example, depression, anxi-

ety, panic-“I’m really anxious about looking for work after
being out of the job market for so long.”
Lack of emotion or caring about an employment problem, for
example, lack of motivation-“I’d rather stay in school and
change majors than take a job that pays so little.”
Persistent negative thoughts about employment choice, for
example, predicting future failure, and the use of absolute
terminology (never and always)-“I’ll never find a good job.”
Failure to initiate or persist with employment problem-solving
behaviors-“After so many rejection letters, what’s the point of
continuing to look?”
Repeating employment decision-makingbehaviors when ad-
equate information is available and when a choice needs to be
made-“Do you have a test I can take that wdl determine the
types of jobs I’m suited for?”
Self-awarenessalso includes the reactions of significant others (such
as family and friends) to the job hunter’s employment problem solv-
ing and decision making. Issues associated with signlficant others
and sample statements are listed as follows:

Suggestions from significant others that you are proceeding

too slowly with employment choice, for example, action is
needed-“It’s time to stop reading the classlfied ads and actu-
ally start applying for jobs.”
Feedback from signlficant others to just take any job, when
more caution and careful thought is needed, “There are lots
of jobs out there-why are you being so picky?”
Failure to seek or consider input from significant others-
“My spouse is concerned about health benefits, but I’d rather
be my own boss.”
* Consideration or selection of an inappropriate employer or
position-‘‘I know you’ve never seen yourself as the sales type,
but this seems like too good an opportunity to pass up.”

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