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Water Resources Agriculture
Water Resources Agriculture
David Pimente!, James Houser, Erika Preiss, Omar White, Hope Fang, Leslie Mesnick,
W
at ee is a renewahle re- Hydrologie cycle. The earrh's atmos-
but its availabiliry phere contains approximarely 1.3 x
SOUTee,
is variable and limired.
New water supplies Iikely 1013 m' of water and is the souree of
Nearly every country in the world will result from all of the rain that falls on Earth.
experiences water shortages during Each year, approximately 151,000
certain times of the year (Gleick conservation, recycling, quads (1 quad = 10 lS BTU) of solar
1993a), and more rhan 80 countries energy disrills and moves 5 x 10 14 m"
now suffer from serious water short- reuse, and improved of water frorn the earth's surfaee
ages [Falkenmark and Lindh 1993). into the atmosphere-86% from
Factors such as rainfall, ternpera- water use efficiency oceans and 14 % from land (Posrel
ture, evaporation, and runoff deter- 1985). This is approximate!y 400
mine water availability. Clean wa- rather than from large times the total amount of fossil en-
ter resources per capita are declining development projects ergy 1320 quads) burnedeaeh year in
rapidly as the needs of the growing rhe world. Although only 14% of
population increase [Pimente! er a1. the evaporation oeeurs from land,
1994). Population growth not only industries, and between individual approximately 24% (1.2 x 1014 m!
reduces water availabiliry per per- eommunities. Consider that agrieul- per year) of the world's precipira-
son but stresses rhe entire environ- ture alone consumes 87% of the tion falls onto land (Shiklomanov
mental system. As the world popula- feesh water withdrawn in the world 1993). The sun's energy therefore
tion increased from 3.8 billion to 5.4 (Poste! 1992). Water shortages ean transfers a significant portion of the
billion during the last two decades, be expeeted to severely reduee biodi- water from the oeeans to the conti-
water use worldwide increased three- versity in both aquatie and terres- nents each year.
fold (Poste! 1992). In addition, fae- tnal eeosystems (Postel et al. 1996). The 1.3 x 1013 m' of water in the
wes such as pollution, erosion, run- In rhis assessment of the status of atmosphere is a small pereentage
off, and salinization associared with warer resources, we analyze con- (0.001 %) of the 1.4 x 10" m' water
irrigation, plus the overall ineffi- sumption of water by individuals, estimated to be in the oeeans (WRI
cient use of water, contribute to the agriculrure, and energy produetion. 1989). The total amount of fresh
decline in water resources (Pimentel We also address the relationship of water held on the surface of the
er al. 1994). water availability ro biodiversity. earth in streams and lakes is ap-
Major difficulties exist in allocat- Finally, eonsidering projected popu- proximately 1 x 10 14 m'. This repre-
ing the world's scarce freshwater lation growth, climate change, and sents approximately 0.3% ofrhe total
resources. These problems exist be- water use patterns, we suggest strat- fresh water on Earth, including wa-
tween and within countries, between egies for improving water use to ter in iee caps, glaciers, ground wa-
meet the increasing and eonflieting ter, and as soll moisture. Approxi-
needs of agriculture, soeiety, and the mately 23 % of the total fresh water
David Pimentel is a professor and ]ames environment in future deeades. on Earrh is stored as ground water,
Hauser, Erika Preiss, Omar White, Hope whieh is 82 times more abundant
Fang, Leslie Mesnick, Troy Barsky, than the amount of fresh warer in
Stephanie Tariche, Jerrod Schreck, and Water resources streams and lakes (Shiklomanov
Sharon Alpert are graduate students in
the College of Agriculture and Life Sei- Water resourees depend on the hy- 1993).
ences, Cornell Universiry, Ithaca, NY drologie eyele, on elimate change,
14853-0901. © 1997 American Insti- and to some degree on fossil water in Groundwater resources. Geound
tute of Biological Sciences. the ground. water has aeeumulated over many
February 1997 97
millions of years in aquifers located Table 1. Regions of the world wirb day; Table 1). Water stress occurs
below the surface of the earth. An water problems (based on rhe crirerion when warer availability ranges from
estimated 8.2 x 10 1S m' of water are rhar yeady warer availability per capita 1000 to 1700 rrr' per person per year
now present in tbe world's aquifers is less than 1000 m 3/yr) and their per (Engelman and LeRoy 1993). The
capira water availability [Palkenmark
(WRI 1989). Most aquifers are re- result is a lack of water for irriga-
and Lindh 1993).
plenished slowly, with an average tion, industry, and prorection of rhe
recharge rate that ranges from 0.1 % Region Water availability environmenr. Twenty-six nations,
to 0.3% per year (Covieh 1993). per capite (m 3/yr) including Egypt,]ordan, Israel, Syria,
Assuming an average 0.2 % recharge Iraq, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, are
rate, only 16.4 x 10 12 m' ofwater per Egypt 40 currently defined as warer scarce
year is available for sustainable use. Malta 50 (Engelman and LeRoy 1993, Postel
The amount of fresh water stored in West Bank 126 1992). At least 11 countries experi-
the top 0.2 m oi worJd soil is esti- Gaza Strip 133 ence water stress, including Ethio-
mated to be 16.5 x 10 12 m' (Levine er Yemen 220 pia, Kenya, Somalia, Algeria, and
Jordan 255
al. 1979). On average, water ac- Israel 376 Libya.
Figure 1. Total reservoir storage capac- Human use of water, The water con-
ity (in millions of acre-feet; 1 acre-foot tent of a1l living organisms ranges
= 1231 m') in the United States from from 60% to 95%. Humans need to
1880 to 1990 (USGS 1995). consume 1 to 2 lirers ~f water per
will beeome even more difficult in higher than the average world per-
some regions; however, in other re-- sonal use of 90 liters per person per Figure 2. Annual human water use
gions benefits might accrue because day (Brewster 1987). WorLdwide, worldwide (data from Shiklomanov
of warmer temperatures and higher total use of fresh water averages 1993). Water withdrawn refers to wa-
rainfall for agrieuLture. approximately 1800 liters per per- ter pumped, and consumption refers ro
For example, California, which is son per day for a11 uses (WRI 1991). water that is used and is nonrecover-
already experiencing water short- Total US freshwater withdrawals able (per year).
ages, is likely to have a 20%-40% are approximately 1280 billion li-
decrease in mountain snowpack and ters per day, or approximately 5100 United States is used for agricuLture
water flow through its river basins liters per person per day including (So11ey er a1. 1993).
(Vaux 1991). And the snow pack water use in irrigation, with 77% Different crops and regions vary
would most likely melt earlier in the corning from surface water and 23 % in rheir water requirements. Rain-
year, creating early summer short- withdrawn from ground water fall patterns, temperature, soil qual-
ages and rnore severe water short- (SoLley et al. 1993). In China, only ity, and vegetative cover a11 influ-
ages lare in the summer (Vaux 1991). approximately 1100 liters per per- ence soil moisrure levels, For ideal
On the other hand, areas Like Canada son per day are withdrawn for a11 growing conditions, soiL moisture
may benefit from warming, which purposes, one-fourth of the use in should not fall below 50% in the
would create longer growing sea- the United Stares (Zhang 1990). root zone (Blackshaw 1990), but for
sons; however, these areas may be Postel et a1. (1996) report that hu- some crops, like riee, more than
faced with water shortages (Par ry mankind now uses 26% of total 50% is needed for fulL yieLds
and Carter 1989). evapotranspiration and 54% of a11 (Bhuiyan 1992). Good vegetative
If mean annuaL temperatures rise runoff in rivers, Lakes, and other cover, high Levels of soil organic
3°_4°C, rainfall in rhe US eorn beLt accessible sourees. matter, active soil biota, and slow
region is projected to decline by ap- water runoff increase rhe percola-
proximately 10% (Downing and Crop production. Agricultural pro- tion of rainfaLl into the soil for use
Parry 1994). Low rainfaLl and in- duction consumes more fresh water by growing crops.
creased evaporation rates wouLd than any other human activity The transfer of water to the armos-
combine to Limit corn producnon in (Falkenmark 1989). US agriculture phere from the terrestrial environ-
the region (Rosenzweig and Parry ac counts for 87% of the fresh water ment by transpirarion through vegeta-
1994). The predicted global warm- consumed after being withdrawn tion is estimated to range between
ing could increase world irrigarion (Figure 2). Plants render a11 water 38% and 65% of precipitation de-
needs by 26% to rnaintain current that passes through them nonrecov- pending on the terrestrial ecosystern. '
production (postel 1989). In addi- erable through evaporation and tran- The processes of carbon dioxide fixa-
rion to global warming, population spirarion. In the United Stares, ap- tion and temperature conrrol require
growth and associated activities may proximately 62 % of the water used plants to transpire enormous amounts
influenee water resourees through in agriculture comes from surface of water, For example, a squash plant
other environmenral changes, such sources and 38% comes from transpires ten times its fresh weight in
as deforestation, desertification, so iL groundwater sources (Solley et a1.
erosion, and loss of biodiversity 1993) . Approximately 68% of a11 ~T . Dawson, 1995, personal communica rion .
(Heywood 1995). ground water withdrawn in the Cornell University, lthaca, NY.
February 1997 99
water per day, and rnany deciduous Table 2. Estimared liters of water re- amount of land under irrigation is
trees transpire two to six tirnes their quired (0 produce 1 kg of food and slowly expanding, even thcugh salin-
fresh weighr per day. forage crops. ization, waterlogging, and siltation
The water required to grow vari- are decreasing productivity of some
Crop Liters/kg
ous food and forage crops ranges irrigared lande." Despite a small an-
from 500 to 2000 liters of water per nual increase in irrigated areas, the
kg of yield produeed (Table 2). For Potatoes 500 per capita irrigated area has been
Wheat 900 declining sinee 1978 (Poste! 1992).
instance, 1 ha of US corn transpires Alfalfa 900
approximarely 4 million liters (4000 Sorghum 1110 For example, per capita irrigated
mvha l of warer during its growing Corn 1400 land in the Uni ted Stares has de-
season, and an additional 2 million Riee 1912 c1ined 8% between 1978 and 1988
liters/ha eva po rate concurrently from Soybeans 2000 (USDA 1993).
Broiler chicken 3500
the soil (Donahue et al. 1990). Thus, Beef 100,000 Irrigation requires a significant
during the growing season approxi- amount of energy for pumping and
mately 600 mm (6 million liters/ha) moving irrigation water. Annually,
Coal
Water use in energyproduction. Pro- Surface mining and revegetation 7 NA
ducing energy for all types of fuel Orher plant operations 325 NA
requires pumping large quantities of Coal combustion (cooling towers) NA 2600
water. Based on the current per capita Coal gasification 140-340 NA
Coalliquificaticn 120-250 NA