GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY WITH FAMILY PLANNING 211

MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN

DMD 2-Y2-3

WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY

PHYSIOLOGY i. Respiratory physiology- structures and

- Function of the different structures of the
body.
- The study of the function of al plants and
animals in their normal state.
- Why do we study Physiology? – Understand
the physical and chemical principle underlie
normal function in order to cure the
impairments. (To detect malfunctions in the
body).
- Integrative science.
- Molecules of living organism is called
biomolecules; protein, lipids, carbohydrates,
nucleic acids.
- These biomolecules will form cell.
- Four fundamental types of tissue; epithelial,
muscular, connective, nervous tissue.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
- Science of body functions
- The study of, physical mechanical (more of
external structure). and biochemical
(microscopic) properties of living organism
- The study of functionality of living organism
at the cellular, organ and systemic levels.
SUBDIVISIONS OF PHYSIOLOGY
a. Cell physiology- purpose of the parts of the
cell.
b. System physiology- functions of the systems
of the body
c. Pathophysiology- disease or abnormalities in
function of the structure.
d. Exercise physiology- role of physical activity
in the body.
e. Neurophysiology- physiology of the nervous
structure; CNS, PNS & ANS
f. Endocrinology- structure, function and
hormonal secretion of each endocrine gland.
Maintains homeostasis.
g. Cardiovascular physiology- structures and
functions of cardiovascular system.
h. Immunophysiology- immune responses,
related to cardiovascular and exercise
physiology
function included in the respiration.
j. Renal physiology- function of the renal
structures.
k. Reproductive physiology- development of
both sperm and egg cells.
ORGAN SYSTEMS:
- Operate as integrated units
Examples:
Regulation of:
 Plasma calcium concentration
 Blood pressure
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
- Provides protection because it covers the
entire body.
- Regulates temperature.
- Prevents water loss.
- Sudoriferous gland=sweat glands
- Sudor= Sweat, Sebum=oil
SKELETAL SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
- Provides protection.
- Gives support to the body
- Allows body movements because of our
skeletal muscle attached directly to the
bone.
- Produces blood cells through the
hematopoiesis.
- Erythropoietin helps in the production of
blood cells inside the bone.
- Bones- hard and inelastic, hardest tissue
- Cartilage- soft and elastic
o Elastic
o Hyaline
o Fibrocartilage
- Ossification formation of bones
- Articular System- study of joints
- 206 bones
MUSCULAR SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
- Mainly for body movements
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY WITH FAMILY PLANNING 211
MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN
DMD 2-Y2-3
WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY
- Produces body heat consists of muscles
attached to the skeleton by tendons
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
- Serves as the signal that there is something
wrong in your body.
- Removes foreign substances from the blood
and lymph
- Combats diseases
- Maintains tissue fluid balance
- Absorbs fat from the digestive tract
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
- Exchange of gasses (oxygen and carbon
dioxide)
- unoxygenated blood from upper and lower
portion of the body will enter > the superior
and inferior vena cava of heart > going to the
right atrium > to right ventricle > going to the
pulmonary trunk via valve > lungs to become
oxygenated blood > left atrium > left
ventricle > back to the heart and will pass
thru aorta to be distributed to the different
parts of the body.
- Regulates blood pH.
- Inhalation/ inspiration
- Exhalation/ expiration
- Structures in respiratory zone where
exchange of gasses happens:
o Respiratory bronchioles
o Alveolar duct
o Alveolar sac
o Alveoli
DIGSTIVE SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
- Performs the mechanical (physical) and
chemical (enzymatic) processes of digestion
absorption of nutrients and elimination of
wastes.
- Modification present in the intestine to
absorb nutrients:
o Plica circularis/ circular folds
o Villi / fingerlike projections
o Microvilli
- Elimination of waste thru excretory system
releasing feces.
- Accessory organs of the digestive system:
o Salivary glands
o Liver
o Pancreas
o Gallbladder
NERVOUS SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
- Major regulatory system that detects
sensations and controls movements,
physiological process and intellectual
functions
- Nerves directly attached to the brain= cranial
nerves (12 n
- Nerves arising from the spinal cord= spinal
nerves (31 pairs).
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
- Influences metabolism, growth, reproductive
and many other functions because of
hormonal secretion
- Regulates the activities and substances of the
body.
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
- Transports nutrients, waste products, gases,
and hormones throughout the body, plays a
role in the immune response and the
regulation of body temperature.
- Protects from harmful organism because of
WBC that serves as the soldier of the blood
URINARY SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
- Removes waste products from the blood and
regulates blood pH, ion balance and water
balance through urine.
- Made up of nephrons in kidneys
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
- Produces oocytes and is the site of
fertilization and fetal development produces
milk for the newborns, produces hormones
that influence sexual function and behaviors
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY WITH FAMILY PLANNING 211
MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN
DMD 2-Y2-3

WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY

- Produces and transfers sperm cells to the Mechanistic Approach:

female and produces hormones that
What are the processes involved?
influences sexual functions and behaviors.
How does something work?
BASIC LIFE PROCESSES
A. Metabolism – sum of all biochemical process
of cells, tissues, organs and organ system
a. Anabolic process
b. Catabolic process
B. Responsiveness – ability to detect and
respond to changes in the internal and
external environment; all living organism
reacts to its environment
C. Movement – occurs at the intracellular,
cellular and organ level.
D. Growth – increase in number of cells, size of
cells, tissues, organs and the body. Single cell
to multicellular complex organism.
E. Differentiation – process a cell undergoes to
develop from an unspecialized to a KEY THEMES IN PHYSIOLOGY
specialized cell 1. Homeostasis – body systems work together
F. Reproduction – formation of new cells for (integration of function)
growth, repair, or replacement or the 2. Communication and movement across cell
production of a new individual. membranes – vital to integration &
homeostasis. Cells communicate with other
Process of cell reproduction:
cells, tissues & organs
a. Meiosis - Homeostasis is a highly complex process
b. Mitosis - Homeostasis is maintained through the
G. Homeostasis – equilibrium of the body’s regulatory process called “feedback”
internal environment produced by the - A feedback loop is a cycle of events in which
interaction of organ systems and regulatory a body condition (such as temperature) is
processes (feedback system); Homeostasis is continually monitor ad adjusted to be within
a dynamic condition in response to changing specific limits.
conditions.
THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF FEEDBACK LOOP:
The two body systems that largely control the
1. A receptor that monitors a particular
body’s homeostatic state:
aspect of physiology
a. Nervous system 2. A control center that sets the normal
b. Endocrine system range, receives input from the receptor
and sends output when changes are
Teleological Approach:
needed.
What is the purpose or function? 3. An effector that produces a response or
effect that changes the physiology.
Why does something exists?
TWO TYPES OF FEEDBACK LOOPS:
Why does it need to be done?
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY WITH FAMILY PLANNING 211
MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN
DMD 2-Y2-3

WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY

1. Positive loops- where the response

enhances the condition
2. Negative loops- where the response
counteracts or antagonizes the condition
- Most feedback in the body are negative
feedback loops
- A negative feedback loop tends to bring a
system back to equilibrium
o Increase in blood pressure > increase
detected by baroreceptors > brain
senses disruption > heart rate
decreases > decrease in blood
pressure.
- Positive feedback loops are rare in the
human body. A positive feedback loop tends
to push a system away from equilibrium
(helping mechanism)
- The classic example of a positive feedback
loop in the body is the action of oxytocin
during labor:
o Labor begins > contraction detected
by nerves > brain senses onset of
labor > oxytocin released > increase
in uterine contraction.
- The feedback signal or output from the
controlled system increases the action of the
control system in positive feedback
Examples:
Blood clottings
Micturition/urination
Defecation
Sodium inflow in genesis of nerve
signals
Contraction of the uterus during
childbirth (parturition)
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY WITH FAMILY PLANNING 211
MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN
DMD 2-Y2-3

WEEK 2: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

CELL PARTS OF CELLS

- Basic unit of life.  CELL MEMBRANE/PLASMA MEMBRANE

- Structural and functional units of all living
organisms
- Building blocks of the human body.
- Adult human body contains = 75 trillion cells.
- Each cell type performs specific functions
- 200 cell types in humans
- The cell (L. cella, “a container”) is the
smallest unit of living structure capable of
independent existence, composed of a
membrane-enclosed mass of protoplasm and
containing a nucleus
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CELLS
 Perform the general functions necessary to
sustain life:
- Obtain nutrients and other materials from its
surrounding fluids:
o Fuel molecules, O2 building blocks
(main constituents are absorbed and
carried by cell), minerals, etc.
- Dispose of wastes products
o Urea (from nitrogen), CO2 metabolic
waste
- Maintain shape and integrity
o Size and shape are related to
function (shapes: squamous,
cuboidal, columnar)
- Cell division:
o Mitosis: growth and repair
o Meiosis: gametes formation
- Outer limiting barrier, fragile transparent
barrier
- Phospholipid bilayer
- Cell protection because it covers the entire
cell and cell transportation in and out of the
cell.
- Selective barrier,Semi permeable not all
components can enter the cell (piling
substance lang yung pwede makapasok)
- Function: (a) gives shape to the cell (b) serves
as the barrier from the outer environment.
(c) Serves as a fixed environment inside the
cell (d) structural support or framework (e)
receives chemical messenger from other cells
because of receptor proteins,
communication from other cells.
- Consists of cholesterol that forms the
framework, stabilizes the position of cell
membrane
- Open membrane channels: materials can go
in directly or can pass inside the membrane
- Closed membrane channels: called gated
channels (ex. Voltage gated channels, ligand
gated channels, chemically gated channels

STUDY OF CELLS

 CYTOLOGY: study of cells

 Microscopic Anatomy
o Individual cells observable by light
microscopy
o Subcellular structures observe by
electron microscopy
 Unit of measure: micrometer (μm)
o RBC:7-8 (μm)
 Magsswell yung RBC that is placed in the
solution kasi papasok yung water sa loob ng
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MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN
DMD 2-Y2-3

WEEK 2: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

cell by means of Osmosis process then - Waste out

eventually it will die in a hypotonic solution o Communication between the cells
- Isotonic (Iso means equal) equal o Intercellular connections within the cells
concentration of solutes results in a normal o Physical barrier
shape RBC so walang mangyayari sa cell bc
Transport Mechanisms:
water moves into and out of the cell
o Passive Transport
- Movement of a substances along a
concentration gradient. (high to low
concentration)
- ATP is not required
- Types:
a. Simple Diffusion: solutes
b. Facilitated Diffusion: solutes
c. Bulk Filtration: solution
d. Osmosis: solvent
A. Simple Diffusion
B. Facilitated Diffusion - Requires the
participation of specific transport
proteins that help specific substances or
molecules move across the plasma
membrane. ”Carrier-Mediated”
C. Bulk Filtration - Involves the diffusion of
both solvents and solutes together
across the selectively permeable
- Hypertonic solution with high solute membrane. Pressure gradients
concentration will cause shrinkage of RBC as D. Osmosis - Involves the diffusion of a
water moves by the process of Osmosis solvent (H2O), across a selectively
(lalabas yung water from the cell to the permeable membrane. Can cause a
solution) volume change
- So bad yung hypotonic and hypertonic o Active Transport
solutions for the cell, isotonic solutions lang - Movement of a substance across a
yung okay sa cell plasma membrane against a
concentration gradient.
Composition: - Materials must be moved from an
o Lipids area of low concentration to an area
o Proteins of high concentration
- Integral membrane proteins o requires cellular energy in
- Peripheral membrane proteins the form of ATP (adenosine
- Some nerve as enzymes, ion triphosphate)
channels or receptors o uses transport proteins
- Glycoporteins (carrier-mediated)
o ATP is continually
Function: synthesized by mitochondria
o Selectively permeable barrier
- Nutrients in
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY WITH FAMILY PLANNING 211
MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN
DMD 2-Y2-3

WEEK 2: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

A. Ion Pumps - ion pumps allow a cell to C. Bulk Transport-ENDOCYTOSIS

maintain its internal concentrations of
small molecules or ions
B. Bulk Transport-EXOCYTOSIS
- Used by cells that secrete
- Usually movement of large
molecules
- Movement out of the cell.
 CYTOPLASM
- general term for all cellular contents located
between the plasma membrane and the
nucleus.
- the cellular material outside the nucleus and
inside the plasma membrane.
- site of most cellular activities

Components:

o CYTSOL
- Matrix; intracellular material
- Different in different cell
- Mostly water
- semitransparent fluid that suspends
the other components. Made up of
water, salts, organic molecules and
many enzymes that catalyze
reactions
o ORGANELLES
- Complex, organized structures
- Have unique, characteristic shapes.
- Each type performs a different
function for the cell.
- Are essential for normal cellular
structure and activities.
- the metabolic machinery of the cell.
- Organized to carry out a specific
function for the cell as a whole.

 Membranous Organelles
A. ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
 a system of fluid-
filed cisterns
(tubules) that coil
and twist through
the cytoplasm
 provides channels
for carrying
substance from one
part to another.

Two Forms of Endoplasmic Reticulum

1. ROUGH ER
- membranes studded with ribosomes
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY WITH FAMILY PLANNING 211
MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN
DMD 2-Y2-3

WEEK 2: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

- sites of protein synthesis  breakdown bodies

- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) containing powerful
- Attached Ribosomes digestive enzymes
- Make protein for export necessary to clear
- Peroxisomes made here the cell with worn-
out structures and
2. SMOOTH ER non usable cellular
- Plays a role in lipid synthesis and structures.
detoxification of drugs  Autophagy: removal
- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum of old organelles.
(SER)  Autolysis:
- Lipids and carbohydrates destruction of the
- Detoxification cell

B. PEROXISOMES
 membranous sacs
containing oxidase
enzymes that uses
molecular oxygen to
detoxify harmful
substances (alcohol,
free radicals)
D. MITOCHONDRIA
 Vesicles formed from
 Mitochondria are
RER
organelles with a double
 Use oxygen to
membrane.
detoxify
 Produce large amounts
 Mediated by specific
of ATP.
enzymes
 Are called the
 Most abundant in
“powerhouses” of the
liver
cell.
C. GOLGI APPARATUS
 tiny threadlike or
 stacks of flattened
sausage-shaped
membranous sacs,
organelles
associated with tiny
 contains oxidative
vesicles
enzymes necessary to
 principal function is
convert nutrients into
to package and
energy
modify proteins
E. RIBOSOMES
 Modifies, stores and
 Small, dense granules
sorts material from
 Protein
RER
 RNA
 Receiving region (cis-
 Site of protein synthesis.
face)
 Each ribosome has a
 Shipping region
small and a large
(trans-face)
subunit.
 Produces Lysosomes
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MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN
DMD 2-Y2-3

WEEK 2: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

 small subunit is about  In the centrosome

one-half the size of the  Perpendicular to each other
large subunit.  9 sets of microtubule triplets
 tiny, round, dark bodies  Important in cell division
made of proteins and (spindle)
ribosomal ribonucleic C. MICROVILLI, CILIA AND FLAGELLA
acid  Appendages extending from
 maybe present as free the surface of some cells.
floating bodies or are  Microvilli:
found attached to o short, cytoplasmic
membranes forming the extensions
rough endoplasmic o For absorption
reticulum  Cilia:
o usually occur in large
numbers
o work together to move
materials or fluids along the
surface of a cell.
 Flagella:
o longer than cilia, and usually
F. CYTOSKELETON
occur as single appendages.
 Made of filamentous
o Move the cell
proteins
 Helps give the cell its
o INCLUSIONS
shape
- Metabolically inert accumulations of
 Coordinates cellular
cell products
movements.
- dispensable and often temporary
 Three categories:
constituents of the cell (lipid,
o microfilaments
pigments, crystals)
o intermediate
filaments
 NUCLEUS
o microtubules
- “control center” of the cell
- controls protein synthesis
- directs the functional and structural
characteristics of the cell.
- stores genes which serves as the carrier of
hereditary traits for an individual the genetic
material deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
contains all the information needed for
 Non-membranous building the whole body
Organelles - Control center of cellular activities.
A. CENTROSOME - Usually, it is the largest structure within the
 Area close to the nucleus cell
 Organization site for - Appears as a single spherical or oval
microtubules structure.
B. CENTRIOLES (exist in pair)
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MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN
DMD 2-Y2-3

WEEK 2: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

- Enclosed by a double membrane  Chromosomes are made up of two

called the nuclear envelope. threads called chromatids
- The nuclear envelope:  Chromatids are held together by the
o controls the entry and exit of centromere
materials between the  Centriole pairs separate from one
nucleus and the cytoplasm another
A. NUCLEOLUS  The mitotic spindle forms
- The cell nucleus may contain one or more b. Late prophase – centrioles continue
nucleoli. moving away from each other
- Nucleoli:  Nuclear membrane fragments
- are responsible for making the small and the
large subunits of ribosomes.
B. CHROMATIN AND DNA
- DNA is the genetic material housed within
the nucleus.
o DNA is a polymer of
nucleotides (sugar,
phosphate, nitrogen base)
o Is a double helix.
o Chromatin:
o Strands of DNA and histone
proteins
o Euchromatin: uncoiled;
active
B. Metaphase – the second stage of mitosis
o Heterochromatin: coiled.
 Chromosomes cluster at the middle of the
inactive
cell
 Centromeres are aligned along the equator
C. Anaphase – the third and shortest stage of
THE CELL CYCLE mitosis
 The life cycle of the cell is called the cell  Centromeres of chromosomes split
cycle.
 New cells must be made continuously in
order for an organism to grow and replace its
damaged cells.

MITOSIS & MEIOSIS

- Mitosis: is the cell division process that takes

place in somatic cells.

- Meiosis: is the cell division process that takes

place in gonads to produce gametes.

STAGES OF MITOSIS
D. Telophase – begins as chromosomal
A. Prophase- first and longest stage movement stops
a. Early prophase – chromatin threads  Chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell
condense into chromosomes uncoil
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MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN
DMD 2-Y2-3

WEEK 2: CELL PHYSIOLOGY

 Resume their thread-like extended-

chromatin form
 A new nuclear membrane forms

CYTOKENESIS – completes the division of the cell

into two daughter
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY WITH FAMILY PLANNING 211
MARY CHARISSE PAGADUAN
DMD 2-Y2-3
WEEK 3: NERVE PHYSIOLOGY
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- CNS mainly composed of brain and spinal
cord
- Necessary for the maintenance of
homeostasis
- Contains 1011 neurons
- contains 1014 synapses
- Responsible for everything we perceive, do,
feel and think
NEURON
- Functional unit of nervous system
- Has the property of excitability
- Can generate & carry electrical signals
- A specialized cell transmitting nerve impulses
- Fast transmission
- Dendrites that are attached to the cell body
- Cytoplasm that contains a lot of organelles
especially the Nissl bodies
- Axon hillock the constricted part before it
goes to axons
- Shwann cells which is separated by Node of
Ranvier and covered by Shwann sheath or
Neurelemma
PARTS OF NEURON
1. SOMA/NERVE CELL BODY/PERIKARYON
- An enlarged part of the nerve cell containing
abundant cytoplasm and cell organelles
- Receives information from dendrites and
sends messages out through the axon.
- The primary site for maintaining the life of
the nerve cell which support the dendrites
and axon.
2. DENDRITES
- An incoming nerve cell process that can act
as a receptor or connect to separate
specialized receptors.
- Conducts stimulus information to the nerve
cell body.
- Produces voltage changes in response to
various stimuli and assists in nerve impulse
formation.
3. AXONS
- Conducts nerve impulses away from the
nerve cell to the axon terminals.
- Is very small in diameter, but can be very
long (e.g. the length of a leg).
- Each nerve cell has only one axon.
- If an axon is cut, the distal portion
degenerates due a disruption of the
cytoplasm extending from the cell body.
a. AXON HILLOCK
o The junction site between the nerve
cell body and the axon.
o Processes voltage changes , or
generator potentials (GP’s) from the
cell body and dendrites, and assists
the formation of a transmittable
nerve impulse.
b. AXON TERMINALS
o Axon terminals are bulbous distal
endings of the many branches that
extend from the end of an axon.
These bulb-like structures can also
be called synaptic knobs, boutons or
even “end feet”.
o The axon terminal serves as a
secretory component that releases
neurotransmitters in response to
nerve impulses.
c. NODES OF RANVIER
o A Node of Ranvier is a space or gap
found on a nerve cell process (axon
or dendrite) and is located between
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WEEK 3: NERVE PHYSIOLOGY

the myelin sheaths formed by cells o The voltage produced by receptors

such as the Schwann Cell. are called graded or generator
o The exposed cell membrane located potentials.
in the node can facilitate the
formation and transmission of nerve TYPES OF NEURON
impulses. 1. According to number of processes
a. Unipolar
d. SHWANN CELL b. Pseudounipolar
o A specialized cell that supports and c. Bipolar
maintains the fibers (axons and d. Multipolar
dendrites) of nerve cells in the
peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Contains myelin material.
A. UNIPOLAR NEURON
o Assists in the repair and regeneration
 neurons have a single, short process that
of fibers.
extends from the cell body and then
o Wraps around a section of a nerve
branches into two more processes that
fiber and creates a protective myelin
extend in opposite directions
sheath.
 The process that extends peripherally is
e. MYELIN SHEATH
known as the peripheral process and is
o The Schwann Cell wraps around a
associated with sensory reception.
section of nerve cell fiber in
“jellyroll” fashion resulting in a tight
coil of concentric membranes called
the Myelin Sheath.
o The whitish, fatty myelin material
acts as an excellent insulator and
protector of the nerve cell fiber.
f. NEURILEMMA
o The most external portion of the
plasma or cell membrane of the
Schwann Cell. B. BIPOLAR NEURON
o This specialized membrane  is a type of neuron which has two extensions
surrounds the myelin sheath. (one axon and one dendrite).
o The neurilemma is sometimes called  they are part of the sensory pathways for
the sheath of the Schwann Cell or a smell, sight, taste, hearing, touch, balance
neuron “husk”. and proprioception.
g. RECEPTOR
o A specialized part of a nerve cell or
the nervous system that detects
stimuli and produces voltage changes
that can lead to nerve impulses.
o The tips of dendrites, the nerve cell
body and sections of the axon can
possess receptors.
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WEEK 3: NERVE PHYSIOLOGY

C. PSEUDOUNIPOLAR NEURON ii. OLIGODENDROCYTES -

 sensory neurons that have no dendrites, the provide support to axons of
branched axon serving both functions. neurons in the CNS,
 The peripheral branch extends from the cell particularly those that travel
body to organs in the periphery including long distances within the
skin, joints and muscles, and the central brain.
branch extends from the cell body to the b. MICROGLIA – the brains immune
spinal cord. cells, serving to protect it against
injury and disease.
c. EPENDYMA - line the the spinal cord
and ventricles of the brain. (line
cavities)
d. SHWANN CELLS – forms myelin

ASTROCYTES

- Astro from Greek astron = star and cyte from

Greek "kytos" = cavity but also means cell
- also known collectively as astroglia
D. MULTIPOLAR NEURON
- characteristic star-shaped glial cells in the
 is a type of neuron that possesses a single
brain and spinal cord
axon and many dendrites (and dendritic
- Development of neural connections
branches), allowing for the integration of a
- Possibly modulate synaptic activity
great deal of information from other neurons
- Remove neurotransmitter from synaptic cleft
 These processes are projections from
- Communicate to neurons through chemical
the neuron cell body,
messengers
 Peripherally, multipolar neurons are found in
- Maintain normal electrolyte composition of
autonomic ganglia.
ISF in CNS
- Protect neurons against toxic substances
and oxidative stress
2. According to function
a. SENSORY – also known as afferent OLIGODENDROCYTES
nerves, carry impulses from sensory
- a glial cell similar to an astrocyte but with
receptors towards the brain.
fewer main functions are to provide support
b. INTERNEURON/ASSOCIATION –
and insulaprotuberances, concerned with the
create neural circuit, enabling
production of myelin in the central nervous
communication between sensory or
system.
motor neurons and the CNS.
- are a type of neuroglia whose tion to axons
c. MOTOR – also known as efferent
in the central nervous system of some
nerves, carry impulses away from the
vertebrates.
brain to muscles and glands.
3. Supporting structures/stroma/Glial cells MICROGLIA
- 90% of CNS composed of glia
- glial cells derived from mesoderm that
a. MACROGLIA
function as macrophages (scavengers) in the
i. ASTROCYTE- are star-shape
central nervous system and form part of the
cells that maintain a neurons
reticulo endothelial system.
working environment.
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- these cells mediate immune responses in

the central nervous system by acting as
A. GENERATION
macrophages, clearing cellular debris (even
bacteria) and dead (or injured cells) neurons 1. Potassium Leak Channels - allows Na+ or
from nervous tissue through the process of K+ to leak down their concentration
phagocytosis (cell eating). gradients
- Protect CNS from oxidative stress 2. Sodium-Potassium ATPase Pump
EPENDYMA

- thin neuroepithelial lining of the ventricular

system of the brain and the central canal of
the spinal cord
- play an important role in the production and
regulation of CSF
- Their apical surfaces are covered in a layer
of cilia, which circulate CSF around the CNS.
Their apical surfaces are also covered with 3. Unequal distribution of ions / Concentration
microvilli, which absorb CSF. difference - in a resting nerve cell membrane,
all the sodium gates are closed and some of
4. Transport of vesicles the potassium gates are open. As a result,
A. Anterograde – refers to motion from the sodium cannot diffuse through the
center of the cell to the periphery and is membrane & largely remains outside the
accomplished by the motor protein membrane.
kinesin. 4. Semi permeability / Selective permeability of
B. Retrograde –refers to motion from the plasma membrane - allows some materials to
periphery of the cell to the center, and is pass while excluding others
accomplished by the motor protein
dynein.

RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL B. DISTURBANCES IN RESTING MEMBRANE

POTENTIAL
- is the voltage (charge) difference across the
cell membrane when the cell is at rest. RMP 1.. Stimulus Intensity
is a product of the uneven distribution of TYPES:
charged particles (ions) between the inside
and the outside of the cell, and by the a. Subthreshold
different permeability of the membrane to  stimuli below the threshold
different types of ions. Resting membrane that do not initiate a
potentials typically fall within the range of - potential
60 to -70 millivolts, meaning that the b. Threshold
intracellular environment of the cell at rest is  Weakest stimulus that can
70 to 80 mV lower than the extracellular generate an action potential
environment. c. Suprathreshold
 stronger and increases the
frequency of action
potentials
i. Submaximal
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ii. Maximal B. GENERATOR POTENTIAL

iii. Supramaximal - stationary depolarization of a receptor that
occurs in response to a stimulus and is
graded according to its intensity and that
results in an action potential whe
- n the appropriate threshold is reached.
called also receptor potential.
C. SYNAPTIC POTENTIAL
- it is the “incoming” signal that a neuron
receives

Two Forms:

a. Excitatory (EPSP +)
b. Inhibitory (IPSP -)
D. END PLATE POTENTIAL
- are the voltages which cause depolarization
of skeletal muscle fibers
- "end plates” - large, saucer-like appearance

SUMMATION:

A. Spatial
- Occurs when local potentials originate from
different locations
- The accumulation of neurotransmitter in the
synapse due the combined activity of several
presynaptic neurons entering the Area
(Space) of a Convergent Synapse.
- A space (spatial) dependent process.
B. Temporal
- Occurs when local potentials overlap in time.
- The accumulation of neurotransmitters in a
synapse due to the rapid activity of a
presynaptic neuron over a given Time period.
LOCAL POTENTIAL - Occurs in a Divergent Synapse.
- Is a Time (Temporal) dependent process.
FORMS:

A. ELECTROTONIC POTENTIAL ACTION POTENTIAL

- the passive flow of a change in electric
potential along a nerve or muscle A. IONIC BASIS
membrane. It occurs in response to
stimulation that is inadequate to trigger an
actively propagated action potential but
instead generates depolarization in a small
area of membrane.
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o it refers to conduction along the

axon away from the axon terminal
and towards the soma
C. FACTORS THAT AFFECT CONDUCTION OF
IMPULSES
1. Myelination – acts as insulator; exposed
part helps facilitate the formation and
transmission of nerve impulses
2. Diameter – larger axons have larger
diameter; transmit impulses at a faster
rate
3. Temperature – the higher temperature,
the faster the speed
4. Membrane Permeability – more
permeable, the higher probability of
generating an impulse
5. Length – most axons are long thus has no
impact on conduction of impulses (ex.
Nodes of ranvier continually “refresh”
the signal strength during propagation)
6. Condition and number of channels – If
channels are open, it will result in a large
upswing in the membrane potential
D. REFRACTORY PERIOD
TYPES:
1. Absolute - the interval of
time during which a second
action potential cannot be
initiated, no matter how
large a stimulus is
repeatedly applied
2. Relative - the interval of
time during which a second
action potential can be
initiated, but initiation will
require a greater stimulus
than before
B. CONVERSION AND TRANSMISSION OF
IMPULSES
a. Orthodromic Conduction
o impulse runs along an axon in its
normal or forward direction, away
from the soma
b. Antidromic Conduction
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NERVE CLASSIFICATIONS - such as Nitric Oxide, Nitrogen Monoxide

(NO), Carbon Monoxide

SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION

FORMS;

1. 1. Electrical
- An electrical synapse is a gap which has
channel proteins connecting the two
neurons, so the electrical signal can travel
straight over the synapse.
2. Chemical
- Chemical synapse is a gap between two
neurons where information passes
chemically, in the form of
neurotransmitters.

TERMINATION OF TRANSMISSION

NEUROTRANSMITTER
- Also called chemical transmitter or chemical
messenger, any of a group of chemicals
agent released by neurons (nerve) to
stimulate neighbouring neurons or muscle or
gland cells, thus allowing impulses to be
passed from one cell to the next throughout
the nervous system.
CLASSIFICATION:
1. SMALL MOLECULES
- Includes amino acids, such as glutamate,
GABA and glycine.
2. PEPTIDES
- such as somatostatin and vasopressin;
opioids and substance P
3. GAS/MEMBRANE SOLUBLE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qOmmqu6_g3s
1. Re-uptake
Neurotransmitters who’s activities are
terminated by reuptake include dopamine,
serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine and
glutamate. Reuptake happens because the
sending neuron has transporter proteins that
face the synaptic cleft.
2. Enzymatic degradation
The activity of some neurotransmitters is
terminated by degradation by an enzyme
that is in the synaptic cleft. A enzyme binds
to the neurotransmitter and breaks it apart
so that the neurotransmitter can no longer
fit into a receptor on the receiving cell.
3. Diffusion
The neurotransmitter molecules then
diffuse across the synaptic cleft where they
can bind with receptor sites on the
postsynaptic ending to influence the
electrical response in the postsynaptic
neuron.
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MUSCLES - Biomechanics: assessment of movement and

- The muscular system is composed of
specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their
predominant function is contractility.
o Muscles, attached to bones or
internal organs and blood vessels,
are responsible for movement.
o Nearly all movement in the body is
the result of muscle contraction.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLE:
 Excitable – it responds/reacts to any stimulus
 Contractile – shortens/pulling
 Extensible/distensible – stretchable
 Elastic – resist stretch
the sequential pattern of muscle activation
that move body segments
SMOOTH MUSCLE
- Located in the blood vessels, the respiratory
tract, the iris of the eye, the gastro-intestinal
tract
- The contractions are slow and uniform
- Functions to alter the activity of various body
parts to meet the needs of the body at that
time
- Is fatigue resistant
- Activation is involuntary
CARDIAC MUSCLE

PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE: - Has characteristics of both skeletal and

smooth muscle
 Producing movement
- Functions to provide the contractile activity
 Posture
of the heart
 Stabilize joints - Contractile activity can be gradated (like
 Produce/generate heat skeletal muscle)
TYPES OF MUSCLE: - Is very fatigue resistant
- Activation of cardiac muscle is involuntary
- The human body is comprised of 324 muscles (like smooth muscle)
- Muscle makes up 30-35% (in women) and 42-
47% (in men) of body mass. SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Skeletal Muscle
- It is a form of striated muscle tissue which is
 Smooth Muscle
under the voluntary control of the somatic
 Cardiac Muscle
nervous system. Most skeletal muscles are
SKELETAL (STRIATED) MUSCLE attached to bones by bundles of collagen
fibers known as tendons.
- Connects the various parts of the skeleton o The plasma membrane of skeletal
through one or more connective tissue muscle is called the SARCOLEMMA
tendons o Its cytoplasm is known
- During muscle contraction, skeletal muscle as SARCOPLASM
shortens and moves various parts of the o The endoplasmic reticulum is called
skeleton the SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM.
- Through graded activation of the muscles, o Each muscle cell is defined by
the speed and smoothness of the movement a sarcolemma and contains
can be gradated many nuclei along its length.
- Activated through signals carried to the
muscles via nerves (voluntary control)
- Repeated activation of a skeletal muscle can
lead to fatigue
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COMPONENTS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE STRIATIONS

- I-bands (isotropic in polarized light) appear

light in color
- A-bands (anisotropic in polarized light)
appear dark in color. The alternating pattern
of these bands results in the striated
appearance of skeletal muscle.
- H-band (Heller) a light band that sits within
each A-band.
- Z-lines (Zwischenschieben) bisect the I-
bands.
- M-line (Mittelschiebe) bisects each A-band
(and, in doing so, bisects each H-band).
MUSCLE FIBERS SARCOMERE
- Cylinder-shaped cells that make up skeletal - any of the repeating, contractile,
muscle structural subunits of striated muscle
- Each fibre is made up of a number of cells that are composed of the protein
myofilaments filaments actin and myosin
- Diameter of fibre (0.05-0.10 mm) - During contraction a sarcomere shortens,
- Length of fibre (appr. 15 cm) as the actin filaments at each end of a
- Surrounded by a connective tissue sheath central myosin filament slide toward the
called Sarcolemma myosin's center.
- Many fibres are enclosed by connective
tissue sheath Perimycium to form bundle of
fibres
- Each fibre contains contractile machinery
and cell organelles
- Activated through impulses via motor end
plate
- Group of fibres activated via same nerve:
motor unit
- Each fibre has capillaries that supply
nutrients and eliminate waste

SKELETAL MUSCLE COVERINGS

1. Endomysium is the deepest and smallest
component of muscle connective tissue.
2. Perimysium - the sheath of connective tissue
surrounding a bundle of muscle fibers.
3. Epimysium - It is a layer of dense irregular
connective tissue which ensheaths the entire
muscle and protects muscles from friction
against other muscles and bones
TRIAD
- TRIAD is the structure formed by a T
tubule with a sarcoplasmic reticulum
(SR) known as the terminal cisterna on
either side.
o T-tubules (transverse tubules)
are extensions of the cell
membrane that penetrate into
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the center of skeletal and cardiac B. CALSEQUESTRIN

muscle cells.
o Triads consist of 2
terminal cisterns of the L-system
associated with a central T-
tubule segment. The main
function of the triads is to
translate the action potential
from the plasma membrane to
the sarcoplasmic reticulum,
effecting calcium flow into the
cytoplasm and the initiation of
muscle contraction.
CYTOSKELETAL FILAMENTS
THICK:
A. Meromyosin is a part of myosin (mero
meaning "part of"). With regards to human
anatomy myosin and actin constitute the
basic functional unit of a muscle fiber, called
sarcomere, playing a role in muscle
contraction.
THIN:
A. Filamentous actin (F-actin) is the major
protein of muscle thin filaments, and actin
microfilaments are the main component of
the eukaryotic cytoskeleton.
B. Tropomyosin, an essential thin filament
protein, regulates muscle contraction and
relaxation through its interactions with actin,
myosin, and the troponin complex.
C. Troponin: Troponin I, troponin T, and
troponin C.
- Nebulin, Tropomodulin, CapZ protein,
Alpha-actinin
- Calsequestrin is a calcium-binding
protein that acts as a calcium buffer
within the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The
protein helps hold calcium in the cisterna
of the sarcoplasmic reticulum after a
muscle contraction, even though the
conce
C. SERCA (SARCOPLASMIC/ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM CALCIUM ATPASE)
- Its major function is to transport calcium
from the cytosol into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
D. HRC GENE (PROTEIN CODING)
- The protein interacts with the
cytoplasmic domain of triadin, the main
transmembrane protein of the junctional
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) of skeletal
muscle.
MUSCLE TEAMWORK
 Agonist (prime mover):
- the muscle or group of muscles
producing a desired effect
 Antagonist:
- the muscle or group of muscles opposing
the action
 Synergist:
- the muscles surrounding the joint being
moved
 Fixators:
- the muscle or group of muscles that
steady joints closer to the body axis so
that the desired action can occur

OTHER PROTEINS

A. TRIADIN
- It is a transmembrane protein on the
sarcoplasmic reticulum due to a well
defined hydrophobic section and it forms
a quaternary complex with the
cardiac ryanodine receptor, calsequestrin
and junctin proteins.
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 Bending or straightening of elbow requires

the coordinated interplay of the biceps and
triceps muscles

CONTRACTILE MACHINERY: TENDONS, ORIGIN,

INSERTION

In order for muscles to contract, they must be

attached to the bones to create movement.

 Tendons: strong fibrous tissues at the ends

of each muscle that attach muscle to bone
 Origin: the end of the muscle attached to
the bone that does not move
 Insertion: the point of attachment of the
muscle on the bone that moves

MOTOR UNIT

 Motor nerves extend from the spinal cord to ALL OR NONE PRINCIPLE
the muscle fibres
 Each fibre is activated through impulses - Whether or not a motor unit activates
delivered via motor end plate upon the arrival of an impulse depends
upon the so called all-or-none principle
 Motor unit: a group of fibres activated via
- An impulse of a certain magnitude (or
the same nerve
strength) is required to cause the
 All muscle fibres of one particular motor unit
innervated fibres to contract
are always of the same fibre type
- Every motor unit has a specific threshold
 Muscles needed to perform precise
that must be reached for such activation
movements generally consist of a large
to occur
number of motor units and few muscle fibres
 Less precise movements are carried out by
muscles composed of fewer motor units with
many fibres per unit
 Combination of an individual motor neuron
and all of the muscle fibers

EXCITATION-CONTRACTION COUPLING

EXCITATION – means stimulation by motor and

neuron

CONTRACTION – physical interaction between

myosin and actin.
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STEPS OF EXCITATION-CONTRACTION COUPLING  Continues until the Calcium is pumped back

into sarcoplasmic reticulum

TWO MAIN TYPES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

CONTRACTION

ISOTONIC DYNAMIC

- dynamic because its moving

- moves in concentric or eccentric
contraction

ISOMETRIC STATIC

- iso =equal or the same, metric =

measurement
- it is not lengthening nor shortening
- not moving but exerts force
 Acetylcholine is released by motor neuron
 Binds Ach receptors
 Depolarizes motor endplate
 End plate triggers formation of Action
Potential which travels across the sarcollema
 Action potential is progated down the T
tubules
 Action potential triggers the release of
Calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Presence of Calcium triggers contraction
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ISOTONIC - Isotonic contractions maintain constant MUSCLE TWITCH

tension in the muscle as the muscle changes length.
This can occur only when a muscle's maximal force of - Involuntary contraction of fibers.
contraction exceeds the total load on the muscle. - “muscle fasciculation”

a. CONCENTRIC CONTRACTION PHASES OF MUSCLE TWITCH

o Is a type of muscle activation
A. LATENT PHASE/LAG PHASE
that causes tension on your
- muscles are preparing to contract
muscle as it shortens. As your
- sarcomere are shortening
muscle shortens, it generates
- di pa nagcocontract ang muscle
enough force to move an object.
b. ECCENTRIC CONTRACTION
o occurs when the total length of
the muscle increases as tension
is produced. For example, the
lowering phase of a biceps curl
constitutes an eccentric
contraction

ISOMETRIC - consists of low-repetition movements

against high resistance and includes such activities as
weight lifting and body building. (hindi nababago )
B. CONTRACTION PHASE
a. ISOKINETIC
- Tension increases
o refers to movement at a
constant speed regardless of the
force applied. Muscles contract
and shorten at a constant speed
in isokinetic contraction.
Isokinetic exercise allows
muscles to gain strength
consistently all through the
range of movement.
b. AUXOTONIC CONTRACTION
o This is almost an isotonic
contraction because there is C. RELAXATION PHASE
some fluctuation towards the - Tensions decreases
end of the contraction. For
example, the heart's ventricles
contract to expel blood into the
pulmonary artery and aorta. As
the blood flows out, the previous
built-up load is decreased and
hence less force is required to
expel the rest of the blood. Thus
the tension is reduced
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REFRACTORY PERIODS
- End of the muscle twitch
SKELETAL MUSCLE TYPES
A. TYPE 1- SLOW TWITCH FIBRES
- Suited for repeated contractions during
activities requiring a force output of <
20-25% of max force output
- Examples: lower power activities,
endurance events
B. TYPE 2- FAST TWITCH FIBRES
- Significantly greater force and speed
generating capability than slow twitch
fibres
- Well suited for activities involving high
power
- Examples: sprinting, jumping, throwing
a. Type 2A – Fast oxidative
b. Type 2B – Fast glycolytic
ENERGETICS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION
MODULATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
A. SUMMATION
1. Quantal/ Graded Response/ Multiple Fiber
Summation
2. FREQUENCY SUMMATION
a. Tetanus - During incomplete tetanus, the
muscle goes through quick cycles of
contraction with a short relaxation phase
for each. If the stimulus frequency is so
high that the relaxation phase disappears
completely, contractions become
continuous in a process called complete
tetanus
b. Treppe -The muscle tension increases in
a graded manner that to some looks like
a set of stairs. This tension increase is
called treppe, a condition where muscle
contractions become more efficient. It’s
also known as the “staircase effect”
B. LENGTH-TENSION RELATIONSHIP
- When muscles contract, they generate
force (often measured as tension or
stress) and decrease in length. In
examination of the biophysical
properties of muscle, one of these
parameters is usually held constant, and
the other is measured after an
experimental maneuver.
C. FORCE-VELOCITY RELATIONSHIP
- The velocity at which a muscle shortens
is strongly dependent on the amount of
force that the muscle must develop
D. MUSCLE FATIGUE
- Muscle fatigue refers to the decline in
muscle force generated over time.
Several factors contribute to muscle
fatigue, the most important being lactic
acid accumulation. With sufficient
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exercise the onset of muscle fatigue can TETANUS

be delayed.
 Tetanus is a medical condition characterized
MUSCLE’S ADAPTATION TO STRENGTH TRAINING by a prolonged contraction of skeletal muscle
fibers, the primary symptoms are caused by
- Individual’s performance improvements tetanospasmin, a neurotoxin produced by
occur through a process of biological the Gram-positive, obligate anaerobic
adaptation, which is reflected in the bacterium Clostridium tetani.
body’s increased strength
- Adaptation process proceeds at different
time rates for different functional
systems and physiological processes
- Adaptation depends on intensity levels
used in training and on athlete’s unique
biological make-up
- Enzymes adapt within hours,
cardiovascular adaptation within 10 to 14
days

COMMON CLINICAL CONDITIONS

MYASTHENIA GRAVIS

 Disease of neuromuscular junction

features
 Drooping of eyelids
 Weakness in arms legs
 Change of voice
 Swallowing difficulty
 (MG) is a long-term neuromuscular
disease that leads to varying degrees of
skeletal muscle weakness. The most
commonly affected muscles are those of
the eyes, face, and swallowing. It can
result in double vision, drooping eyelids,
trouble talking, and trouble walking.
 Parent disease: Neuromuscular disease
 Parent cause of death: Autoimmune
disease
BOTULISM
 Botulism is a serious illness caused by the
botulinum toxin. The toxin causes paralysis.
Paralysis starts in the face and spreads to the
limbs. If it reaches the breathing muscles,
respiratory failure can result.
 The toxin is produced by Clostridium
botulinum (C.botulinum), a type of
bacterium.

ATROPHY/HYPERTROPHY
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 Muscle atrophy is a decrease in muscle mass;

muscle hypertrophy is an increase in muscle
mass due to an increase in muscle cell size.

ATROPHY

HYPERTROPHY

RIGOR MORTIS

 It's only a temporary condition. Depending

on body temperature and other conditions,
rigor mortis lasts approximately 72 hours.
 The phenomenon is caused by the skeletal
muscles partially contracting. The muscles
are unable to relax