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Chapter one

Meaning of Research

“a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”

When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find out answers to a question, you
are implying that the process being applied:

1. Within a framework of a set of philosophies;

2. Uses procedures, methods and technique es that have been tested for their validity and
reliability;

3. Is designed to be unbiased and objective.

 In any research, your philosophical orientation may stem from one of the several
paradigmsand approaches in research:
6)qualitative,
1) positivist, 7) quantitative and
2) interpretive, 8)the academic discipline in which you have been
3) phenomenology, trained
4) action or participatory,
5) feminist,

The concept of ‘validity’ :- correct procedures

‘Reliability’ :- accuracy.

Objectives of the Research

 The purposeof research is to discover answers to questionsthrough the application of

scientific procedures.

Characteristics of Research
From the above definitions it is clear that research is a process for collecting, analyzing and
interpreting information to answer questions.

But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as
possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.
Controlled: cause-and-effect relationships, link the effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa.

Rigorous: answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.

Systematic: follow a certain logical sequence.

Valid and verifiable:

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Empirical: hard evidence

Critical: withstand critical scrutiny.

Research Paradigms
There are two main paradigms that form the basis of research in the social sciences.
1. Positivist approach: The paradigm that is rooted in the physical sciences, also called as the
systematic, scientific.

2. Naturalistic approach: qualitative, ethnographic, ecological

In positivism, the data thus become `real', `hard' and `objective'since they are seen as untainted
by the personal considerations of the interviewer or the respondent.
Social Constructionism

The origins of social constructionism are deeply rooted in the history of the social science
disciplines.

•Constructionism argues that knowledge arises from social processes and interaction
Types of Research

1. Qualitative methods

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-
ended questions, observations and explorations.
Types of qualitative methods include:
1. One-to-one Interview
2. Focus Groups
3. Ethnographic studies
4. Text Analysis
5. Case Study

2. Quantitative Methods
Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of
investigating events or data.
Types of quantitative methods include:

1) Survey research
2) Descriptive research
3) Correlational research
Other classifications of Research types in another view point
1. Pure basic research :- for a new knowledge without looking long term benefits
2. Strategic basic research :- to acquire new knowledge directed to the specific board in
the expectations of a new discoveries
3. Applied Research :- is a knowledge with specific applied view
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4. Experimental development:- use existing knowledge to produce a new material and

new device and to install a new system

Motivation of doing Research

Staying motivated can be difficult for researchers.

- Failed experiments,
- negative results and
- lack of useable data can leave researchers feeling discouraged.

1.4. Research and Scientific Method

The Scientific Method: Steps

1.5 The Research Process (step 1-8)

There are also two important decisions to make.

1. The first is to decide what you want to find out about or, in other words, what research
questions you want to find answers to.
2. Then need to decide how to go about finding of their answers.

 The path to finding answers to your research questions is research methodology.

Step 1: Identify the Problem

Step 2: Review the Literature

This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area.
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Objectives of review of literature

1) It provides theories, ideas, explanations or hypothesis.

2) It solves the problem adequately without requiring further investigation. It avoids the
replication.

Principles and procedures for the RL

1. Refer a text-book or journal which is very essential to

2 review the empirical researches of the area.

Sources of Review of Literature (I-XII)

These sources can be broadly classified into three heads.
(1) Books and Text-Books material.
(2) The Periodical literature, and
(3) General references.

The Functions of the RL: There are five functions

1. The conceptual frame of reference for the contemplated research.

2. An understanding of the status of research in problem area.
3. Clues to the research approach, method, instrumentation and data analysis.
4. An estimate of the probability of success of the contemplated research and the significance or
usefulness of the findings and,
5. Assuming the decision is made to continue.

Step 3: Clarify the Problem

Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts

Step 5: Define the Population

 Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development, or
the integration of technology into the operations

Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan

The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan.
Step 7: Collect Data

Step 8: Analyze the Data

Criteria of Good Research

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Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data, practices ethics and a
code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.

1. Good research is systematic:

2. Good research is logical:
3. Good research is empirical:
4. Good research is replicable:

Chapter Two

Defining Research Problem and Hypothesis Formulation

Research Problem

 A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive,
Three sources usually contribute to problem identification are:
1, own experience
2, scientific literature
3, Theories

Try to follow the below steps systematically to best define a problem:

i. State the problem in a general way:

ii. Understand the nature of the problem:
iii. Survey the available literature:
iv. Go for discussions for developing ideas:
v. Rephrase the research problem into a working proposition:

Types of formulation hypothesis

What is Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is testable and falsifiable

 Hypothesis is termed as expectation, imagination, prediction which ideally either proved

or disproved by the researcher regarding dependent and independent variables.

Types of Hypothesis

 Simple: shows relationship between Dep & Inde Variables

 Complex: shows relationship between two or more variables. Eg smoking and drinking
cold water leads to lung cancer(dependent variable)
 Null: No relationship between Dep & Inde Variables
 Research Hypothesis: Opposite to Null. Eg smoking and lung cancer
 Directional: Directional r/ship may be positive or negative. Eg experience of traffic
managers and job satisfaction
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 Non Directional: Opposite to Directional r/ship

 Casual:Is relationship between cause & effect
 Associative: Shows association or connection b/n two variables.
 Hypothesis formulation helps in formulating the research problem.
 Hypothesis formulation is not a necessary but an important step of the research
Characteristics of a Well-formulated Research Hypothesis

 Testable and Verifiable

 Simple and Clear
 Relevant:
Importance of Research Hypothesis

 Clarity:
 Focus:
 Direction:
 Objectivity
 Add to the Body of Knowledge

Three Steps in Formulating Hypothesis

1. Deriving hypothesis: Identify/ obtain Hypothesis from theories, literatures, personal

experience ,asking experts,
2. Identifying dependent and independent variables,
3. Stating the hypothesis: put in a simple sentence.

Chapter three
Research Design
Research design is the structure of research; it is the “Glue” that holds all of the
elements in a research project together. In short it is a plan of the proposed research work
(Akhtar and Islamia,2016),

Research design is the frame work of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher
to conduct a study.

The following six steps are necessary:

Step 1: Consider your aims and approach

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.
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How does qualitative research differ from quantitative?

Quantitative Qualitative

Emphasis on measuring & counting Emphasis on feeling and

Makes general statements about people as groups experiences & usually no counting
Likes to prove causal Sees the world as changing
Relationships Emphasis on the individual

Tests theory Develops theory

Step 2: Choose a type of research design

A) Types Of Quantitative Research Designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

Experimental and quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships,

while descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe
relationships between them.

B) Types Of Qualitative Research Designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed
understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and
flexible in designing your research.

Elements and Features of Research Design

The essential elements are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research

3. The method applied for analyzing collected details

4. Type of research methodology

5. Probable objections to research

6. Settings for the research study

7. Timeline

8. Measurement of analysis

Characteristics of Research Design

Successful
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Neutrality: free from bias and neutral.

Reliability: similar results every time
Validity:
Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample.

Research Design Types by Grouping

Cohort study: - group of people with a shared characteristic

Cross-sectional study:-
Longitudinal study:- repeated observations of the same variables over short or long periods of
time.
Cross-sequential study:- Sequential research design combines longitudinal and cross-sectional
research design,
Case study:- Case study research involves a detailed and intensive analysis of aparticular event,
situation, organization, or social unit.

Chapter Four

Sampling Design and Procedures

Some Fundamental Definitions

Population:
a set which includes all
Measurements of interest
To the researcher

Sample:
A subset of the population
Population-: finite and infinite
Parameter and Statistic

◼Any characteristic or measure of population units is know as parameter which are:

Population mean-μ

Population Standard Deviation-σ

Population proportion-π

◼Any characteristic or measure of sample items is known as statistic which are:

Population mean-(x̅)

Population Standard Deviation-(s1)

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Population proportion-(p)

Why Sampling?

 Get information about large populations

 Less costs
 Less field time

When is sampling unnecessary?

➢The number of things we want to sample is small

➢Data is easily accessible

Sampling Procedures and Techniques

Classification of Probability Sampling Techniques

Simple random sampling: every case of the population has an equal probability of inclusion in
sample.

Systematic sampling: every nth case after a random start is selected. For

Stratified sampling: the population is divided into strata (or subgroups) and a random sample is
taken from each subgroup.

Cluster sampling: whole population is divided in to clusters or groups

Multi-stage sampling : is a process of moving from a broad to a narrow sample, using a step by
step process
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Classification of Non Probability Sampling

Classification of Non Probability Sampling

◼Convenience samples (ease of access) sample is selected from elements of a population that
are easily accessible

◼ Snow ball sampling (friend of friend….etc.)

◼Purposive sampling (judgmental)- You chose who you think should be in the study

◼Quota sample

Probability of being chosen is unknown

Cheaper-but unable to generalize

Potential for bias

Sampling Distribution and Standard Error

Sampling distribution is a probability distribution -which is generated by repeated sampling. (

Statistic)

Central Limit Theorem (CLT)

CLT states that sampling distribution of the mean approaches a normal distribution as the
sample size increases

Standard error (SE)

The standard error (SE) is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistical
mean
Need of Standard Error: - Used as an instrument in testing a given hypothesis
Estimation-Population Mean and Proportion

Sampling Variability -The variability in sample statistics that occurs when different samples are
drawn from the same population

Margin of error-Suggestion of how far away the actual population parameter is likely to be
from the statistic
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Central Limit Theorem

 In many cases we approximate the distribution of the sample mean when n is large in
normal distribution.
 CLT states that sampling distribution of the mean approaches a normal distribution as the
sample size increases

Standard error (SE)

The standard error (SE) is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistical
mean

Need of Standard Error

Used as an instrument in testing a given hypothesis

Sampling Error

Sampling Variability -The variability in sample statistics that occurs when different samples are
drawn from the same population

Margin of error-Suggestion of how far away the actualpopulation parameter is likely to be from
the statistic

Sample Size Determination

◼Homogeneity of the population

◼Precision of statistical analysis

◼Define target population

◼The population size

◼Specify the variables to be measured

◼Select population parameter which is numerical indicator

◼Take larger sample as much as possible

Steps in Selecting a Sample-Size

1. Determine Goals

2. Determine desired Precision of results

3. Determine Confidence level

4. Estimate the degree of Variability

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5. Estimate the Response Rate

Chapter Five
Sources and Methods of Data Collection
Data Types

1. Quantitative data
 Quantitative data subdivided into two categories:-Discrete data and Continuous data

2. Qualitative Data
This type of data does not usually play much of a role in statistics

Sources of Data:

In research, there are different methods used to gather information, all of which fall into two
categories, i.e. primary data, and secondary data.

Questionnaires

There are three types of questionnaires, these are:

1. Closed-ended:
 Researcher structured responses
 Greater uniformity of response
 Pre-coded, hence can be directly entered to statistical software
 More popular

2. Open-ended:
 Self-expressed, respondents’ responses
 Less uniformity in responses
 Cannot be directly entered to statistical software, etc; must be post-coded
 Less popular with researchers

3. A combination of both

Observation

Its advantages are:

 Avoids subjective bias of the respondents
 Captures what is happening now not affected by attitude
 Respondents willingness is not necessary
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There are two types of direct observation

 Structured observation
 Unstructured observation
However, it is limited in
 Lack of objectivity since the researcher involves emotionally

Interviewing
There are three most common types of interviewing,
1. Unstructured Interview
Usually used in life history researches
2. Semi-structured Interview
Guided by a schedules, i.e. a set of general questions or topic
3. Structured Interviewing-
 Uses series of structured questions (questionnaires)
 Involves face to face interaction with the enumerator/researcher
 Used in quantitative researches

Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

FGD is a method in which a number of people are brought together and discuss a certain issue.
Involving 6 to 12 people plus a moderator and sometimes an assistant to take note;

2. Secondary Data Collection

 Written materials
 Non-written materials
 Survey data

Documentary ……
There are three types of documentary research:
 Collecting and analysing the works of others
 Use of Archival Sources
 Reanalysis of data sets

Issues to be considered in documentary research:

Reliability of data-who, how, why s/he collected the and compiled the info
Suitability of the data
Adequacy of the data-in terms of accuracy and sufficiency

Improving Data Quality

Plan data collection carefully thinking of reliability, validity and objectivity
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Chapter Six
Data Analysis and Presentation
Types of Data Analysis, Techniques and Methods
Data analysis is the process of cleaning, analyzing, and visualizing data, with the goal of
discovering valuable insights and driving smarter business decisions.
Types of data analysis:
1. Text Analysis
2. Descriptive Analysis
 Descriptive data analysis provides the “What happened? “When analysing quantitative
data.

3. Inferential Analysis
 Inferential analysis generalizes or hypothesizes about “What happened? “by comparing
statistics from groups within an entire population: the population of a country, existing
4. Diagnostic Analysis
 Diagnostic analysis, also known as root cause analysis, aims to answer “Why did 'X'
happen?”
5. Predictive Analysis
 Predictiveanalysisusesknowndatatopostulateaboutfutureevents.Itisconcernedwith“Whatisl
ikelytohappen.”
6. Prescriptive Analysis
 What action to take.

Here’s a quick rundown of the top data analysis tools that can help
 MonkeyLearn–No-code machine
 KNIME:–Open-source
 RapidMiner : handle large amount of data
 Microsoft Excel–Filter, organize, and visualize quantitative data.
 Tableau–A powerful analytics and data visualization platform.
 R–A free software environment for statistical computing and
 Python–The preferred programming language for machine learning. Use it to build data
analysis solutions for various use

Data Analysis Process

Below are steps to analyze your data:

1. Data Decision
2. Data Collection
3. Data Cleaning
4. Data Analysis
5. Data Interpretation
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6. Data Visualization

Data Presentation

Presentation is a way of arranging data into logical, sequential and significant categories and
classifications. There are three ways of presenting data: textual, tabular and graphical.

There are four ways of communicating and displaying the analysed data. These are:
1. Text;
2. Tables;
3. Graphs; and
4. Statistical measures.

Graphs
For categorical variables you can construct only bar charts, histograms or pie charts, whereas for
continuous variables, in addition to the above ,line or trend graph scan also be constructed.

The cumulative frequency polygon

The cumulative frequency polygon or cumulative frequency curve is draw non the basis of
cumulative frequencies
Pie Chart
The pie chart is another way of representing data graphically this time as a circle
The line diagram or trend curve
A set of data measured on a continuous interval or a ratio scale can be displayed using a line
diagram or trend curve.
The Scatter gram
Show visually how one variable changes in relation to a change in the other variable, a scatter
gram is extremely effective.