Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-022-06998-9 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().
,- volV)

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Optimal path planning for drones based on swarm intelligence

algorithm
Rashid A. Saeed1 • Mohamed Omri2 • S. Abdel-Khalek3,4 • Elmustafa Sayed Ali5,6 • Maged Faihan Alotaibi7

Received: 12 June 2021 / Accepted: 30 January 2022 / Published online: 29 April 2022
Ó The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
Recently, Drones and UAV research were becoming one of the interest topics for academia and industry, where it has been
extensively addressed in the literature back the few years. Path planning of drones in an area with complex terrain or
unknown environment and restricted by some obstacles is one of the most problems facing the operation of drones. The
problem of path planning is not only limited to searching for an appropriate path from the starting point to the destination
but also related to how to choose an ideal path among all available paths and provide a mechanism for collision avoidance.
By considering how to construct the best path, several related issues need to be taken into account, that relate to safety,
obstacle avoidance, response speed to overtake obstacles, etc. Swarm optimization algorithms have been used to provide
intelligent modeling for drone path planning and enable to build the best path for each drone. This is done according to the
planning and coordination dimensions among the swarm members. In this paper, we have discussed the features and
characteristics of different swarm optimization algorithms such as ant colony optimization (ACO), fruit fly optimization
algorithm (FOA), artificial bee colony (ABC), and particle swarm optimization (PSO). In addition, the paper provides a
comprehensive summary related to the most important studies on drone path planning algorithms. We focused on analyzing
the impact of the swarm algorithm and its performance in drone path planning. For that, the paper presented one of the
most used algorithms and its models employed to improve the trajectory of drones that rely on swarm intelligence and its
impact on the optimal path cost of drones. The results of performance analysis for the ACO algorithm in a 3D and 2D-
dimensional environment are illustrated and discussed, and then the performance evaluation of the ACO is compared to the
enhanced ACO algorithm. The proposed algorithm achieves fast convergence, accelerating the process of path planning.

Keywords UAV  Swarm intelligence  Ant colony optimization  Path planning  Drones  Artificial bee colony 
Particle swarm optimization

5
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Red
& S. Abdel-Khalek Sea University, Port Sudan, Sudan
sabotalb@tu.edu.sa 6
Department of Electronics Engineering, College of
1
Department of Computer Engineering, College of Computers Engineering, Sudan University of Science and Technology
and Information Technology, Taif University, (SUST), Khartoum, Sudan
P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia 7
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz
2
Deanship of Scientific Research, King Abdulaziz University, University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
3
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, College of
Science, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi
Arabia
4
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Sohag
University, Sohag 82524, Egypt

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1 Introduction
Drones are used in various applications related to smart
city management, in addition to providing many services
such as research and air surveillance, as they have become
widely used in recent [1]. Due to the flexibility of drones to
move freely in an operational environment, the ability to
provide aerial viewpoint is an important feature of drones
that promises cost-efficiency for many military and civilian
applications (see Fig. 1). Therefore, the deployment of a
drone to such applications faces difficulties to ensure safety
and reliable drones’ operations area, because of obstacles
and threats [2]. To overcome the mentioned difficulties, the
path planning problem has become one of the most active
research studies. Path planning methods enable the drone
flight path to be derived so that the drone can move in a
safe and unobstructed area [3].
Drones usually follow a predetermined path, or they can
also fly independently, and they are under control from a
ground station [4]. The use of drones in applications that
are related to a complex and harsh environment depending
on the tasks, whether military or civilian, makes them face
several challenges. The most important of which is the
possibility of cooperation between them, and the mecha-
nism of planning and following the best path to complete
their tasks [5],6]. Traditional drone path planning methods
have weak practical characteristics because they rarely take
into account the limitations of obstacles and heights. The
traditional path planning methods have high computational
Fig. 1 Drone applications aspects
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Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
costs, especially in a complicated environment or in a large
searching space [7].
Autonomy is enabled in drones that relate to route
planning, task scheduling, task assignment, and commu-
nications in other considerations. These uses require dif-
ferent levels of control and the degree of independence to
take decisions in managing path setting and planning [8].
Therefore, such applications need intelligent algorithms
that are based on making predictions and analyses to create
and track the paths of their operations [9].
2 Related works and motivation
Drones are widely used for risk analysis. It does not require
any human intervention, but many drones require human
intervention to supervise and monitor the different drone
operations. Such as, some decisions are made by human
operators to implement targeted drone missions as
required. Modern drones require being able to make deci-
sions about choosing a safe path on their own so that they
can make decisions about the flight path by using path
planning methods [10]. The path planning of drones
especially in a 3D environment faces some issues that limit
the possibility of obtaining a realistic path for the drones.
Therefore, path-planning techniques are used that take into
account all factors such as path length, optimal selection,
and completeness. By using path planning methods, drones
will be able to discover the optimal and crash-free path, in
addition to reducing energy consumption [11]. Recently,
many studies have been presented to investigate drone
operations and provide different path planning algorithms.
In addition, the emergence of new intelligent trajectory
planning methods based on swarm intelligence optimiza-
tion contributed to developing a smart drone path planning
method.
The study presented in [12], proposed a combination of
two algorithms, particle swarm optimization, and sequen-
tial niche to optimize the UAVs’ multi-paths planning. The
sequential niche method enables to adjustment of the
minimum values of objective function related to the sur-
rounding area to achieve multiple optimizations diversity.
The minimum value can be adjusted by using particle
swarm optimization (PSO). The authors also presented a
new technique to calculate the niche radius, which as are
taken into account were multiple paths planning opti-
mization. The proposed method helps to differentiate
between the drone paths by calculating the distance
between paths. Through the analysis, the authors clarified
that the used method gives results that achieve effective
multiple path planning for drones. In [13] authors review
an efficient method to enable efficient path planning free of
collision in the 3D environment that contains a moving
Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
obstacle. The proposed method is based on the use of the
Glow Worm Swarming Optimization (GSO) algorithm in
the process of building a 3D path planning for operating the
drone in an environment with moving obstacles. The pro-
posed algorithm helps to achieve fast convergence, accel-
erating the process of path planning. The algorithm
improves the accuracy and convergence rate better than
heuristic optimization algorithms.
In the study presented by [14], the authors propose a
heuristic evolutionary algorithm with three cost functions,
to resolve an issue where battery life is short during flight
missions. These functions are related to the path costs of
length, security, and smoothness. The proposed algorithm
is designed and evaluated in several path processes, like
exchange, intersection, transition, and agility. The pro-
posed solution enables adjustment and setting weights to
convert multi-objective to single-objective optimization. In
[15] authors review the concept of using the A*BC algo-
rithm for path planning to overcome the security problems
during UAVs operations. The study aimed to enhance the
A* algorithm processes by using an artificial bee colony
algorithm. The combination between ABC and A* algo-
rithms enables the UAV to reach the desired goal for the
drone flight in record time with the ability to avoid
obstacles while flying. Through the analysis, the authors
found that the A*BC algorithm enhances the ability of the
drone to carry out the process of planning the best path
effectively with the adoption of avoiding obstacles in
addition to achieving aviation safety goals.
A study presented in [16] uses three main approaches
known as an artificial potential field (APF), optimal success
rate strategy, and chaos strategy to solve the low conver-
gence rate and insufficient robustness problems in path
planning methods. PDF enables to accelerate the conver-
gence of processes, while the optimal success rate strategy
improves the adaptive algorithm weights. The chaos
strategy enables to avoid running into the optimum local
level. The authors improved the combined methods to
dramatically increase the APF success rate in finding
suitable planning paths and reducing convergence time.
Through the results obtained from the analysis, it was
found that the improved algorithm enhances the path
planning process for drones. Authors in [17] proposed a
method for UAV group modeling and management. The
study provided an improved swarm intelligence algorithm
to calculate the movement of the whole swarm as well as
the movement of members within the swarm during flight.
Where the study relied on the analysis of previous work in
which drones are used individually. The authors identified
two levels of the proposed algorithm based on central
control over the UAV groups, in addition to the modeling
of individual UAV behavior when working as a group
interacting with each other, where through the analysis, the
10135
authors clarified that this method will improve the com-
munication latency.
A study in [18] provides a unique method that helps to
improve the UAV’s path planning to solve the problems of
slow convergence speed and poor search efficiency by
using the ACO algorithm. The proposed algorithm is based
on several stages linked to the mechanism of establishing
and correcting the UAV path in addition to the smooth path
planning that the drone follows during flight. Moreover, the
ACO algorithm works to avoid collisions with obstacles
during UAVs operations. The results of the analysis
showed that the proposed algorithm is effective and gives
an optimal solution to the path planning based on avoiding
collision, in addition to achieving smoothness in the UAV
flights. Authors in [19] presented a particle swarm opti-
mization mechanism that improves the velocity and opti-
mization of the automatic trajectory mapping by using a 3D
path planning to form UAVs. The mechanism initiates the
particle distribution by using the chaos-based logistic map.
So the constant acceleration parameters are set, in addition
to the maximum speed to carry out the process of adapting
the linear variable parameters during the optimization
process. Through simulations of the proposed method, it
was found that PSO will rapidly and optimally enhance the
trajectory planning.
Authors in [20] introduce a new approach based on an
improved A-star algorithm for real-time stealth drone’s
trajectory planning to enhance the quick breakout which
aims to devise a path permeation strategy. The A-star
algorithm addresses the problem of re-planning of drones
to stealth in a 3D dynamic environment. The proposed
algorithm helps to enhance the stealth mechanism of the
drones and detect radar during the breakout process at low
altitudes. In addition, the authors adopted the proposed
algorithm in a real combat environment with various threat
scenarios. Through the analysis, it was found that the
combination of the path planning algorithm with the pre-
diction technology enables stealthy UAVs to deal with
threats and completely re-plan the path according to the
threat scenarios.
In [21] the study demonstrated the possibility of using
the gray wolf enhancer algorithm to perform collaborative,
multi-drone path planning, taking into account the potential
threats from air defenses while flying in restricted areas.
The goal of using the proposed algorithm is to try to reduce
the cost of potential threats associated with several con-
straints during the flight of the drone. The authors worked
on refining the gray wolf algorithm to optimize the ini-
tialization process of the population and update individual
positions to avoid suspected threats. In [22] the study
presented a method for improving the performance of the
PSO algorithm to aid in planning the optimal path of the
UAVs. In this study, the researchers worked on analyzing
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the input parameters of the PSO algorithm for drone tra-
jectory planning based on the use of complex and varied
terrain maps. Through the analysis, the researchers found
that the improved algorithm gives an optimum acceleration
factor when planning the UAV’s paths. Authors in [23] use
the ferrying UAVs Based on a Generic Algorithm (GA) to
carry out search and rescue operations with high speed and
efficiency. In the given study, the researchers presented a
new mechanism for the comparison and balance between
the UAV’s energy and the path length obtained from the
planning process. The researchers also model path planning
based on the ability to balance the UAV’s power versus the
path length, which determines the operating parameters of
the UAVs in several factors related to energy consumption
in flight.
The study presented in [24] provides an adaptive PSO
algorithm to solve the problem of UAV’s path planning
related to inertial weight and learning factors in the process
of iterative research in a 3D environment. The researchers
analyzed both the drone’s self-restriction conditions and
the fitness degree related to the design of the adaptive
particle swarm improvement algorithm based on the path
planning diagram. The results of the simulation analysis
showed that the enhanced algorithm has a high impact to
enable the UAVS to perform the optimal path planning
process.
In [25] authors present an algorithm that optimizes
swarms of spherical vector-based particles that aids better
trajectory planning in a potentially threatening environ-
ment. The algorithm is based on adjusting the cost function
for both optimal and safety constraints in path planning. By
analyzing the used algorithm, it was found that it is pos-
sible to obtain an optimal path that achieves less functional
cost during the search in the UAV flight area by adopting
the calculations of the drone position, velocity, and rotation
angle during rising and fall operations. Authors in [26]
review path planning for UAVs in a 3D-dimensional
complex operation area by using a biogeography-based
optimization algorithm (BOA). The study uses BOA to find
an optimal solution to the UAV’s path planning problem.
The improved path planning by BOA generates the shortest
path and gives the lowest process time consumption.
Table 1 summaries the related work studies with a
description of the method used and the extracted benefit of
the studies.
Recently, artificial intelligence (AI) based on swarm
optimization provides a successful method for solving
problems related to path planning. Because of the impor-
tance of path planning for drone deployment, this motivates
us to study the most important AI algorithms that are used
in planning the path of the drone’s applications. The paper
will provide a comprehensive analysis of different path
planning algorithms based on the swarm intelligence
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Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
concept. In addition, the paper also will analyze the per-
formance of the most used swarm intelligent algorithm in
path planning, which is known as ant colony optimization
(ACO).
3 Drones architecture and operations
background
Intelligent orientation drones enter into many applications,
especially those that need a quick time response such as for
control and monitoring. Drones need to be characterized by
the possibilities of free-flying and diversity performing
tasks and the ability to adopt advanced mechanisms to
make them have an independent behavior to avoid obsta-
cles and to achieve flight stability according to a method-
ology that determines the coordinates of the path and
movement. Path identification mechanisms work alongside
smart decision-making methods to identify and assess
conditions surrounding the drones in flight, in addition to
identifying the critical areas that require immediate inter-
vention, and coordinating an appropriate response [27].
Therefore, the intelligent management mechanisms in the
drones enable to evaluate the dynamic and complex
emergency data to assess the flight position and then
determine the flight path according to the trajectory
planning.
When designing a drone system, it is important to define
decision-making systems and plan flight paths to enable
autonomy. The decision-making systems are based on
putting in place several measures and playing side by side
with path planning methods to avoid any obstacles through
the information obtained by sensors to provide information
on the actual conditions of the environment during flight
[28]. The system architecture in Fig. 2 shows a drone
system that allows for fully independent decision-making
and advanced operations with intelligent route planning
avoiding any suspected incident.
The architecture consists of different units that work on
distributing, exchanging, and processing operations data,
and then evaluating the procedures for accomplishing the
flight mission according to the path plan mechanisms [29].
The camera and other sensors located in the drones support
the units of path control and decisions making by infor-
mation obtained during flight, such as the distances from
the ground and obstacles. The representation of drone
operations related to image quality limitations and
inspection services are considered as the most important
task assessments related to the composition of the drone
camera, which determines its efficiency and the practical
and application aspects in which it can be used.
In Fig. 2, the high-level control section contains two
parts, they are path planning and control formation of the
Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155 10137

Table 1 Summary of swarm intelligence methods for drones path planning approaches
Algorithms approach Feature Advantage Citations

Particle swarm Diversity of multiple optimizations for drones paths Improve the distinguish process for different Cai et al.
optimization and planning issue paths, and plan for efficient multiple paths [12]
sequential niche
method
Glow-worm swarm A method for collision-free UAVs path in a 3D Faster convergence and speeds up the path- Goel
optimization (GSO) environment planning task improves convergence rate et al.
and accuracy [13]
heuristic evolutionary To solve the problem of short battery life in flying Easy conversion from multi-objective Fu et al.
algorithm missions optimization into a single-objective [14]
optimization
A*BC algorithm solve the security problems in UAV flight An effective mechanism to avoid obstacles Depeng
and ensure better path planning et al.
[15]
artificial potential field Overcome the low convergence rate and insufficient Great robustness for the path planning Lin et al.
(APF), robustness in drones path planning process [16]
General swarms Centralize the control of UAVs groups, and model Improves communication latency James
optimization distributed behavior of individual UAVs et al.
[17]
Ant colony optimization Solve the problem of slow convergence speed and High feasibility and effectiveness solutions Li et al.
low searching efficiency for optimal path and collision avoidance [18]
In UAVs trajectory planning
Particle swarm Automatic path planner 3D path planning algorithm Enhance the trajectory planning Shao
optimization for UAV formation et al.
[19]
Improved A- Star Real-time path planning based on the re-planning Efficient threats detection performance in the Zhang
algorithm issue for stealth UAV in a 3D complex dynamic flight environment et al.
environment [86]
Grey wolf optimizer multi-UAV cooperative path planning for air defense Effective in generating paths for multi-UAV Xu et al.
algorithm forces cooperative path planning under threats [21]
Enhanced particle swarm UAV path planning using various complex terrain Improves the acceleration coefficient for Kok
optimization maps with adequate repetitions optimum for UAV path planning et al.
[22]
Genetic algorithm (GA) Energy-balanced path planning for UAVs to measure Minimum planned path length and ferrying Wang
the balance between the planned path length and UAVs’ energy-factor variance et al.
the initial energy [23]
Adaptive particle swarm Path planning problem of fixed-wing UAV in three- Higher global search ability and accuracy Chen
optimization dimensional environment space et al.
[24]
Spherical vector-based UAV path planning in complicated environments Optimal path with minimum searching Phung
particle swarm subjected to multiple threats function cost for UAVs space configuration et al.
optimization [25]
Biogeography-based Trajectory planning for an unmanned aerial vehicle Improved trajectory algorithm generates the Xue
optimization in a three-dimensional complex workspace shortest trajectory and gives lowest the et al.
time consumption [26]

successful operation calculated from the task evaluation
and drone tracks on the reference path. In the path-planning
module, the successive planned path depends on the
intelligence degree of the optimization algorithm used for
selecting the best trajectory plan that kept minimum path
cost with obstacles collision avoidance. Path planning
processing depends on the environment data collected by
the drones themselves and is greatly influenced by the
complexity of the flight area. The path for the desired
drone’s motion requires more updating to maintain differ-
ent aspects such as maneuverability and obstacle avoidance
[28–30]. However, the path-planning problem can be
simplified to create reference paths for drone flights and
speed up the convergence of the optimization process of
the drone system.

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Fig. 2 Drone general system-
based path planning architecture
(Hoang, 2019)
After a successful path planning process, the high-level
control unit is responsible to configure the planned path
with the mission allocation and formation system for
controlling the flight process and determining the reference
path to carry out the process of evaluating the path that is
followed by the drones. Accordingly, the dynamic move-
ment of the drones is controlled by what is known as the
low-level control section, which is related to the drone
controllers.
4 Drones path planning and environments
Drone Path planning is an important issue encountered in
operating a drone to move from an initial point to a target
[31]. The drone path must be determined in such a way as
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Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
to avoid collision with potential obstacles during flight.
Otherwise, the drones must have intelligent decisions to
avoid collisions. The path planning concept is related to
motion and trajectory planning, in addition to navigation.
In motion planning, drones consider the constraints such as
flight path, and ensure that calculations of path length and
minimum angle of rotation are taken into account when
performing path optimization [32]. The trajectory mapping
serves as the motion planning, attaching the route planning
that contains the speed, time, and kinematics of the drones.
Both motion and trajectory planning relies on navigation to
help avoid collision and localization and allow the drone to
be monitored during its journey [33].
Path planning for the drone is done according to the
requirements of the application environment structure,
whether it is 2-D (two-dimensional) or 3-D (three-
Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
dimensional), as the path planning based on a 3-D envi-
ronment can find obstacles and objects, which are used in
monitoring the drone and following its navigation, espe-
cially in the complex work environment [34]. According to
the state and nature of the environment in which the drones
are applied and deployed, a path-planning algorithm is
chosen that aims to reduce the computational cost and time
to plan the optimal path [35]. The path generated by this
algorithm should be optimized as it consumes minimal
energy, takes less time, and reduces the impact of the
drone’s collision with impeders, and between drones
themselves [36].
Path planning methods provide effective strategies that
analyze the data collected by the drone according to
resource constraints such as energy, time, or distance
budgets [37]. To calculate the optimal path (v), the maxi-
mum gain is achieved in the measurements according to the
following equation.
infoðmeasureðvÞÞ
v ¼ arg max ; costðvÞ  b ð1Þ
costðvÞ
where the measure (v) gives the finite set of measurements
along trajectory v in the 3-D space above the environment.
Info represents the information objective quantifying the
utility of the acquired measurements. costðvÞ provides the
corresponding cost, which cannot exceed a predefined
budget that is denoted by b [38].
When carrying out the drone’s path planning process,
some performance indicators must be taken into account,
such as the minimum cost of work, the shortest flight time,
the shortest flight route, and verification of the environment
information used to calculate the optimal path [32]. Based
on these requirements, path planning methods can be
divided into two types, global and local path planning (see
Fig. 3). Global path planning works to find the path
Fig. 3 Global and local path planning approaches
10139
according to a prior geographic map, but cannot give
optimal route planning and the possibility of effective
drone control when there are unexpected obstacles during
the flight [39]. The local route is planned by analyzing the
information obtained from the surrounding operating
environment to calculate an optimal path. Local environ-
ment information helps to estimate drone flight states when
planning a path to avoid a potential collision with object
movements in a dynamic environment [40]. Therefore,
local path planning algorithms must acquire a degree of
intelligence to adapt to the dynamic of the application
environment and take advantage of environmental infor-
mation such as size, shape, and site structure.
Traditional path planning such as Dijkstra algorithm
enables the finding of the shortest path global graphs. The
Bellman–Ford algorithm can also be used to find the path
depending on the flexible iteration process concerning the
choice of initial estimates and updates [41]. The shortest
path can be extracted by estimating the shortest walk from
a given initial point to the next point subject to the con-
straint that the walk contains at most walk links and goes
through the initial point only once [41],42]. These algo-
rithms enable to obtain the shortest path from the digraph
and build a path from the origin to the target in the original
probability map.
Besides the shortest path selection, an efficient drone’s
operation requires that the planned path must be optimized
depending on the application [43]. The drones are usually
controlled from the ground base station and make the
drones follow flight path waypoints which are corre-
sponded to a path point in the search map (see Fig. 4). We
assumed that flight path X is represented as a list of n
waypoints, and the map coordinates are Cij ¼ ðxij ; yij ; zij Þ,
the Euclidean distance between two points can be found as
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Fig. 4 Optimize trajectory
planning based on waypoints
allocation time
 
vector Cij Cijþ1 . The cost of path length plc can be found
by the following equation [44].
X
n1  
plc ¼ vectorCij Cijþ1  ð2Þ
j¼1
Moreover, collision avoidance must also be considered
in path planning methods to ensure safe drone operations
by guiding the drone through possible threats that may be
caused by obstacles in the operating environment [25, 44].
The optimal path planning can be calculated based on
considering to set all threats and measures the diameter of
the drones and the danger distance to the collision zone.
The danger distance can be measured from the radio
between the ten meters in a static environment with a good
GPS signal and the hundred meters for moving objects in
an environment with a weak GPS signal for positioning.
5 Intelligent path planning algorithms
Due to the complex drone flight procedures related to tra-
jectory planning and safe flight operations, the drones must
be able to smartly fly free in every operation environment
and avoid any probable threats or collation to obstacles.
One of the most recently used techniques for search plan-
ning is swarmed intelligence, which describes the behavior
of self-organized and decentralized particles acting and
cooperating in their nature. Algorithms based on swarm
intelligence are enabled to provide a smart search strategy
by the concept of swarm agents cooperation [45]. The
agents explore the work averment by collaborating with the
surrounding neighbors. Swarm agents are following
strategies of exploration behavior and smart search plan-
ning. The exploration behavior is based on collection data
in the environment and compares the data with a predefined
threshold, while agents sense the neighbor’s data in the
environment by using different kinds of communication
schemes according to the swarm kind [46]. The agents in
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Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
the swarm update the search state according to the detected
channel information when they sensed a value higher than
the threshold, and otherwise, agents continue to explore
behavior until they reach their target.
The swarm intelligence approaches enable to find opti-
mal direction to move by collaborating with the neighbors
in swarm environment. The collaboration with surrounding
agents in swarm enables to detect of search data values
concerning the threshold and hence, agents who detect the
data values become a member of the search team to
autonomously emerging the different other cooperating
agents’ teams [47]. Many intelligent swarm algorithms
based on swarm optimization have been studied exten-
sively for search and path planning. In the following sec-
tion, the most important algorithms that are used in the
drone’s path planning are theoretically and mathematically
presented and evaluated [48].
A. Particle swarm optimization (PSO)
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is one of the swarm
intelligence approaches, acts as an optimization scheme,
and is based on social behavior. PSO performs population-
based stochastic optimization processes with randomiza-
tion according to interactions between population members
[49]. PSO is an effective technology that uses the concept
of swarm intelligence, which can address complex prob-
lems with high quality and fast calculation time. However,
PSO can provide weak performance when considering
optimization, which appears in its’ speed, calculation cost,
and global convergence [50]. Despite the aforementioned
disadvantages, it offers better advantages over traditional
algorithms for path planning. It provides a fast and easy
search mechanism to improve path planning due to its
acceptable convergence [50, 51]. Table 2 shows the com-
parison of the general features between the PSO and tra-
ditional algorithms.
The strategy of PSO depends on initiating a population of
random solutions, where each point in random solutions is
treated as a particle that can move from one region to another
Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155 10141

Table 2 Comparison between

Feature Traditional PCO
PCO and traditional algorithms
Search space Single point path search Potential solution population
Initialization By the user Automatically by PCO
Transition point Deterministic Probabilistic
Applicability Apply to a specific problem Apply to a variety of problems
Output Local optimization Global optimization
Advantages Convergence index Global search, high speed, parallelism
Disadvantages Computational cost No general convergence index

using a specific mechanism [52]. The algorithm evaluates Fig. 5) [54]. The performance of PSO is significantly
each random solution and extracts its cost to obtain the best affected by the particle’s speed, which can be expressed as a
local and global points in each waypoint associated with the speed for each particle by Eq. (3).
solutions of the population [53]. Through the evaluation, the    
solution points are arranged so that the local best point is SGþ1 G G G
i;k ¼ wSi;k þ Q1 rp pbest;k  xi;k þ Q2 rg gbest;k  xG
i;k

considered the best location for the current generation, and ð3Þ
the global best point expresses the absolute best location (see
where S represents the particle speed, Q1 and Q2 are the

Fig. 5 Particle swarm

optimization with the best
fitness

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acceleration coefficients, and rg , rp are random numbers
between (0 and 1). W denoted for inertial weight and x for
current location, where i and k represent the particle
numbers from the population, and waypoint, respectively.
The term gbest represents the global best point, and pbest is
for local best point. The position of d (dimensional com-
ponent) of the ith the particle can be calculated as follows
xGþ1 G Gþ1
i;k ¼ xi;k þ Si;k ð4Þ
In Eqs. (3) and (4), the parameters must be set to enable
updates to the local and global best points until the ter-
mination condition is met and calculates the cost of each
new solution. When using this algorithm, it is possible to
reach the termination state at the maximum limit to cal-
culate solutions and calculate a cost that is closer to the
optimal solution [56]. About planning the path and
movement in multi-dimensional directions, it finds that the
traditional algorithms face some limitations such as long-
time computations, and are likely to converge to a local
minimum. However, the PSO enables the finding of a
globally optimal solution and is less likely to converge to a
local minimum.
B. Ant colony optimization (ACO)
Ant colony optimization (ACO) is another type of algo-
rithm that relies on swarm intelligence that solves the path
optimization problem [57]. This algorithm relies on simu-
lating the behavior of real ants in their colony to manage
the processes of creating and arranging paths. According to
the study of the ant’s interaction with each other, the
algorithm uses the same interaction behavior that the ants
adopt to determine paths between the starting points to the
destination by depositing a chemical substance known as
the pheromone [58].
ACO enables to delivery of fast and efficient solutions
with distributed computation and collective interaction of a
population of agents. Through previous studies, ACO has
provided solutions to several optimization problems in
backward applications such as vehicle paths, path planning
for moving robots, as well as optimal path planning for
drone systems [59]. There are several types of ants’
behavior-based algorithms, such as ant system algorithm,
ant colony algorithm for the iteration best, in addition to
ant colony system for the global best [60]. The difference
between these ant colony algorithms is due to the pher-
omone updating procedures. For example, in the ant colony
algorithm for the best iteration, the ant that gets the best
result in each iteration of the pheromone updating proce-
dure is used. While in an ant colony of the best globally,
the pheromone updating procedure may be left to the ant at
the best performance during previous total iterations [61].
Figure 6 shows the performance comparison of different
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Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
ACO algorithms based on the updating pheromones impact
concerning the ACOs function optimization.
In general, the differences between the algorithms in
Fig. 6 lie in the effect of the number of ants and the number
of rounds calculated with different quantities of ants within
a limited number of iterations. The figure shows the dif-
ference between the three algorithms, which determine the
accuracy of each of them according to how the ants and
their number interact with the calculated solutions. The
optimization can be deduced and the correct data obtained
from the optimization mechanism is related.
Generally, the three algorithms work similarly by fol-
lowing the same structure; however, the main difference is
the workings of pheromones. The updating and maintain-
ing of pheromones in each iteration will result in different
solutions according to the governed next search probabil-
ities by the number of pheromones and its distance
according to Eq. 5. The process of each iteration updating
depends on the q. The pheromone values are multiplied by
this factor. The factor multiplication ensures to obtain of
new paths for the best solution.
C. Artificial bee colony (ABC)
Swarm intelligence based on bee behavior, is a new
algorithm that enables optimization of the search mecha-
nism depending on the nature of the bee agent’s interaction
in the colony [62]. The ABC algorithm is based on three
artificial bee colony; they are as follows: worker bees,
spectator bees, and scout bees [63]. The path is planned
from the bee colony site to the food site by finding the best
solution to follow the path. The path selection is according
to the tasks assigned to the bees during the algorithm’s
process. The scout bee searches to find new food sources
[64]. Worker bees locate food and store the location of
their memories, while the spectator bees will receive
information on the source and location of food from the
worker bee. According to the mentioned bee’s operations,
the ABC algorithm processes can be described as shown in
Fig. 7. The initial process occurred by the scout bees and
controls the parameters of xi vector of the population of
food source [65]. Each xi can be calculated as follows.
xi ¼ li þ rand(0; 1Þðui  li Þ ð5Þ
where li and ui represent the lower and upper xi bound
parameters, respectively. The spectator bees set the new
food source, which is increased to have more nectar around
the neighborhood of the source food population xi . The
newly founded neighborhood of the source is evaluated and
can be calculated by the following equation [66].
vi ¼ xi þ Uðxi  xj Þ ð6Þ
where U is a random number chosen between (-a, a), i and
j represent the current and next points (city), respectively.
Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
Fig. 6 General impact of
pheromone updating in the
ACO algorithms performance
xj represents the randomly selected food source. The new
food source fitness is measured depending on the objective
function value of the solution fi ðxi Þ. The spectator bees
choose the food source depending on the probability values
calculations based on the fitness value as in Eq. (9).
8 the highest performance when applied for multiple drone
< 1
; if fi ðxi Þ  0
fiti ðxi Þ ¼ 1 þ f i ðx i Þ ð7Þ
:
1 þ absðfi ðxi ÞÞ; if fi ðxi Þ  0
fiti ðxi Þ
pi PSN ð8Þ
i¼1 fiti ðxi Þ
The ABC algorithm is characterized by ease of imple-
mentation and high flexibility since it requires fewer con-
trol parameters compared with other search techniques.
The ABC algorithm has been used in many applications
such as engineering design, image processing, and network
management, in addition to contributing to solving
numerical optimization problems [15]. Moreover, it can
provide an efficient unmanned aerial vehicle operation to
avoid obstacles.
For drone path planning applications, ABC helps drones
to safely fly toward the target point by improving obstacles
avoidance mechanisms. ABC algorithm enables to re-for-
mulate paths to avoid obstacles in flight, as it improves the
effectiveness and efficiency of drone path planning [84].
The performance of ABC is shown in Fig. 8, where the
best, median, and average cost values of the artificial bee
colony (ABC) are being compared to the particle swarm
optimization (PSO) and Differential Evolution (DE) algo-
rithms. The Figure shows the performance of the ABC
against the PSO and DE in the drone path planning opti-
mization applications [96]. The ABC achieves small costs
10143
compared with PSO, which can achieve acceptable con-
vergence speed and search for better solutions for drone
path planning. Although the DE and PSO address the
optimization problems and give an acceptable performance
in accuracy, robustness, and convergence time, ABC gives
path planning.
D. Firefly algorithm (FA)
Firefly algorithm is a new mechanism for improving swarm
intelligence, as it relies on research methods based on the
social behavior of fireflies [69]. The Firefly algorithm
simulates the social behavior of flying fireflies, which are,
communicating, and searching to find mates by using
bioluminescence with varied flashing patterns. Fireflies’
algorithm improves some fireflies’ flashing properties, so
the improvement process depends on fireflies being
attracted to each other, regardless of their gender, the firefly
brightness, and the objective function based on the firefly
brightness [70, 71].
The algorithm relies on an indication that flashing fire-
flies of lower brightness are stimulated and move toward
the brightest. So that the attractiveness is proportional to
the brightness, which decreases relatively with the increase
in the distance between the fireflies [72]. The flowchart in
Fig. 9 shows the process of fireflies and position updating
according to the attraction toward the brightest firefly. The
attractiveness of the fireflies can be calculated by Eq. (11).
b ¼ bo exp ðcdijm Þ; m1 ð9Þ
where bo represents the attractiveness of fireflies when the
distance dij = 0, and c is the coefficient of light absorption.
dij is the distance between two fireflies i and j.
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10144
Fig. 7 Artificial bee colony with
allocated onlookers
Equation (11) shows that it is a nonlinear equation, which
may lead to rich characteristics in the context of algorith-
mic behaviors [73]. Since the degree of attractiveness is
depending on the distance between the fireflies, the
movement of one firefly toward the brighter is affected by
this distance, which can be calculated by Eq. (10) [73],
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u D  2
uX
dij ¼ t xki  xkj ð10Þ
k¼1
where dij is the distance between xi and xj, and D is the
dimension xki represents the current value of ith firefly at
kth dimension, and the same for the next value xkj . The
attraction of the fireflies toward each other can be calcu-
lated by the following equation.
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Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
xki ðt þ 1Þ ¼ xki ðtÞ þ bo expðcdij2 Þððxkj ðtÞ  xki ðtÞÞÞ þ ak ki
ð11Þ
where a is a scaling factor controlling the step sizes of the
random walks that can be expressed by ki which is a ran-
dom number vector that can be generated by uniform dis-
tribution with time ‘k’ According to the equations, for any
two fireflies xi and xj, if the brightness of xj is greater than
xi, then xi will be attracted by xj, and the position of firefly
xi will be updated [73]. That means each firefly is attracted
to other fireflies brighter. This algorithm enables the opti-
mization method to be easier and leads to slow
convergence.
Firefly algorithm provides a solution to several different
improvement problems through its unique technology
Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
Fig. 8 Performance comparison between ABC, DE, and PSO for drones path planning
based on the nature of the firefly interacting with each
other. The FA algorithm can be integrated into the fuzzy
controller to optimize different drone parameters such as
obstacle distance, and mutual distance between the motion
of the drone. The use of the FA algorithm enables opti-
mization of the drone fuzzy controller parameters.
E. Cuckoo Search Algorithm (CSA)
Cuckoo Search Algorithm (CSA) is an algorithm inspired
by the behavior of cuckoo birds. This algorithm theory is
based on basic rules that cuckoo birds take to place only
one egg in each stage, hence cuckoos randomly select the
nest to place the eggs. In addition, that, cuckoos carried
forward only the high-quality eggs and nests [74]. This
algorithm works according to the behavior of the cuckoo
when searching for a nest so that it represents a possible
solution egg, and it updates the solution by updating the
nest position continuously [75].
The cuckoo search mechanism relies on Levi’s flight to
simulate the pattern of birds in nature as illustrated in
Fig. 10. The host bird can choose whether to throw the egg
away or abandon the nest and build a new nest completely
by using probability factor pa [ [0,1]. The cuckoo search
algorithm uses the parameter pa to control local search and
global exploration [8177]. Due to the concept of the
cuckoo bird’s behavior, the new solution x (t ? 1) of n
cuckoos can be found for global exploration by Eq. (12),
xn ðt þ 1Þ ¼ xn ðtÞ þ a levyðbÞ ð12Þ
10145
where a is denoted for step size usually equal to 1. levy(b)
is representing the parameter of levy flights to provide
random walk, where random steps can be calculated by the
levy distributed equation equal to t1b ð0\b\2Þ. The
cuckoo bird algorithm achieves a higher global conver-
gence and efficiency when using Levi’s trips compared to
the algorithms that use standard Gaussian operations [83].
A few numbers of studies have been conducted to use the
cuckoo search algorithm for drone trajectory planning since
using it within a longer period reduces the chances of obtaining
an optimal solution. The cuckoo search algorithm enables to
analysis and study of the problem of path planning for drones
and works much better by combining it with the genetic algo-
rithm [77]. Hybrid cuckoo search and genetic algorithms will
provide a fast and high success rate performance spectrum
when the control and threat points are many.
6 Optimal path planning-based ACO
algorithm
Path planning is a key part of a drone’s assignment planning
system. It is aiming at generating optimal or appropriate opti-
mal flight paths, to safely finish the task when breaking through
the enemy threats area. Based on the different task require-
ments and battlefield environment, several different planning
methods have been put forward, such as optimized control,
Singular perturbation method, and artificial potential field
method [78]. In this paper, we presented some famous intelli-
gent optimization technology-based swarm planning methods.
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10146
Fig. 9 The firefly algorithm
ACO is one of the most efficient swarm intelligent methods that
enable to optimization of the path planning for the drone’s
operations. In this section, we evaluate the performance of
ACO for drone path planning and extract its impact in different
scenarios.
6.1 ACO performance test
In general, the process of path planning for large flight
distances is linked to several restrictions depending on the
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Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
environment of the area of the drone flight in addition to its
impact on changes and other weather factors. In this study,
we consider using an ant colony optimization algorithm to
plot the flight path of the drone, while ignoring the various
weather factors and the ability of the drone to maneuver.
The algorithm was analyzed based on the path planning
correction problem [79].
According to the ant colony behaviors, the ACO algo-
rithm enables a selection of the best path depending on the
probability of edge selection by following the procedure of
Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
Fig. 10 Cuckoo search algorithm
flowchart as shown in Fig. 11. We consider an ant that
would like to choose the path in a given network node, ant
will start to move from one node to another and deposit
pheromone [80]. The first ant chooses randomly the loca-
tion of the direct path, and updates the current path by
depositing the pheromone, and hence the evaporated path is
considered the worst choice, and the path with a high
pheromone concentration is the best one [81]. By consid-
ering k to denote the ant, start and next node represented by
i and j, respectively. Ant will choose to go to the next node
based on the probability given to be Eq. (13).
ðskij Þa ðgkij Þb
pkij ¼ P ; if j 2 Nik ; otherwise
R k ðsk Þa ðgk Þb
j Ni ij ij
pkij ¼ 0
where pkij is the probability of edge selection, ðskij Þa and
ðgkij Þb represent the pheromone level, and desirability of
edge, respectively. The parameters a and b are used to
control the impact of ðskij Þa and ðgkij Þb . If consider setting
a = 0, the probability will depend on heuristic values. By
considering to set b = 0, the probability will have calcu-
lated depending on the pheromone value [82].
Due to the ant moving in the path according to the
concentration of pheromone value, the algorithm will work
10147
on the use of theories related to the nature of ants they are,
pheromone updating, and evaporation [67]. The pher-
omones are updated according to Eq. (14) as follows.
Xm
sij ¼ ð1  qÞsij þ Dskij ð14Þ
k¼1
where (1 - q) represents the pheromone evaporation rate
and q is a pheromone persistence coefficient and Dskij is the
number of deposited pheromones. Equation 6 ensures
continuously best path updates, which promotes strong
paths and neglects weak paths [83].
The ACO algorithm is analyzed based on planning the
best flight path from the starting point to the endpoint of the
ð13Þ
drone flight, so that the drone path is corrected during the
flight, taking into account the selection of the shortest flight
path. The algorithm of the ACO will also be analyzed after
improving so that the drone can avoid obstacles during the
flight by measuring a new parameter into account of the
traditional ACO by assuming that the drone can measure
the distance from the obstacles during flight and adjust the
flight path quickly and accurately at the lowest cost. We
compare the ACO and the proposed enhancement in terms
of optimal path costs. The simulation will take two analysis
scenarios by considering the evaluation of the ACO algo-
rithm in 2D and 3D flight environments. The simulation
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10148
Fig. 11 The proposed ACO for drone’s path planning
will take place according to the Algorithm 1 procedures.
In the first scenario, the ACO algorithm is analyzed on a
3D drone path-planning model and the cost of the optimum
Algorithm 1: Simulation procedure and sequences
// Simulation procedure and sequences
// for the proposed ACO algorithm
1. Initiate the ACO algorithm setting
2. Assume the maximum number of ants used
3. Explore a path planning scenario
4. Consider iterations for the ACO.
5. Set the edge pheromone for paths
6. Ants are allowed accord to the evaporation and update process
7. Consider the distance parameter in calculations.
8. Drones measure the distances from each obstacle
9. Set according to the critical, safe, and crash distances.
10. Calculate the path covered by the ants
11. Make conditions for the best update path.
12. Return ACO path planned
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Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
trajectory is determined through iterative searches for ant
swarm optimization. The path plan is adopted from a
starting point to an endpoint in a three-dimensional
scheme. Also, the two-dimensional path planning of the
drone using the ACO algorithm was analyzed in the same
way as in the first scenario, and then the proposed
enhancement apothems are evaluated compared to the
traditional ACO after improving the path planning update
mechanism depending on the drone’s distance from the
potential obstacles.
6.2 Parameter settings
In the analysis, the MATLAB program version R2020a
was used to simulate the planning of the three (3D) and
(2D) dimensional trajectory of drones and measure the
performance of the ACO algorithms, in addition to measure
its effectiveness in selecting the best path at the lowest
cost. Table 3 shows the simulation parameters for the ACO
path planning settings.
6.3 Analysis results
This section shows the results of performance analysis for
the ACO algorithm in a 3D and 2D-dimensional environ-
ment, and then presents the performance evaluation of the
ACO compared to the improved ACO algorithm. The
results are divided into scenarios according to the 2D and
3D environments as follows.
From the simulation of the 3D path planning environ-
ment, as shown in Fig. 12, we note that the use of the ACO
Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155 10149

Table 3 Simulation parameters simulation environment selects to go for shorter paths to

Parameters Values
visit all targets using the same obstacles distribution. The
time calculation for the two algorithms that were taken to
Flight area 80 9 40 km reach the endpoint is out of this paper’s scope and can be
Ant numbers 20 considered in future work.
Iterations number 100 As shown in Fig. 16, the performance of improved ACO
Coefficient a 1 is impacted by the distance measured from obstacles which
Coefficient b 4 show that, when drones become closer to the obstacles, the
Coefficient Q 8 convergence curve for the optimal path shows the worst
Evaporating rate q 0.75 cost case, while the safe distance enables to obtain a good
Safe obstacle distance 6m convergence curve. The proposed safe distance shows that
Critical obstacle distance 1m less optimal cost can be achieved than the other two
Crush obstacle distance 0.5 m schemes. In addition, the optimal cost in the safe distance
can be reached very fast compared with the critical and
crash distances where the optimal path cost was reached
after 20 and 13 iterations, respectively. By comparing, the
algorithm in planning the three-dimensional trajectory of performance of the ACO and improvement in path updat-
the drone flight directly affects the implementation effi- ing based on distances state, the proposed mechanism
ciency and the quality of the path. As shown in the illus- shows it outperformed the ACO as shown in Fig. 17.
trated Fig. 13, it found that the algorithm establishes a The proposed algorithm shows less iteration number
compromise between three-dimensional environmental than the ACO, where it needs only three iterations before it
complexity and computational efficiency. Simulations goes into a steady-state, while ACO requires about 20
show that the ACO algorithm would produce a good iterations to reach the steady-state [84]. One can notice also
solution in an acceptable time for best path planning with that, ACO went through various steps and values called
acceptable cost. stairs effects before reaching its steady states. This hap-
For the 2D path planning environment, Figs. 14 and 15 pened from 9 iterations until 20 iterations where it went
show the simulation of drone Path planning by using ACO through 5 steps to reach finally the steady-state. In general,
and proposed improvement, respectively. By considering the results show that the improved ACO algorithm can find
the obstacles distance calculations with the ACO path optimal paths at higher convergence speeds. The ACO
updating procedure, we notice that the parameter distance algorithm may not make the path meet the mission con-
between the drone and obstacle will serve to determine the straints even though it can get the path from starting node
quality of the path planning. From the illustration of the to destination, but by considering the distance obstacles
results, it can be shown that our proposed method in a criteria in the ACO path updating process, the proposed

Fig. 12 3D simulation for drone

path planning using ACO
algorithm

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10150 Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155

Fig. 13 Convergence curves of 3D optimal paths according to the iterative process

Fig. 14 2D simulation for drone path planning using ACO algorithm

methods will show that the convergence speed and global
optimality are improved significantly [85].
7 Conclusions
Drones represent an important role in the emergence of a
wide range of surveillance and research applications.
However, the application of the drone in different

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Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155 10151

Fig. 15 2D simulation for drone path planning using improved path distance algorithm

Fig. 16 Performance of obstacle distance measurement impact on the ACO algorithm

environments represents a major challenge in planning comprehensive analysis of several algorithms that rely on
tasks and a safe path to obtain data efficiently, especially in swarm intelligence for drone path planning, which works to
complex environments. This paper provided a solve many problems related to the possibility of learning

123
10152
Fig. 17 Convergence curves of optimal paths for ACO and proposed improvement
and focus on the limitations of the working environment
for drones. The performance of some algorithms used in
planning the drone’s trajectory has also been analyzed and
simulated on various forms of the environment, such as the
two-dimensional and the three-dimensional environment.
In this paper, the performance of the ACO algorithm to
solve the drone’s path planning problem in a two-dimen-
sional and three-dimensional environment space was ana-
lyzed assuming the presence of obstacles on the flight area.
The ACO was also optimized by adopting measurements of
the distance between the drone and obstacles during flight
to update the route planning during flight and then per-
forming a simulation to compare the ACO algorithm and
the proposed method in a two-dimensional environment
where it was found that the improvement gives high effi-
ciency in optimizing the path planning with acceptance
convergence and cost.
Our future study is based on the fact that the presented
study relied on choosing an appropriate path at the lowest
cost on the distance between the drones and the obstacles
so that the information is taken by measuring the distance
through sensors during flight as a value that determines the
dangerous and permitted flight levels according to the
distance of fixed obstacles with the path-determination
mechanism based on the swarm algorithm. However, this
method cannot be efficient if the drones face moving or
sudden obstacles, and therefore there is a need for a smart
mechanism to maneuver while flying to the destination
through an obstacle-free path.
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Neural Computing and Applications (2022) 34:10133–10155
In the future study, machine-learning techniques will be
used to optimize the process of analyzing the relative
positions of the detected objects and obstacles to determine
the optimal collision-free paths.
Funding This paper was funded by the Deanship of Scientific
Research (DSR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, under Grant No.
(D-78-305-1442). The authors, therefore, gratefully acknowledge
DSR technical and financial support.
Data availability The data used to support the findings of this study
are available from the corresponding author upon request.
Declarations
Conflicts of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of
interest to report regarding the present study.
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