The Biology of Agricultural Crops: Nature and Composition of Plants

Module 2
The Biology of Agricultural Crops
Lesson 2
Nature and Composition of Plants
Introduction Time Frame: 10 Hours
A plant is composed of organs that are made Objectives

up of differentiated and undifferentiated tissues. At the end of this lesson, you
This tissues are made up of millions of actively will be able to:
 Describe the nature and
dividing cells which are composed of organelles. composition of plants
Organelles are specialized structure inside the cell
which perform specific functions. They are made up Key Concepts
of molecules composed of elements that binded  Nature of Plant System
together. This lesson explore the nature and  Cell Structure
 Organelles and Other
composition of plants particularly the plant cell, its
Components of plant Cell
cell structure, components and their functions. We  Cell Structure Unique to
will also explore plant tissue system, its type, Plants
characteristics and functions. The last topic in this  The Plant Tissue System
lesson will focus on plant organs where we will learn  Plant Organs
about the root and shoot systems and its
components.
Activity 2. 2.
The Basic Parts of A Plant Cell
Procedure
1. Draw a plant cell including the organelles and other cell structures
2. Label all the organelles and other cell structures.
Analysis
1. What are the three basic parts of the cell?
2. What are functions of each organelle?
Miguel, R.D. (2020). Principles of Crop Production for Flexible Learning. Module 2. The Biology of Agricultural Crops | 29
Nature of a Plant System
Figure 2.2.1. The nature of a plant system.
Cell Structure
The plant cell maybe divided into three parts:
1. Plasma membrane. The outer membrane of the cell. Functions as a selective
barrier to the transport of substances into and out of the protoplast.
2. Cytoplasm. The semifluid substance of a cell that is external to the nuclear
membrane and internal to the cellular membrane. It contains discrete bodies called
organelles. Refers to the cell contents inside the membrane.
3. Nucleus. Houses most of the cell’s genetic material (deoxyribonucleic acid, or
DNA). DNA is responsible for directing cellular functions.
Figure 2.2.2. The plant cell

Organelles and Other Components
of a Plant Cell
The Cell Wall

 For cell support and regulation. Consists of
cellulose, hemicellulose, protein, and
pectic substances.
Components of the cell wall
• Primary cell wall. The first to form when
a cell is developing. Found where cells are
actively growing and dividing. Composed
predominantly of cellulose and pectic
substances. All cells have a standard
primary cell wall.
• Secondary cell wall. Deposited inside of
the primary cell wall when cell growth
ceases. Main function is for support as it
is composed primarily of cellulose and
lignin.
• Middle lamella. a pectin-rich material
that hold adjacent cell together. Made up Figure 2.2.3. The cell wall
of pectic polysaccharides.
• plasmodesmata produced by
cytoplasmic strands for cell-to-cell
interconnections
Plasma Membrane
• Cell boundary
• selectively permeable (some can pass,
some cannot)
• separates the organelles and cell parts
• bilayer of phospholipids with inserted
protein
The Nucleus
• The primary repository of genetic
information for the control and
maintenance of cellular structure and
function.
• The nucleus is composed of DNA,
ribonucleic acid (RNA), proteins, and
water.
 Chromosome. A highly organized
nuclear body that contains DNA.
Cytosol/Cytoplasm Figure 2.2.4. The nucleus

• Gel-like matrix within the cell in which
other structures are embedded; refers to
the cell contents inside the membrane..
Mitochondria
• The “powerhouse” of the cell
• Provide the energy (adenosine
triphosphate, ATP) required for plant
processes.
• Bound by a double membrane.
• Cristae is the inner membrane is folded
into projections which increases the
internal surface area of mitochondria for
biochemical reactions.
• Mitochondria have their own DNA, the
same as the chloroplasts.
• They are sites of respiration, the cellular
process responsible for producing energy
for living organisms.
Ribosomes
• Sites of protein synthesis.
• Consist of approximately equal amounts Figure 2.2.5. Mitochondria
of RNA and protein.
• Ribosomes may occur freely in the
cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Serves as a channel for the transport of
substances such as proteins and lipids to
different parts of the cell and as the
principal site of membrane synthesis.
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – with
ribosomes attached for protein synthesis
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – site
of lipid and membrane synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus
• A collective term for structures called
Golgi bodies or dictyosomes, which
consist of a stack of about four to eight
flattened sacs, or cisternae.
• Involved in secretion and intracellular
transport
• In higher plants, dictyosomes have
secretory functions. They secrete new cell
wall precursors and other substances.
Membrane Sacs
• Peroxisome: membrane sac containing
enzymes for metabolizing waste products
from photosynthesis, fats and amino
acids.
• Glyoxisome: membrane sac containing
enzymes for fat metabolism, especially
common in seeds. Figure 2.2.6. Endoplasmic Reticulum
Microtubules
• Involved in the cell cytoskeleton (for
support), cell movements (cilia, flagella)
and cell division (spindle).
Figure 2.2.8. Golgi Apparatus
Figure 2.2.7. Microtubules • Chromoplasts. Plastids with the

capacity to produce large amounts of
Cell Structures Unique to Plants carotenoids(bright yellow or orange and
red pigments).
• Etioplasts. Plastids that developed in
Plastids darkness or under low light conditions.
• An organelle that is bound by a double
o The development of chloroplast is
membrane and associated with different
arrested due to the absence of light.
pigments and storage products.
o Can be converted into a chloroplast
• Contain their own DNA.
when there is an appropriate light
• They are said to be semiautonomous
exposure
because they synthesize some of their
own proteins.
Vacoule
• Cavities in cells that contain a liquid
Types of Plastids
called the vacuolar sap, or cell sap,
• Chloroplasts are plastids that contain
within the vascular membrane called
chlorophyll, the green pigment that gives
tonoplast. The sap consists mainly of
plants their characteristic green color
water, but other substances such as salt,
and, more importantly, is involved in
sugars, and dissolved proteins occur,
photosynthesis.
according to the physiological state of
o Contains saclike vesicles called
the cell.
thylakoids, which are stacked in units
called grana (singular: granum). The • Vacuoles also store water-soluble
grana are suspended in a fluid called pigments called anthocyanins. These
stroma. pigments are responsible for the red
• Leucoplasts. are colorless plastids. found and blue colors of many flowers (e.g.,
in endosperm, tubers, roots and other geranium, rose, and delphinium), fruits
non-photosynthetic tissues of plants. (e.g., cherry, apple, and grape), and
vegetables (e.g., cabbage, turnip, and
Types of leucoplast onion). Anthocyanins are also involved
• Amyloplast - storage of starch in the fall colors of some leaves.
• Elaioplast – storage of lipids • A waste disposal of the cell
• Proteinoplast – storage of proteins
Differences Between Plant & Animal Cells
Features Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell Wall Present Absent
Chloroplast Present Absent
Plasmodesmata Present Absent
Lysosome Absent Present
Centriole Absent Present
Glyxoxysome Present Absent
Vacoule Present Absent
The Plant Tissue System
Tissues
• Made up of cells usually similar in
structure and function
• It is simple if it contains one cell type
• It is more complex if it is made up of
several types of cells
Meristematic Tissues
• Part of the plant where cell division
(mitosis) or production of new cells
occurs.
Types of Meristematic Tissues

• Apical meristem – growing tips; an
undifferentiated meristematic tissue
found in the buds and growing tips of
roots in plant.
• Lateral meristem – sideward growth;
consist of the vascular cambium and the
cork cambium (phellogen).
• Intercalary meristem - at internodes, or
stem regions between the places at which
leaves attach, and leaf bases, especially of
certain monocotyledons.
Permanent Tissues
• Mature, fully differentiated cells; have
lost the power to divide, having attained
their definite form and size.
Types of Tissues
o Simple Tissues
o Complex tissues
Figure 2.2.9. Simple tissues. Parenchyma

(top), Sclerenchyma (middle) and
Collenchyma (bottom)
Simple Tissues
 Only one type of cell
Parenchyma
• Found in the cortical regions of stems
and roots and in the mesophyll of the
leaves.
• Makes up most of the soft, moist primary
growth of plants.
• Its thin-walled, pliable cells stay alive
and retain the capacity to divide
• Participate in photosynthesis
(mesophyll), storage, secretion, etc.
Collenchyma
• Cells are thickened and help strengthen
the plant.
• It is commonly arranged at strands or
cylinders beneath the dermal tissue of
Figure 2.2.10. Complex tissues. Xylem
stems and stalks.
• The primary cell walls of collenchyma
become thickened with cellulose and
pectin at maturity, often at their corners.
Sclerenchyma
• Provide mechanical support and
protection in mature plants.
• Thick and often impregnated with lignin,
which strengthens and waterproofs cell
walls.
• Form fibers such as in abaca and jute.
• Sclereoids/stone cells – gritty texture
in chico
Complex Tissues
 More than two types of cell.
Xylem
• Conduct water and mineral salts upward
the plant body.
• Composition: Tracheids, vessel
membranes, xylem fibers and xylem
parenchyma
Phloem Figure 2.2.11. Complex tissues. Phloem

• Also called bast, tissues in plants that
conduct foods made in the leaves to all
other parts of the plant.
• Composition: Sieve tubes, Companion
cells, Phloem parenchyma and Phloem
fibers
Primary phloem. Formed by the apical General Anatomical Region of a
meristems (zones of new cell production) of Plant Body
root and shoot tips. • Epidermis – outermost layer; serves
Secondary phloem. Replacement for as protection
metaphloem in plants that have cambium • Cortex – next layer to epidermis
• Pericycle –found in root branches;
layers of cells adjacent to the cortex
Major Plant Tissue System • Vascular bundles
• Ground Tissue o Phloem
o Accounts for the bulk composition of o Xylem
young plants • Pith – hollow opening in the center
o Functions in food manufacture and of the stem
storage
o Contains 3 main cell types:
General Anatomical Region of a
Parenchyma, collenchyma and
Leaf
sclerenchyma. • Epidermis
• Dermal Tissue • Mesophyl
o Plant’s protective outer covering in • Vascular bundles
contact with the environment o Xylem
o Facilitates water and ion uptake in o Phloem
roots and regulates gas exchange in
leaves and stems
• Vascular Tissue
o Phloem and xylem form a continuous
vascular system throughout the plant
o Conducts water and solutes between
organs and also provide mechanical
support
Figure 2.2.12. The

general anatomical region
of a plant body showing
the major plant tissue
system
Epidermis
• “Skin”/outer covering
• A continuous skin that covers both sides of a leaf
• Formed by a single layer of transparent, interlocking cells covered by a cuticle.
Cuticle – designed to protect the leaf’s internal tissues from excessive dehydration.
• Contains numerous openings called stomates
Stomates (stomata) – majority are located on the underside of the leaves. Perforate the
epidermis and permit a two-way gas exchange (O2, CO2. ,water vapor) between the
atmosphere and the inside of the leaf.
Mesophyll
• Cells containing plastids especially chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts - food producing machinery of the leaf
• Specialized bodies imbedded within the cytoplasm of the mesophyll cells which
contain chlorophyll
• Chlorophyll - green pigment
• The basis of photosynthesis
Vascular Bundles (Veins)

• For translocations
• Composed of specialized strands of tissue located halfway between the upper and
lower surfaces of the leaf and consist of two kinds of tissues, Phloem and xylem,
together forming a conducting system branching from one or several main veins,
permeates the entire leaf
• Phloem – thin-walled cells which serves as pipeline for liquid foods
• Xylem – thick-walled cells which conduct water and mechanical support.
Figure 2.2.12. The general anatomical region of a leaf
Plant Organs
Two Main Parts of a Plant

• Root System
• Shoot System
Root
• Normally underground.
• Functions are:
o anchorage of the plant,
o Absorption of water and
dissolved minerals.
o Conduction of water and Figure 2.2.13. Regions of the root
nutrients to the stem, and
storage of reserve foods.
Regions of the Root

• Root cap. It protects the apical meristem
and perceive gravity
• Apical meristem. Region of cell division
and production of new cells
• Region of cell elongation. Pushes
meristem and root cap through the ground.
• Region of maturation. Development of
protoderm, procambium and ground tissue.
Types of Roots
• Tap Root System
o One central primary root with
several branches.
o Makes deep penetration in the soil
• Fibrous Root System
o Numerous, similar sizes.
o No central primary root.
o Makes shallow root penetration.
Other Types of Root

• Adventitious Roots – Roots that grow from
any part of the plant body other than
radicle Figure 2.2.14. Types of root. Tap root
• Foliar Roots – from leaves mainly petiole system and fibrous root system
or vein
• Storage Roots – thickened underground
roots used for storage of food. i.e. sweet
potato, cassava, arrow root.
• Aquatic Roots. Roots that develop in water.
i.e. water spinach, water hyacinth.
• Brace Roots. Roots that appear above
ground at the base of a plant. i.e. maize
• Aerial Roots. Roots of hanging plants such
as orchids
• Buttress Roots. Large adventitious roots
that stabilize large trees.
The Shoot System
Main Components of the Shoot System

• Stem
• Leaf
• Flower
• Fruit which contain the seed
Stem
• Supporting and conducting organ
initially developed from epicotyl
• Important for translocation Figure 2.2.15. Parts of the stem
• Supports the leaves, connects the leaves
and roots
• Provides storage
Major Parts of Stem

• Bark
• Pith
• Cork
Types of Stem
• Bulb - short, erect underground stem

• Culm – flowering stem of grasses and
sedges
• Offset – like runner originates from leaf
axil as short and thickened branch away
from the mother plant
• Runner or stolon – indeterminate
aboveground stem with internodes and
new plantlet at the tip
• Sucker –shoot arising from from below
the ground from old stem
• Tendril – slender coiling branch for
climbing
• Tiller – shoot produced from the base of
the stem or culm
• Tuber – thick storage underground stem
Figure 2.2.16. Types of stem
• Corm – enlarge solid fleshy base
• Phylloclades/cladodes –flattened or
cylindrical green stems
Leaf
• Principal photosynthetic organ
• Absorbing organ for chemicals and
micronutrients.
• Transpiration organ
• As storage organ
• As plant propagule
• As ornamental for pigment color
Figure 2.2.16. Parts of a leaf
Modified Leaf
• Bulbs – vertically growing underground
shoots with fleshy leaves and a short stem
• Bracts: Bracts are specialized plant
structures that serve varied functions
such as attracting pollinators and
protecting inflorescences (flower
structures).
Leaf Arrangement
• Alternate. Have only one leaf per node
arranged alternate on each side of the
stem in a flat plane.
• Spiral. Have only one leaf per node Figure 2.2.17. Modified leaves of Allium sp.
arranged in a spiral along the stem.
• Opposite. Two leaves arise at the same
point, with the leaves connecting opposite
each other along the branch
• Whorled. Three or more leaves
connected at a node
Flower
• Reproductive organ of the plant.
• Gives rise to the fruit
• Plant structure serving for sexual
reproduction with seeds as the final Figure 2.2.17. Parts of a flower
product
• Produced by spermatophytes – flowering
Types of Plants Depending On Sexes
plants
• Androgynous or Hermaproditic -
Two large Groups of Spermatophytes
flowers that contain both
• Gymnosperms – evolutionarily older and
androecium and gynoecium. E.g.
more primitive group. i.e. conifers, cycads
papaya
• Angiosperms – the original flowering • Monoecious – both male and female
plants; represents the majority of plant flower live on one plant. e.g. corn,
species cucurbits
Parts of the Flower • Dioecious –plants with male and
• Perianth: calyx and corolla female flowers borne on separate
o Calyx- sepals plants. e.g. date
o Corolla – petals
• Androecium: stamen
o Anther and filament Morphology of the androecium and
• Gynoecium or Pistil: Carpels gynoecium
o Stigma, style and ovary • Hypogynous: the perianth is attached
to the receptacle below the pistil
• Perigynous: the perianth and
stamens are borne on the rim of a
concave structure in the depression of
which the pistil is borne
• Epigynous ovary: blossom seems to
arise upon or above the ovary
Figure 2.2.17. Position of ovary in a flower

Types of Flower
• Complete flower – all four organs (sepal,
petal, stamen and pistil) are present. e.g.
hibiscus
• Incomplete flower – lacks any of the four
organs. e.g. grasses
• Perfect/bisexual flowers – flowers that
contain both sexual flower parts
(stamen and pistil)
• Imperfect Flower – contains either
stamen or pistil only (regardless of
whether they lack sepals or petals)
• Staminate flowers – bear stamens only
• Pistillate flowers – bear pistils only Figure 2.2.18. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, a
complete and perfect flower.
Flower Types Affecting Pollination
Plants with flower synchrony based on
maturation of the stamen and pistil flower
parts
• Dichogamous – when the two organs
mature at different time.
• Protandrous flowers – male flowers
mature ahead of pistils. e.g. carrots
• Protogyny – stigma becomes receptive
while the pollen grains are still
immature. e.g. water lilies
• Autogamous – plants self pollinate with Figure 2.2.19. Flower of Oryza sativa, an
the same flower. incomplete flower with the absence petals.
o Chasmogamous flowers- are open
during pollination
o Cleistogamous flowers – flowers do
not open during pollination period.
e.g. tomato, lettuce, some rice
Fruit
• A part of a flowering plant that derives
from specific tissues of the flower.
• One or more ovaries
• In some cases accessory tissues
• The means by which the plant
disseminate seeds
• A mature ripened ovary
• Contain the seed(ripened ovules) and Figure 2.2.20. Staminate flower of Carica
pericarp(the tissue that surrounds the papaya, an imperfect flower .
seeds)
Which one is a true fruit?
True or False Fruits Which one is a false
fruit?
• True fruits – eucarp; mature or ripened
ovary developed after fertilization. e.g.
corn and mango
• False fruits – pseudo-carp; from floral
parts other than ovary.
Modes of Fruit Development
• Apocarpous fruits – develop from single
flower having one or more separate
carpels; simplest fruits. e.g. corn, peanut
• Syncarpous fruits – develop from single
gynoecium having two or more carpels
fused together. e.g Strawberry
• Multiple fruits – form from many
different flowers. e.g. pineapple
Figure 2.2.21. Mungbean, a simple
Kinds of Fruits dehiscent capsular dry fruit (legume).
• Simple fruits: can be either dry or fleshy,
and result from the ripening of a simple
or compound ovary in a flower with only
one pistil
• Aggregate fruit or etaerio: develops from
a single flower with numerous simple
pistils; from single flowers that have
multiple carpels which are not joined
together; each pistil contains one carpel,
e.g. Raspberry, Strawberry (also
accessory fruit), Rose, Blackberry,
Soursop (Guyabano) Figure 2.2.22. Rice, a simple indehiscent
• Multiple/ Composite fruit: one formed achenial dry fruit (caryopsis).
from a cluster of flowers (called an
inflorescence). Each flower produces a
fruit, but these mature into a single mass
o Syconus: hypanthodium type of
inflorescence, e.g. fig
o Sorosis: catkin, spike or spadix type
of inflorescence, e.g. Pineapple,
Jackfruit, Mulberry
Simple Fruits
• Dry fruits: not fleshy; pericarp (fruit
Figure 2.2.23. Castor bean, a simple dry
wall) no distinct three layers fruit which undergo schizocarpic splitting
• Fleshy fruits/ succulent: part or all of the (regma).
pericarp (fruit wall) is fleshy at
maturity; with distinct layers including
pericarp, epicarp, mesocarp (fleshy or
fibrous) and endocarp.
Dry Fruits
• Dehiscent capsular: opening to discharge
seeds.
o legume/pulse/pod: pea
o Follicle: single carpel, opens by one Figure 2.2.24. Pili nut, a simple
suture; milkweed indehiscent achenial dry fruit (nut).
o Silique: radish, cabbage, mustard
o Silicle/Silicula (syn. silique but with
shorter fruit): shepherd’s purse/
Capsella
o Capsule:
Miguel, R.D. (2020).Brazil nut,
Principles Cotton
of Crop Production for Flexible Learning. Module 2. The Biology of Agricultural Crops | 42
• Indehiscent Achenial – not opening to
discharge seeds
o Achene – strawberry
o Utricle (similar to achene) – beet
o Caryopsis – rice, wheat
o Cypsela (achene-like from individual
florets in a capitulum) – dandelion
o Nut – pili, cashew
o Samara – maple, mahogany, narra
• Schizocarpic splitting – splits at maturity

into two or more closed, one seeded parts
o Lomentum – mimosa, acasia
o Cremocarp – coriander Figure 2.2.25. Mango, a simple drupe. It
o Regma- castor has a fleshy exocarp and mesocarp and a
o Carcerulus – salvia stone endocarp.
o Double/compound samara – maple,
elm
Fleshy Fruits/Succulents Did you know that
 Drupe – coconut, coffee
strawberry is not a
 Berry – simple fruit created from single
berry? And did you
ovary. The ovary maybe compound with
also know that it is not
several carpels.
• True berries or baccae a true fruit?
o Thin outer skin, not self-supporting
when removed from the berry. e.g.
tomato, grape, guava.
• Modified Berries
o Pepo – skin is hardened. e.g. squash,
papaya, banana
o Hesperidium – berries with rind and
juicy interior. e.g. citrus
 Pome – an accessory fruit composed of
one or more carpels surrounded by
accessory tissue. e.g. apple, pear Figure 2.2.26. Tomato, a true berry with
 Balusta – Pomegranate thin outer skin, and fleshy mesocarp.
 Amphisarca – dry, more rigid and self-
supporting skin. e.g. cacao
Aggregate Fruits or Etario

• Develops from single flower with
numerous pistils
• From single flowers that have multiple
carpels which are not joined together.
• Each pistil contains one carpel.
• Strawberry, raspberry, blackberry,
guyabano, atis
Figure 2.2.27. Custard apple (atis), an
aggregate fruit. Each section with a seed is
Multiple/Composite Fruit a fruit which developed from a single
• Formed from a cluster of flower flower with multiple pistils.
(inflorescence).
• Each flower produces a fruit but mature
into a single mass.
• Jackfruit, mulberry, pineapple
Other Related Terms
• Parthenocarpy - fruit set without fertilization. May or may not require pollination. i.e.
Banana, pineapple
• Stenospermocarpy – seedless bananas and grapes are triploid. Seedlessness results
from the abortion of the embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization, requires
normal pollination and fertilization.
• Apomixis (asexual seed formation) is the result of a plant gaining the ability to bypass
the most fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction: meiosis and fertilization.
Without the need for male fertilization, the resulting seed germinates a plant that
develops as a maternal clone
Seed
• Miniature plant in an arrested state
• A ripened ovule which was shed from the parent plant consist of embryo and
stored food supply both of which are enclosed in a seed coat or covering
Monocot and Dicot

MONOCOTS DICOTS
Embryo with single cotyledon Embryo with two cotyledons
Pollen with single furrow or pore Pollen with three furrows or pores
Flower parts in multiples of three Flower parts in multiples of four or five
Major leaf veins parallel Major leaf veins reticulated
Stem vacular bundles scattered Stem vascular bundles in a ring
Roots are adventitious Roots develop from radicle
Secondary growth absent Secondary growth often present
Parts of a Monocot Seed

• Brush. Tuft of persistent hairs found on tips of most types of wheat kernels.
• Dent. Found on tops of corn (maize) kernels (in dent corn). Forms because soft
starch in the center of the kernel shrinks more on drying than does the flinty
endosperm along the outside Of the kernel.
• Pericarp. Primarily ovary tissue (maternal tissue) which protects the caryopsis
(kernel). The caryopsis is a ripened ovary (fruit) because of the presence of the
pericarp and therefore, is not a true seed (ripened ovule). Red color in some corn
seed is found in the pericarp. Pericarp characteristics are determined by the mother
plant.
• Aleurone Layer. The outer few cellular layers of endosperm. Unlike the pericarp,
the aleurone characteristics are determined by both the female and male
parents. Secretes enzymes that help break down endosperm material
for germination. Colorless in normal dent corn; blue in blue corn kernels.
• Endosperm. Mostly starch and comprises the bulk of the mature cereal grain.
Energy
source for the germinating seed and seedling. Endosperm can be further
classified as starchy (soft) or flinty (hard) depending on texture and color.
o Starchy endosperm — soft, white starch.
o Flinty endosperm — hard, vitreous (glass-like); yellow in yellow dent
corn; reddish brown in hard, red wheat. The presence or amount
varies in varieties or types of cereals.
o Endosperm proteins — important source of proteins in cereal grains.
Wheat, rye and triticale (hybrid of wheat and rye) are the only well-
known cereals whose endosperms contain gluten-forming proteins
that give bread dough it sticky, elastic quality required for dough rise
prior to baking.
• Miguel, R.D. (2020). Principles of Crop Production for Flexible Learning. Module 2. The Biology of Agricultural Crops | 44
• Scutellum. Primary function is enzyme
secretion for breaking down endosperm
and transporting food to the developing
seedling. Important source of oil and
high-quality protein in cereal grains. The
grass caryopsis has one cotyledon
(scutellum), so grasses are known as
monocotyledonous plants.
• Coleoptile. The topmost part of the
embryo axis (embryonic root and shoot)
that serves as a protective sheath for
young leaves and growing point during
seedling emergence.
• Epicotyl (Plumule).Is the embryonic
Figure 2.2.28. Parts of a monocot seed
leaves and shoot.
• Apical Meristem (Growing point).
Located immediately above the scutellar
node. Stalk and leaf tissue develops from
the growing point. If the growing point is
destroyed, further plant development is
prevented.
• Scutellar Node. Point of attachment of
the scutellum to the embryo axis.
• Radicle. Embryonic root found in the
lower part of the embryo axis.
• Coleorhiza. Protective sheath Figure 2.2.28. Parts of a dicot seed
surrounding the radicle. Helps seal and
prevent disease from entering the kernel Types of Seeds
through the rupture made by the  Orthodox or drying-tolerant
elongating radicle during germination. seeds
o These seeds can tolerate
• Black Layer. Forms near the tip of the
drying to as low as 5%
corn kernel. Indicates physiological moisture content under
maturity (maximum kemel dry weight). common conditions and low
• Pedicel (Tip). The point of attachment of storage temperatures. Their
the kernel to the flower stalk. Botanically life span is prolonged with low
called a pedicel. seed moisture and
temperature. i.e. cereal grains,
Parts of a Dicot Seed legumes
 Pod. The legume pod is the developed  Recalcitrant or drying-sensitive
ovary that encloses the seeds (mature, seeds
fertilized ovules). Thus, legume seeds are o Readily killed by drying, most
botanically true seeds because they are especially if their moisture
separated from the pod (ovary tissue) content falls below the critical
when threshed and harvested. value ranging from 12-30%.
 Embryo Area. This is the area of the i.e. durian, avocado, cacao
embryo axis which develops into the  Intermediate seeds
legume seedling and is in a very o Exhibit the drying tolerance
characteristic of the orthodox
vulnerable position for mechanical
seeds but are sensitive to low
damage. Therefore, seeds should be
temperature storage like the
handled as gently as possible in threshing
recalcitrant seeds. i.e. papaya,
and conditioning. atis, guyabano
 Micropyle. Point of entry of the pollen tube into the ovule as fertilization took place.
 Hilum. Point of attachment of the seed to the legume pod. The seed receives its food
during its growth and development through this attachment. The hilum may vary in
color (ex. soybeans), thus providing one method of variety identification.
 Hypocotyl. The stem tissue between the epicotyl and the radicle. In most legumes
the hypocotyl elongates during germination to cause emergence of the seedling.
 Radicle. The embryonic root found in the lower portion of the embryo axis. Upon
germination and emergence it develops into the central axis of the root system.
 Epicotyl. The embryonic shoot and leaves. It contains the growing point (apical
meristem) and the first two (unifoliolate) leaves. The stem and future vegetative
growth forms from the growing point.
 Cotyledon. Each "half" of a legume seed is a cotyledon. Therefore, legumes are
known as dicotyledonous plants. Cotyledons are seed leaves and serve as a food
supply for the seedling during germination and emergence. Legume seeds, like
soybean or peanuts, contain considerably more oil and protein and less starch than
cereal grains (for example, soybean seed—20% oil and 40% protein, and peanuts—
50% oil and 30% protein, versus cereal grains—4% to oil and 8% to 12% protein).
 Testa. The true seed coat of a legume seed. The testa develops from the fertilized
ovule and acts as protective tissue for the internal seed parts.
Lessons in
Application 2.2.this Module
Comprehension and Synthesis
Comprehension
1. Describe the organelles or cell structure that are unique to plants.
2. Differentiate plant and animal cell.
3. Discuss the different types of meristematic tissues. Give an example for
each type.
4. Differentiate parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells.
5. Illustrate the three major tissue system.
6. Illustrate and describe the anatomical region of a leaf.
7. Discuss the two main parts of a plant.
8. Illustrate and describe the root region
9. Compare tap root and fibrous root systems.
10. Describe the root system of maize.
11. What are the main components of a shoot system?
12. Draw and point out the stem and modified leaves of a garlic plant.
13. Describe the leaf arrangement of a rice plant.
14. Draw a flower of a pea or beans and label each part.
15. Draw a male and female flower of a cucurbit (cucumber, squash, sponge
gourd, bitter gourd, etc.) and describe its sex.
16. Give an example of a true fruit and a false fruit. Explain why is it a true or
false fruit.
17. Compare monocot and dicot.
Synthesis
1. Visit a fruit stand or a fruit market. With at least five different fruits on
display. Take a picture of the fruits on display. Print the picture and paste it
on your activity notebook. Identify the kinds of fruit in the picture you
have
Miguel, R.D. taken.
(2020). Principles of Crop Production for Flexible Learning. Module 2. The Biology of Agricultural Crops | 46
2. Draw a seed of a corn and label its parts. Describe the function or
characteristics of each part.
3. Draw a seed of a bean and label its part. Describe the function or
characteristics of each part.

The Biology of Agricultural Crops: Nature and Composition of Plants

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The Biology of Agricultural Crops: Nature and Composition of Plants

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Module 2

The Biology of Agricultural Crops

Nature and Composition of Plants

Introduction Time Frame: 10 Hours

A plant is composed of organs that are made Objectives

Figure 2.2.1. The nature of a plant system.

Figure 2.2.2. The plant cell

The Cell Wall

Cytosol/Cytoplasm Figure 2.2.4. The nucleus

Figure 2.2.8. Golgi Apparatus

Figure 2.2.7. Microtubules • Chromoplasts. Plastids with the

The Plant Tissue System

Types of Meristematic Tissues

Figure 2.2.9. Simple tissues. Parenchyma

Phloem Figure 2.2.11. Complex tissues. Phloem

Figure 2.2.12. The

Vascular Bundles (Veins)

Figure 2.2.12. The general anatomical region of a leaf

Two Main Parts of a Plant

Regions of the Root

Other Types of Root

Main Components of the Shoot System

Major Parts of Stem

• Bulb - short, erect underground stem

Figure 2.2.17. Position of ovary in a flower

• Schizocarpic splitting – splits at maturity

Aggregate Fruits or Etario

Monocot and Dicot

Parts of a Monocot Seed

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