Study guide for exam on

Nucleic acids, Cell evolution, Cell theory and Cell organelles

February, 2023

Unit 3: Biochemistry-nucleic acids

 Nucleic Acids-large molecules composed of monomer units, called nucleotides. Two

major nucleic acids are DNA and RNA.

A. Nucleotides-know their structure-page 11: pentose monosaccharide ring,

phosphate and nitrogen base. The ring can be ribose or deoxyribose. DNA bases
contain A,T,C and G; ribose bases contain A,U*(uracil),C and G. Know the
complementary bases: A-T and G-C in DNA; A-U and G-C in RNA. A and G are
purines; T, U and C are pyrimidines. Purines have two rings, pyrimidines one.

B. DNA-know how it is formed and the key hydrogen bonds between bases and
covalent bonds formed between P and C. Forms a double helix. Discovered by
Watson and Crick at Cambridge University in the early 1950s.
C. RNA-know the three types; found in viruses; single not double strand. A main
function of RNA is to carry information from DNA in nucleus, through the
nuclear pores and out to the ribosomes so proteins can be made from genetic
instructions found on the DNA in our chromosomes, called genes. No Thymine
in RNA; it is replaced by uracil.
 D.

Unit 4: The cell

I. Cell Theory
 What does it say: 4 tenets; Hooke, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow
 Abiogenesis(Spontaneous Generation)
a) Define
b) Examples of spontaneous generation: mud produces tadpoles, meat
produces maggots, etc.
c) Redi, Spallanzani, Needham, Pasteur experiments and proofs
II. Abiogenesis Revived?
 Oparin Hypothesis(1920s)-four major gases present in atmosphere when earth
formed; life appears about 3.7 billion years ago as Archaebacteria, followed then
by bacteria, both of which were and are prokaryotic, heterotrophic anaerobes.
Early earth provided the energy via lightening, UV radiation, heat from the core
of the earth, meteor impacts and volcanoes to allow the key compounds of NH3,
H2, CO2 and H2O, along with H2S and N2 to combine and form larger and larger
molecules until at around 3.7 billion years ago life appeared. This occurred in a
very warm, salty ocean called primordial soup.
 Haldane (1930s), an English scientist adds that heat in ocean allowed the first pre-
cells, called coacervates to form around the molecules and ac as incubators which
could provide the environment for DNA and RNA to form, followed by
ribosomes and a plasma membrane. Once this was completed bacteria and
Archaebacteria ruled the earth.
 Key dateline: Big Bang (13.7 billion years ago); when the earth formed (4.5 billion
years ago); life first appeared on earth (3.7 billion years ago). 
  Endosymbiotic theory by Professor Lynn Margulis in the 1960s:
 1. Large prokaryotic, heterotrophic, anaerobe devours a chloroplast-like
prokaryotic, autotrophic, incorporates it into the cytoplasm and this becomes,
eventually, the first blue green algae. This B-G algae produces oxygen by
photosynthesis. The oxygen is initially absorbed from the ocean by iron in the
rock under the ocean delaying the formation of aerobic organisms. Eventually, the
iron gets saturated and the oxygen enters the ocean and later the atmosphere
allowing aerobic organisms to appear. B-G algae will evolve into the first plant
cells when a nucleus evolves.
2. Large prokaryotic, heterotrophic, anaerobe devours a mitochondrial-like
prokaryote and incorporates it into its cytoplasm. It now becomes an aerobic
prokaryote. Eventually it develops a nucleus and becomes the first animal cell, a
protozoan.
 Miller-Urey experiment-form amino acids and coacervates (pre-cells) from
apparatus which simulates primordial soup and conditions early atmospheric
conditions. They succeed in producing amino acids and simple sugars as well as
coacervates, but no actual cells!
III. The Modern Cell
 Characteristics of cells
a) All cells must possess three characteristics
b) Cells vary in size
c) Cells reproduce
d) Cell size is limited
e) Cells specialize
IV. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell characteristics
V. Article in the packet on abiogenesis. Be sure to read it.
VI. Parts of the cell

1. Major Cell Organelles

 Cell Membrane System (Membrane bound organelles): Which five organelles
possess it?
 Basic structure of Singer model of Plasma membrane
 Four functions of cell membrane
 Nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear envelope
 ER: smooth and rough
 Ribosomes
 Golgi Complex
 Lysosomes
 Vesicles
 Know how all of these organelles interrelate via vesicles
2. Chloroplast and Mitochondria
3. Plastids: chromoplasts, leucoplasts
4. Endosymbiotic Hypothesis
 Symbiosis: Examples of mutualism, commensalism, parasitism
  Professor Lynn Margulis and her theory of endosymbiosis involving modern day
chloroplasts and mitochondria.
5. Other organelles
 Vacuoles; central vacuole: function in plants and tonoplast
 Peroxisomes (glyoxisomes)-functions involve catalase and H2O2.
 Raphide and Druse crystals (You were to look these up. Make sure you know
what each is and what each does in the plant cell).
 Cytoskeleton: Microfilaments (tubulin), microtubules (actin and myosin),
intermediate filaments. Know functions of each.
 Centrioles (Centrosome: microtubule organizing center); 9 sets of 3 x 1
arrangement of microtubules); 2 functions.
 Basal bodies (9 sets of 3 x 1 arrangement of microtubules); function?
 Cilia (9 sets of 2 x 2 microtubules); functions?
 Flagella ( 9 sets of 2 x 2 microtubules); function
 Cell wall; structure of cell wall in bacteria and eukaryotes.
 Comparison of animal and plant cells, both common and different organelles in
each
 Pics of animal and plant cells( Be able to pick out different organelles in animal
and plant cell diagrams)
 Relationship of surface area to cellular volume in spherical, cylindrical and cubic
shaped cells. Which shape is the most efficient? Spherical.
Not shown: Glyoxisome in plant, peroxisome in animal cell, microfilaments and intermediate
filaments which are mainly In animal cells.