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AL- THOMAS
MAWARDI HOBBES
MONTESQUIEU ARISTOTLE PLATO MARXISM

GEORG WILHELM JOHN JOHN JEAN JACQUES JEREMY MACHIA

HEGEL STUART MILL LOCKE ROUSSEAU BENTHAM VELLI
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Introduction:
One of the most significant theories and a philosophy
that has contributed much to the modern world.
German Philosopher Karl Marx helped the working class
to question the injustice enforced upon them through
their wages, life style and oppression. Marxism, for
many, is a beginning of progress and evolution.

Works:
Political Economy
Communist

Sources of Thoughts:
a) Hegellianism
b) British Economists
c) Utopian socialists
d) French Revolution

Theoretical Exposition:
a) scientific socialism b) dialectical materialism
c) Revolutionary zeal

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Dialectical Materialism:
a) Marxist dialectical method
i) Nature is connected and determined
ii) nature is continuous state of motion and change:
iii) natural quantitate change lead to qualitative change
iv) contradictions inherent in nature
b) Marxist materialism
i) Matter, being nature, is an objective reality : source of
sensation and ideas
ii) Replaced ‘Hegelian Spirit” with objective and material
world
iii) world and its laws are fully intelligible and nothing is
outside the scope of human knowledge

Historical Materialism:
materialistic conception of history through the application of
D.M to the development of society
a) Means of production:
means of producing the satisfaction of material needs ;
satisfaction of one need leads to fresh needs

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a) Means of Production:
Means of producing the satisfaction of material needs ;
satisfaction of one need leads to fresh needs ; human history
consists of successive stages of development of various M ; thus,
the method of procuring instruments of productions is the chief
source in the development of material life of a society.
major categorization : hunter era ; agrarian era ; industrial era
b) Productive Relations
Social relationships involving the utilization of the M ; P
dependent on the stage of evolution of M
stages of productive relations : communalism ; slavery ;
feudalism ; capitalism; socialism
c) History: Dialect of M and P
Development of new M resulted into the destruction of existing
P and the emergence of new P ; continuous conflicts ; “ history
is the result of productive activity in interplay with social
relationships”
Example : agricultural revolution ; colonialism
d) Theory of Base and Superstructure
Economy is base and the ideas( politics,law,philosophy, art,
religion, morality) are superstructure ; the base determine the
superstructure

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The Doctrine of class Struggle Save for Later

Concept of property divided society into two classes

Inevitability of hostility between two classes
Dominancy of property own class
Capitalism : conflict between bourgeois and proletariat
Continual conflict until disappearance of private property

Capitalism and its Consequences

a) contradictions inherent in capitalism
‘product is socialized, but ownership is not”
b) theory of surplus value
Lockean labour theory of value
Theory of substance wage
Necessary part of capitalism
Consequences: expansion of proletariat and contraction of
bourgeois
c) ‘Alienation’ of workers :
exploitation ; no feeling of ownership of production;
machine labour; sense of estrangement
d) Revolution of the Proletariat ( transitory phase)
e) Capitalism is self liquidating
inevitability of overproduction ; falling rate of profit ;
increased exploitation of workers ;
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Ideal Society
no class conflict ; final stage of historical materialism ;
provision of adequate material subsistence and opportunity
for development of physical and mental faculties.

Influence:
Marxism-Leninism ; social democracy

Criticism
exclusive monopoly of economy
materialism
inconsistency of thoughts
historical determinism
ideal society will be a stagnant society.

some basic questions of political science are unaddressed.

students would identify them and then pen down their answers
according to what they have learnt so far.

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PLATO "
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Introduction:
The safest characterization of the European philosophical
tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato’. This
statement by Alfred North Whitehead highlights the
importance and indispensability of Platonic thoughts in the
intellectual history of Europe. He was not only the first
systematic philosopher but also the first to place political ideas
in their full philosophical context. He pioneered the idea of
systematic teaching by founding the Academy in 386 BC which
was a school for training statesmen and citizens and a center
for philosophical investigation.
Following the Greek intellectual environment, he placed virtue
and justice above all things and fused moral and political
philosophy to this purpose. He opted threefold methodology to
address the most fundamental political question: how to
harmonize conflicting interests of the different parts of society.
Given his contributions and the sheer penetration of his ideas
in a subsequent era, he is rightly considered as the greatest
political thinker in the history of European political thoughts.

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Empirical: Philosophical idealization of Sparta

Theoretical: a- Pythagoras b- Heraclitus c- Parmenides d- Socrates

Contextualizing Greek Polity

Concept of Polis
Political Experimentation
Spartan Cohesiveness: Athenian Anarchism
Peloponnesian Wars

Philosophical Ideas of Sparta

Theory of Knowledge Myth of cave
Metaphysics: a- Theory of forms b- Platonic Dualism

Political Ideas
Methodology
Purpose
Major Ideas

Plato's Major Ideas

1. Idea of Republican State
a- Utopian Model b- Idea of Justice c- Idea of Society

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1. Idea of Republican State

Utopian Model
Idea of Justice
Idea of Society
Conceptualizing the origin of society
Analyzing between human nature and society
Tripartite social hierarchy
Functional conceptualization
Function of state
Concept of citizenship
Idea of statesman
concept of virtue
Philosopher King
Rational being
Unlimited discretionary powers
Politics-Art equation
Virtues of the state
Education system
Communism
Concept of gender

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2. Philosophy of Education Save for Later

Conceptual understanding
Purpose of education
State and Education
Methodology and Structure
Critical evaluation
3. Idea of Justice
Evaluation of various concepts
a- Cephalus b- Polemarchus c- Thrasymacus d- Glaucon
Platonic conception of justice
Theoretical definition of justice
Individual justice
Social justice
State and Justice
Nature and justice
Education and Justice
Function of justice
Critical evaluation
4. Classification of Government
Republic
Statesman

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4. Classification of Government
Republic
a- Republic b- Timocracy c- Oligarchy
d- Democracy e- Tyranny
Statesman
a- Lawful b- Unlawful c- Monarchy
d- Tyranny e- Aristocracy f- Oligarchy
i- Constitutional Democracy j- Unconstitutional Democracy

Criticism
Unrealistic conception of human nature
Provided intellectual basis of Totalitarianism
Establishment of intellectual tyranny
Rigid censorship
Ossification of society and culture
Destruction of Diversity

Conclusion
Stability is more important than liberty

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2. Philosophy of Education
Conceptual understanding
Purpose of education
State and Education
Methodology and Structure
Critical evaluation
3. Idea of Justice
Evaluation of various concepts
a- Cephalus b- Polemarchus c- Thrasymacus d- Glaucon
Platonic conception of justice
Theoretical definition of justice
Individual justice
Social justice
State and Justice
Nature and justice
Education and Justice
Function of justice
Critical evaluation
4. Classification of Government
Republic
Statesman
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1. Idea of Republican State

Utopian Model
Idea of Justice
Idea of Society
Conceptualizing the origin of society
Analyzing between human nature and society
Tripartite social hierarchy
Functional conceptualization
Function of state
Concept of citizenship
Idea of statesman
concept of virtue
Philosopher King
Rational being
Unlimited discretionary powers
Politics-Art equation
Virtues of the state
Education system
Communism
Concept of gender

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ARISTOTLE
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The Philosopher Series
Introduction:
First known political scientist
His empirical approach influenced many thinkers of the
medieval and modern era
To him, the object of political science is to determine the
best practicable state
His constitutionalism and regard of law is an eternal legacy
to the modern world
Wields political naturalism to support conservative political
conclusions
Established Lyceum
With him ended the classic era of Greek philosophy
Works:
Ethics, Politics

Sources of Aristotelian Thoughts:

a) Greek polity
b) Plato

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Theoretical Exposition
a) Empirical approach
b) Evolutionary view of scientific investigation
c) Historical criticism
d) Realism

Aristotelian Political Thoughts

a) Historical Observation on Politics
1. Plurality of concepts
2. Fundamental similarity: organic association
b) Political Naturalism
1. ‘all-natural ingredients’ argument
2. Political animal( zoon politikon)
3. Whole is prior to the individual ( city-state is naturally
prior to the individual)
c) Critique of Plato
1. Defence of private property
2. Defence of marital institution
3. Defend harmony of interest rather than their
abolishment
4. Moral rather than economic nature of the critique

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d) Concept of Citizen
defines a citizen as a person who has the right to
participate in deliberative or judicial office. Qualifications
are: freedom and possession of the private property
e) Concept of State
1. Definition of state
2. Organic nature of the state
3. Necessary elements of the state: sense of fellowship,
political organization, justice
4. End of the state
5. Goodness of the state
6. Principle of distributive justice: constitutional
allocation of power should reflect the composition of the
citizen body.
7. Polity (best practicable state: balance of democratic and
oligarchic principles by harmonizing quantity and
quality. It can be achieved by the policy of moderation ie
vesting powers in the middle class.
f) Classification of Governments( based on law)
Lawful
1. Monarchy( virtue is guiding force)
2. Aristocracy( virtue and wealth)
3. Polity( moderation)
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Unlawful
1. Tyranny( force, deceit and selfishness)
2. Oligarchy( greed of wealth)
3. Democracy( equality of powers)
g) Aristotelian Constitutionalism
1. Definition of the constitution: a certain way of
organizing those who inhabit the city-state. It defines the
aim of the city-state
2. Nature of constitution: general and impersonal
3. Purpose of the constitution: to protect liberty and to
avoid anarchy
4. Essentiality of the constitutional stability
5. Sovereignty of the law
h) Concept of Gender
i) Master- Slave Distinction

Criticism
1. Undue statism
2. Inconsistency of thoughts
3. Undue respect for customs and traditions
4. Conceptual ambiguity

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Similarity between Plato and Aristotle

a) Idealization of the polis
b) Conception of human nature
c) State-regulated education system
d) Organic nature of the state
e) Statism
f) Nobility of citizenship
g) Classification of governments
h) Exalted status of Justice and Virtue
i) Fusion of moral and political philosophy
Difference with Plato
a) Theory of knowledge
b) Platonic Dualism vs Aristotelian Realism
c) Validity of private property
d) Nature of Statesman
e) Ideal vs best practicable state
f) Concept of gender

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MONTESQUIEU
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Introduction:
Distinguished French political philosopher of the 18th
century
Father of modern historical research
Aristotle of the 18th century
Influenced by the rationalism of the French thinkers
‘Liberalism of fear ‘ a conservative liberal.
First systematic proponent of the theory of separation of
power & supremacy of the constitution
Expounded theory of legal relativism.
Influenced the constitution of US

Works:
The Persian Letters (1721)
The Spirit of Laws (1748) ( How the cause of the liberty may
be addressed through the establishment of particular
constitutional conditions? )

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Sources of Thoughts:
Aristotelian Empiricism & Realism
Scientific intellectual environment
French political thoughts
English constitutional structure
Personal political experience
Theoretical Exposition
Empirical approach
Scientific study of history
Inclination towards realism
Empiricism and historical methods
Geography and social construction
Major Political Theories
i Theory of Jurisprudence
a Definition of Law “ Laws are the necessary relations
arising from the nature of things “
b Law of Nature “Political study is natural” - Peace -
Nourishment - Social animal - Desirability of society

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i- Theory of Jurisprudence
a Definition of Law “ Laws are the necessary relations
arising from the nature of things “
b Law of Nature “Political study is natural” - Peace -
Nourishment - Social animal - Desirability of society
c Indispensability of “positive laws” ( laws to keep peace)
- International law - Political laws - Civill laws
d Necessity of government e- Formulation of laws:
Appropriation is dependent on the “observation of
spirit”
ii- The Nature and Principle of Government
a Defining nature ( form of rulership found in a civil
society )
b Defining principle ( underlying force by which society
is motivated)
iii- Education System

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iv- Possible forms of government
Republic: Democratic & Aristocratic - Monarchy -
Despotic
a Nature of governments - Republic -
Monarchy ( monarchial power flows through and is
checked by other immediate, subordinate, and
dependent powers ) - Despotic
b Principle of governments - Republic ( the governing
principle is the virtue of the people - virtue lead to self-
restraint)
Monarchy ( motivational force is honour and law
takes the place of virtue) - Despotic ( motivational
force is fear and law is replaced by the will of
despot)
v- Law in relation to government
a Law of the republic
Democracy ( economic equity) - Aristocracy (
moderation is the key to success)
b- Law of monarchy: honour( fixed and established laws)

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c- Law of despotism ( will of the despot)

Necessity of elaborate codes of law and judicial
system in R and M
compatibility between foundation and
superstructure
Dilemma of Republic: can be solved by
confederation.
Ideas relating to the extent of territory and forms of
government influenced US
d- Necessity and functioning of law
vi- Climate and functioning of law ( comparison of east
and west)
vii- Potential corruptible factors
a) Democracy
the spirit of inequality
the spirit of extreme equality
b) Monarchy
the abolishment of intermediary agencies; arbitrary
nature of the law; debasement of honor
c) despotism: in a state of continual corruption.

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c- Law of despotism ( will of the despot)

Necessity of elaborate codes of law and judicial
system in R and M
compatibility between foundation and
superstructure
Dilemma of Republic: can be solved by
confederation.
Ideas relating to the extent of territory and forms of
government influenced US
d- Necessity and functioning of law
vi- Climate and functioning of law ( comparison of east
and west)
vii- Potential corruptible factors
a) Democracy
the spirit of inequality
the spirit of extreme equality
b) Monarchy
the abolishment of intermediary agencies; arbitrary
nature of the law; debasement of honor
c) despotism: in a state of continual corruption.

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Why Aristotle of 18th Century ?

a) Political Naturalism
b) Progressive Conservative
c) Empirical exposition
d) relation of climate with the formation of the government
e) Classification of the government
f) separation of power g) disregard for idealism

Criticism
English constitution
particularism and prejudicial in historical criticism
Theoretical ambiguity

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Introduction:
The first philosopher to enunciate systematically the
concept of social contract
One of the greatest and most influential political
thinkers of all ages
Mechanistic and individualistic political philosophy
Repudiated Greek theory of naturalism and proposed
state as a artificial creation of Will.

Works:
Leviathan (1651) ; De Cive ; De Corpore Politico

Sources of Thoughts:
a) Machiavelli
b) Scientific revolution
c) European Political conditions: English Civil war and
Glorious revolution; 30 year War

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Theoretical Exposition:
a) Mechanistic Worldview
b) Empirical method of observation
c) Criticism of the validity of the historical observation
d) Application of logic on social phenomenon

Theory of Social Contract

Definition of the social contract: that the state or society is
created through an agreement or contract among the people
whom the state comprises.
a) Conception of human nature
Two basic elements: Passion ( selfishness, individualism,
desires, aggressive impulses, and instinctive urge to
acquire power ) and Reason ( mental capabilities )
Two fundamental drives of human nature: acquisition of
what is desirable and avoidance of what is undesirable.
The chief object of the human being is self-preservation
and a desire for power. Thus, security is the greatest
good and insecurity is greatest evil.

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b) State of nature
a state of unbridled war of each against all, a state of
violence, chaos, and deception
might is the only right
No chances of any consummation of civilizational forces
unrestricted human passions
c) Laws of nature
i) First law of nature: quest for peace and self-
preservation ( to seek peace as far as you have any hope
of obtaining it, and when you cannot obtain it, to use any
means you can to defend yourself)
ii) Second law of nature: Relative Liberty ( to be content,
foe the sake of peace and self-preservation, provided
others are also content, with only so much liberty “
against other men “ as you would allow other men against
yourself )
iii) Third law of nature : observance of the covenants (that
men perform the covenants they have made )

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d) Establishment of the Leviathan :
Reason compels people to transfer both the collective
strength and their right to use whatever is necessary to
defend a sovereign power. formulation of civil society.
e) Nature of the contract
social and mutual
binding
The transfer is unconditional and irrevocable
unilateral: no covenant between the Leviathan and subject
the only right the people have is the right to self-defense
f) Nature of Sovereignty
i) necessary attribute of the Leviathan
ii) absolute, irrevocable, inalienable, unlimited, non-
transferable, amoral , creator of property, source of law

Hobbesian theory of the State:

a) Logical necessity of the state
b) Nature of state: authoritarianism and absolutism
c) End of the state: promotion of the survival of the humanity
d) Sovereignty of the state
e) State and government

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f) Is it a totalitarian state:
i) Foundation of the government
ii) Justification of individualism
iii) Equality of men
iv) Political supremacy
v) Recognition of equality and liberty
g) Form of government

Critical Evaluation:
a) Philosophical basis of authoritarian govt
b) fundamentality of the social order and peace
c) Foundation of contractualism
d) particularistic interpretation of the human nature
e) faulty concept of the contract

The End :)

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Introduction:
1. Man is a Rational Creature
2. Reason is the basis of religion
3. All religious commandments are rational
4. Reason develops the knowledge of right and wrong
5. Inability of reason and religion to fight passion
(Competition for Power) in order to require a balanced
society, there arises a need for Political Authority
6. Necessity of learning and knowledge for both: ruler
(to know justice and just path) and the subjects (to act
in mannerism)

The ideal Society

a. Inherent Harmony between human nature and society
(Platonic Metaphor)
b. Collective sufficiency vs Individual Insufficiency
c. Individual inadequacy is an act of God to remind us that
we need people and God to survive.
d. Individual Perfection is the basis of just society/Polity
e. Reason: to know God and just path

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Principles of Society
a. Religion
b. A Competent Authority
c. System of Justice
d. Public Security
e. Ample means of production
f. Good Prospects

A Competent Authority
a. Force and cruelty are necessary to establish a society
b. Then, you need justice

The Ideal Man

a. A right soul
b. Good-natured red attitude
c. Sufficient means of productivity
d. The most honorable profession is the profession of
intellect.
e. Platonic functional Specialization and Division of Labor

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The State/Imam/Caliph
a. "God, may His power be exalted, delegated (nadaba) a
leader for the Umma, by whom He replaced
Prophethood, and through whom he protects religion.
He has entrusted to him the government so that
management (of affairs) may stem from revealed religion
and views may follow an authoritative judgment.
Therefore, the Imamate is a principle on which the rules
of religion are given ultimate effect and through which
the interest of the Ummah are organized, so that general
affairs are validated through it and particular legal
authorities are issued by it.
b. Reason and revealed religion are guidance of ruler
c. Imamat is replacement of the institute of Imamat
d. Institution of shariah and reason
e. Obligatory institution
f. If not taken up by a competent person then two groups
will do this farz kafaya.

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People of Choice (Qualified to choose Imam)

Qualifications of Electors:
Collective Justice
Knowledge to recognize Imam
Judgment and Wisdom

People of Candidate for Imam

Qualifications of Imam:
Collective Justice
Knowledge
Soundness of Senses
Soundness of Body Limbs
Judgment conducive for Ruling and Administration
Courage and Bravery
Tribe of Quraish
"give preference to Quraysh, and do not go before them",

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Appointment of Imam (Consent and Uqd)

a. Selection by Electoral College (5 (Abu Bakar) to 3 (Wali
and 2 witnesses in marriage) to 1 (Abbas to Ali)
b. Appointment by previous Imam (Ijma----Abubakar to
Umar)
Conditions:
1. When the Imam nominates the person who is
qualified for the Caliphate, having taken into account
the necessary qualifications, the nomination is
conditional upon acceptance by the nominee.
2. The Imam cannot renounce his nomination so long
as the nominee's qualifications have not changed.
3. If the Imam were to renounce his successors and
nominate another, the nomination of the latter would
be invalid.
4. The nominated Imam had no right to abdicate in
favor of another, and if he were to abdicate, the
homage to the other would be illegal until the
process of selection had been performed again.

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5. If the Imam's successor were to resign from office,

his resignation would be invalid until it had been
ratified by the Imam. Thereupon, if the Imam were to
find someone else qualified for the office, the
assigned Imam could then resign. If no one were to
be found, neither his resignation, nor the Imam's
acceptance of it, would be permissible, and the
assigned Imam would be obliged to carry out his
duties as required by the office.
6. The conditions necessary for the Imamate were to
be taken into account regarding the Imam-designate
at the time of his nomination. If he were underage or
dissolute at the time of designation, but of legal
majority and with a good reputation at the time of
the Imam's death, his Caliphate would not be valid
until the electors renewed their homage to him.
7. If the Imam were to nominate someone who was
absent and it was unknown whether or not he was
alive, the nomination would be invalid....(cont.)

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7. If the Imam were to nominate someone who was

absent and it was unknown whether or not he was
alive, the nomination would be invalid. If he were
alive, the nomination would be conditional upon his
return, and the ahl al-ikhtiyar would have to call him
at the 1. Ibid., pp. 11-13 162 Imam's death. If he were
still absent and the Muslims were to suffer from his
delay, the ahl alik could authorize someone else to
administer the duties of the Imamate, and they could
swear allegiance to him as a deputy, not as a caliph,
until the advent of the new caliph.
8. If the heir apparent (wall 'l- ahd) wanted, before
the death of the Imam, to pass his successorship to
someone else, he could not, because the Caliphate
would be vested in him only after the death of the
Imam.
9. If the Caliph abdicated, the Caliphate would be
transferred to his successor, because his abdication
would have the same results as his death.

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10. If the Caliph were to designate two successors

and did not make his preference for either known, it
would be possible for the ahl al-ikhtiyar to elect
either of them after the C aliph's death.
11. It would be permissible for the Caliph to appoint
the electors, just as he was able to appoint a
successor. The only valid election would be the one
that was comprised of the appointed electors. This
was one of his rights as a Caliph.
12. When the Imam convened a constitutive council
as c Umar did, the members could not appoint-a
further candidate after to succeed the one they
selected. That is, they did not have the right, like al-
Mawardi suggests the Imam has to appoint more
than one successor.
c. Two are equally qualified (Seniority-------Need of the
time)
d. After selecting one, another is found who is more
able---contract with Ist is valid

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Duties of the Imam

When the people knew their Imam and delegated to him
the authority for handling state affairs, the Imam had to
fulfill ten duties. They were as follows: -
1. To maintain the religion according to its established
principles and those agreed upon by the earliest
Muslims (al-salaf al-§alih) ....... and if an innovator were
to appear, or someone were to become a sceptic, 1.
Shahrasta-dil, Milal, v. 1, pp. 159-160 2. Al-Mawardi, al-
Ahkam, p. 15 3. Ibid. , loc. cit. 4. Ibid., pP-15-17. 166 the
Imam would have to clarify and show him the correct
way. He would also have to admonish him to recognize
the rights and the punishments so that religion could
be preserved from disorder and the community from
stumbling.
2. To carry out legal judgment for litigants, and to cut
short any disputes among plaintiffs, so that equity
would prevail, without either curbing the oppressors or
weakening the oppressed.

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3. To guard Islamic territory and to protect womenfolk

(Harim) so that people could carry out their economic
activities freely and travel throughout the land without fear
of any threat to life or property.
4. To enforce legal penalties (hudud), so as to secure Allah's
prohibitions Against violation and to protect the people's
right from harm or destruction.
5. To strengthen the frontier fortresses with equipment. This
would mean that the enemy could not attack, as a result of
the Imam's neglect. He was also to prevent the committing of
misdeeds or the shedding of the blood of any Muslim or non-
Muslim.
6. To wage holy war against those who resist Islam. This
would happen after entreating non-Muslims to accept the
religion of Islam. This should be carried out until they were
converted to Islam or had the status of dhirL=lS. This would
ensure the right of God to grant Islamic victory over all other
religions was exercised.
7. To collect legal taxes according to the revealed law, as
written or interpreted, without fear or oppression.

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8. To assess the gifts and whatever sums of money should

be payable by the public treasury without lavishness or
stinginess, and to make payment at the proper time,
neither in advance nor late.
9. To appoint honest and sincere men. This would ensure
that whatever tasks they are to carry out will be done
efficiently. Also, if they were to be entrusted with sums of
money, the monies would be safe. 167
10. To carry out personally the supervision of state affairs,
so that he himself could direct the national policy of the
Umma and protect its interests. He was not to delegate
these duties to others so that he could immerse himself in
the pursuit of pleasures or religious worship. All
responsibility was with him for all other people could be
expected to act treacherously or offer misleading advice.

The End :)

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" "
GEORG WILHELM HEGEL
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Introduction:
A culmination of the movement in German philosophy
The hardest to understand of all the great philosophers
Glorification of state and nationalism

Works:
1. Phenomenology of spirit.
2. Science of Logic.
3. Encyclopedia of philosophical sciences.
4. Philosophy of Rights.
5. Philosophy of History

Sources of Thoughts:
a) Political fragmentation of Germany
b) Kant
c) Napoleonic Wars

Theoretical Exposition:
Progressive evolutionary course of history
Objective Rationalism

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Purpose
Unification of Germany; National Greatness

Hegelian philosophy of Dialectics

a) Meaning of dialect
b) Nature of the world : connected and determined ; a
continuous state of motion and change ; contradictions
inherent in nature
c) Historical Determinism
d) Dialectical Process: the force that moves history ; progress
as a universal law
Hegelian Conception of Individual
“ the human being is an ‘active process of becoming’, whose
actions are driven by desires “
‘ enslaved’ are those who are driven by immediate, present
desires
Liberty is to transcend immediate desires through the process
of fighting and working
Need of recognition : deeper desire if mankind. it is a source of
conflict through which individual realize their potential as
human beings
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Hegelian Conception of State:

“ the state is the actually existing realized moral life”
a) Institutional expression of Dialectics
b) History in relation to state
c) Spirituality of the state : “ state is the culmination of
human reason”
d) Nation and history : the principle of historical
development is national genius
d) End of state
e) Politcal naturalism
f) Absolute sovereignty of the state
g) Conception of individual freedom
h) Necessity of war ( based on his doctrine of conflict)
i) Static heroism “ few individuals intrinsically know the
rational process of dialect”
j) ‘rational’ government of time : constitutional monarchy
k) Functional system of representation : state consists of a
number of organized groups

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Criticism
a) Basis of fascism and totalitarianism
b) Undemocratic tone
c) Restrictive concept of individual freedom
d) International anarchism

The End :)

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" "
JOHN STUART MILL
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Introduction:
The great exponent of individual liberty and
Representative Democracy. On Liberty remains one of
the great statements of liberal tolerance. It puts forward
in unsurpassed ways the core conviction that
government owes equal respect to the diverse answers
free individuals give to the meaning of the good life ;
prophet of sane individualism; humanized utilitarianism
and exponent of feminism

Works:
Logic
Principles of Political Economy; on liberty ; on utilitarianism
Representative Government

Sources of Thoughts:
a) logical empiricism
b) English political culture
c) james Mill, Bentham and Harriet Taylor

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Theoretical Exposition:
logic, Liberalism, Individualism, progressive reformer
On Utilitarianism:
qualitative utility( the pleasure of intellect, the pleasure of the
feelings and imaginations and moral sentiments must be
assigned a higher value than that of mere senses.
Mill Conception of Liberty:
On Liberty: “ the nature and limits of the power which can
be legitimately exercised by society over individuals”
a) Meaning of Liberty: freedom of an individual
b) Scope of Liberty: “[T]he only purpose for which power can
be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized
community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His
own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant
c) Importance of Liberty: general happiness; progress of
human beings; actualization of the capacities; dialogue and
discourse; free speculations leads to the invention of new
ideas; the progress of society depended largely on the
originality and energy of the individual; development of
mental faculties ; the value of the state depends upon the
quality of the people
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d) Classification of Liberty:
1) self-regarding acts ( absolute autonomy)
i) Freedom of conscience
ii) Liberty of thoughts and expression ( most important
iii) liberty of pursuit of happiness and tastes
iv) liberty of association
v) liberty of religion and morals
2) other-regarding acts( actions affecting society) : relative
autonomy
e) State and Liberty:
Liberty is indispensable for general happiness
Minimum state interference in the sphere of individual
freedom
End of state
proponent of representative government
doctrine of promotional representation
Three-tier representative system: the people; elected
representatives; policy-making body
f) women and liberty

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Categories of people immune from liberty:

Mentally – retarded people do not have the right to liberty.
The children are not allowed to enjoy liberty.
Liberty is not for the backward people or races.

Categories of people immune from liberty:

Mentally – retarded people do not have the right to liberty.
The children are not allowed to enjoy liberty.
Liberty is not for the backward people or races.

Criticism:
Ambiguity in the definition of liberty
Exclusive conception of liberty
Disregard social customs and traditions
Dilemma of liberty and security

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JOHN LOCKE
" "
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Introduction:
Father of liberalism and constitutionalism; civil
government is the result of contract argues in favour of
limited government and protection for individual rights

Works:
Two Treatises on Government

Sources of Thoughts:
a) Thomas Hobbes and montesquieu
b) personal political experience
c) Glorious British revolution 1688

Methodology:
a) Empirical method
b) contractual political thinker
Purpose: to refute the absolutism of Hobbes; to provide
theoretical justification for revolution; to protect
natural rights and freedom of the people.

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Theory of Social Contract:
a) Identical formulation with Hobbes: human nature, state
of nature, the social contract and establishment of the state
b) Conception of Human Nature: goodness and
progressive; characterized by freedom, equality, and
reason; existence of the harmony of interests ;
c) State of Nature: pre-political rather than pre-social ;
governed by law of nature( rational) ; state of peace and
goodwill ; equality in personal liberty ; variety and
subjectivity in the interpretation of law created disorder
d) Laws of Nature: preserve yourself; do not harm others;
help others if possible
e) Nature of the contract:
two contracts
inalienable natural rights (life, liberty, and property) are
not transferable
Consensual and mutual
Popular sovereignty
f) Nature of state
i) Distinction between state and government
ii) Popular and limited Sovereignty
iii) Function of the state
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iv) Locke’s doctrine of consent “ the legitimacy of the state and
it's governing of its citizen rest on their prior consent to the
state’s existence, authority and power.
v) Definition of political power: “ right to make laws for the
regulation and preservation of property and to enforce such
laws “
vi) Repudiation of the Filmer doctrine of the divine right of the
king
v) Separation of Power: Supremacy of the legislature (
reflection of the popular will)
vi) Limits on government: Government can do the job of
legislating, adjudicating, and enforcing rules in conformity with
the laws of nature.
Four limits: cannot exercise in an arbitrary manner; must be
directed towards the good of the society; property rights;
cannot give up its power to make laws to any other body or
person.
vii) Justification of the revolution
viii) Major themes (the foundation of classic liberalism): the
individual is more important than the state; the individual is
capable of independence and self-determination; progress is
possible in human affairs ; state power should be limited .

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g) Theory of natural rights
Right to life, liberty, equality, property, and pursuit of
happiness are natural rights.
Innate, inalienable, and inviolable
End of state
Implications : fundamental in the development of
the ideology of individualism and the concept
fundamental rights ; US constitution
h) Locke and the right to property
The labor theory of value ( the value of a product
depends upon the labor expended on it.
Property rights are inalienable and inviolable
Endorsed economic inequality
i) On Toleration

Influence:
i) Constitution of united states
ii) Subsequent democratic and constitutional movements
iii) French revolution
iii) Marxism
iv) Father of liberalism
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Criticism:
Inconsistency of though
Overly optimistic view of human nature
Ambiguous nature of the contract
Worshipper of the property

The End :)

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" JEAN JACQUES "

ROUSSEAU
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Introduction:
had a powerful influence on philosophy
literature and politics
his importance as a social force
common man philosophy

Works:
A discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences.
A discourse on Inequality.
The Social contract.

Sources of Thoughts :
Age of Enlightenment
French political culture
personal experience

Methodology:
intelligible to a common person
Emotionalism

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Social Contract Theory:
I. Conception of Human Nature: Man is good as long as he
follows his natural instincts; freedom, equality, self-
preservation, and mutual love.
II. State of Nature: perfect freedom and equality; a state of
contention, peace, and tranquility; the advent of property
destroyed the natural liberty
III. Formation of Political Society: “ the first man who,
having enclosed a piece of ground, bethought himself of
saying This is mine and found people simple enough to
believe, was the real founder of civil society.”
social contract means the process by which the state of
nature comes to an end and a political society is
formed.
The advent of private property
Formulation of civil society for the protection of
property through force and laws.
A state of perpetual labor, slavery and wretchedness
Need for a new social contract

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consent-based
essentiality of the general will
to maintain liberty and equality
organic nature of the state: state is a “living body”, a “
public person “. a ‘ moral being” and it is governed by a
general will
surrender of social rights; freedom in private life
V. Concept of Sovereignty
Sovereignty of General Will
identification of absolute sovereignty with the general
will of the people
neither divisible nor representable
VI. Theory of General Will
Synthesis of the Real will of the community and
represents the communal consciousness
represents the true will of the people
Supreme, inalienable, indivisible, immutable,
unrepresentable and infallible
Law is the expression of General Will
Will not force is the basis of the state
VII. Concept of Justice: state of civilization is a state of
injustice
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Criticism:
a) Theoretical justification for popular government: the
legitimacy of government depends on the continual
consent of the people.
b) Father of French Revolution
c) First great figure of Romanticism
d) equalitarian state
e) property is a social right: influenced the proponents of
the welfare concept
f) Totalitarian democracy
g) Vagueness in the concept of general will

The End :)

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" "
JEREMY BENTHAM
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Introduction:
radical reformer; had a great influence on British
legislation in the 19th century; father of utilitarianism; a
believer in the equality of women, an enemy of
imperialism, and an uncompromising democrat; vigorous
application of utilitarianism on various practical
problems ;

Works:
fragments on government; An Introduction to the
Principles of Morals and Legislation; Manual of Political
Economy; Discourse on Civil and Penal Legislation; A
theory of Punishments and Rewards
Sources of Thoughts:
a) Contextualizing English Polity
an era of dynamic change; industrialization and the rise
of the middle class; the need of cohesive and persuasive
theory for aspiring middle class ; need of empirical
rather than rational basis of natural rights theory.

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b) Hobbes ( source of human action can lead to the

construction of good political order )
c) David Hume, the real founder of utilitarianism : ( passion
rather than reason governs human actions ) major political
theory

Major political Themes:

a) Utilitarianism ( heart of Bentham's theory)
i) Conception of human nature: Pleasure as the driving
force of human actions. “ Nature has placed mankind
under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and
pleasure. it is for them alone to point out what we ought
to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. - “
Pleasure is the legitimate goal of all men and action
should be deemed good insofar as it provides happiness
for the greatest possible number. “ - virtue is happiness
ii) Equalitarian - all men should be considered equal
iii) Quantitive calculation
Concept of state ( application of the doctrine of utility)

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the state is a human agency to promote utility…legal equality

and greater equalization of property through state
interference
I) Utility rather than contract is the basis of political
obligations
ii) Basis of governmental legitimacy
iii) End of state
iv) Sovereignty of the state
v) Best form of government
vi) Individual freedom in relation to state
vii) Necessity of continual reforms
viii) Laissez faire economic system
ix) Right of resistance: moral rather than legal
x) Aims of civil law: subsistence, abundance, equality,
and security
xi) Provision of equality of opportunities
c) Theory of Punishment
Penal law is framed in terms of the principal objective
of deterrence, but it also embraces the secondary ends
of disablement, moral reformation, and compensation

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a) Preventive Rather than Retaliatory ( prevention of

the spread of evil)
b) Promotion of Public Welfare
c) Utility of Death Penalty: examined the utility of the
death penalty: no offense warranted capital punishment
d) Factors essential for the effectiveness of theory in
practice
i) offenses must be classified solely on the basis of
the harm perpetrated,
ii) must be an appropriate proportion between
crimes and punishments.
e) Prison Reforms: design and management of the
panopticon prison: security and economy are foremost,
but tempered by humanity and accountability

Criticism:
Hedonistic conception of human nature
The unoriginal and unscientific theory held together by the
political needs of the middle class
Highly individualistic
Question of Egoism

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MACHIAVELLI
" "
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Introduction:
“laudable intellectual honesty about political dishonest”
“ The Prince has survived through the centuries to become a
classic text on the mechanics of state power, and it has earned
Machiavelli the reputation for justifying a “win at any cost”
approach to governing. the aim of state is maximization of the
power”

Works:
Catholicism and Medieval Theology
Feudal System
Historical context
The prince
Discourses
Hellenism
Roman empire
Intellectual Awakening ( Florence: most civilized city in the
world and the chief source of the Renaissance)

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Characteristics of Renaissance: speculation about new

realms; different mental outlook from medievalism; the
diminishing authority of the church and increasing
authority of science; rise of nation-states; spread of
capitalism ; growth of individualism.

Sources of Machiavellian Thoughts :

A. The spirit of renaissance
B. Italian polity : Out of the whole of Europe, it was the
least feudal, the most wealthy and the most politically
diverse land. Political instability and chaos due to
antagonism between oligarchy
C. Greek political theory
D. Personal political Experience

Methodology:
A. Empirical method of observation
B. Concerned with practicals other than speculative politics
C. Objective Realism and Political pragmatism
D. Amoral political philosophy
E. Historical Criticism
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Political Philosophy of Machiavelli
“For where the safety of the country depends upon the
resolution to be taken, no consideration of justice or
injustice, humanity or cruelty, nor of glory or of shame,
should be allowed to prevail. “

Two Basic Premises

a) Indispensability of the state
b) material self being is the most potent force behind
individual and public actions.

End Justify Mean

“ when the act accuses him, the result should excuse him’

Conception of Human Nature

power is virtue; human needs are insatiable due to problem
of scarcity and ambition i.e. desire always exceed attainment.

Essential Political Goods

National independence, security, and well-ordered
constitution.

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Conception of State:
a) Essentiality of the state: ‘ men are evil and act only upon
compulsion. thus, the necessity of coercive force.
b) Cyclic evolution of the state: the state follows a cycle of
growth, maturity, and then decay
c) The doctrine of “Raison Dentate‟: It implies actions and
policies promoting the safety and security of the state.
d) sovereignty and autonomy of the state
e) Machiavellian secularism
f) End of the state
g) The doctrine of aggrandizement: Why Strong state:
patriotism; autonomy from nobility and Papacy; political
chaos in Italy to maximize power on the one hand. It puts
state above morality.

Nature of Ruler ( Popular Machiavellianism )

legitimacy is directly proportional to the skills necessary to
seize power in free competition.
cultivation of oppressed minorities
how to address the problem of conquering a republic
Intelligent application of brutality

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must be a skillful pretender and dissembler

achieving the consent of the governed is a prerequisite for the
governmental stability
composition of armed forces
Respect is more important than affection
applying a twofold methodology for conflict resolution: law
and force
internalizing the qualities of both the fox and the lion
portraying a favorable image by possession of integrity,
courage, determination, and strength of will
Supporting the weak neighbor - merit-based induction in
government offices ( exclusion of parasitic gentry)
Seizing power violently and illegally is what rulers do; to
pretend otherwise is simply not to understand the nature of
political ambition.
Success brings its own justification.
Morally conscientious persons finish last in politics, bringing
ruin to themselves and their country.
He who seizes power by arms must make sure to exterminate
every last living relative of the deposed ruler, as they will
never forgive him.

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Men should either be caressed or annihilated but never

appeased.
He who conquers a free city must destroy it or it will destroy
him.
It is better to fake religion than actually to have it.
It is necessary to betray one’s friends when the situation calls
for it.
Men sooner forget the death of their father than the loss of
their patrimony.
While it is well to appear merciful, faithful, truthful, humane,
and religious, it is dangerous actually to be so.
Consolidate all power in one’s own hands, even if this means
killing one’s own brother.

Distinction between Public and Private Morality

“ a commonwealth and a people is governed in a different
way from a private individual. - critique on traditional moral
theory : shifting nature of politics entails irrelevancy of
standard moral codes of conduct in the realm of political
actions.

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Political Economy of Violence :

The internal form of violence: The vitalities of politics could
not be controlled and directed without the application of
force and the threat at least of violence. It highlights the
inherent instability of the political world; excessive usage can
lead to widespread hatred. External form of violence: War,
Imperialism, and Colonialism.
The importance of law, political institutions, and habits of
civility were that in regularizing human behavior they helped
to reduce the number of instances in which force and fear had
to be applied.
Argument of popular consent.

Necessity of Republic
“ the voice of the people is the voice of God’

Utility of Religion :
instrumental value as a social cement.

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Why apostle of ‘Power Politics’ ?
A. Power-oriented human nature “security for man is
impossible unless it is conjoined with power”
B. Amoral political approach
C. End justify means
D. Definition of political power: to possess power was to be
able to control and manipulate the action of others and
thereby make events conform to one's wishes.
E. The doctrine of aggrandizement
F. Nature of the advice to the rulers

Why Father of Modern Political Thoughts?

First exponent of power-politics
Rejection of the theory of natural law
Exploration of the pragmatic method of analysis
concentrating exclusively on questions of power.
The development of new political metaphysics.
First who put the theory of nation-states?
The first thinker who separated religion from politics and
justified a secular state.

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Responsible for the growth of modern nationalism.
First advocate of autonomy for the state.
Put forward the concept of a supreme, sovereign state and
justified all-powerful central authority.
The state is an end i.e. survival of the state is the central
theme.
Gave a great insight for Art of Government and modern
diplomacy.
Radical departure from greek on the conception of the end of
the state and moral philosophy.

Critical Evaluation
The timeless vision of politics
The negative connotation of Machiavellianism
Relevant in all ages
Influenced Hobbes, Bacon, and german political thinking of
19th century
Machiavelli‟s emphasis on absolute power and authoritarian
rule is the source of the fascist movement
Modern American politics
Ignored individualism

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