8

C H A P T E R

Dynamic Cells

• What are the properties of

membranes and how do these
properties contribute
to cell survival?
• How does matter move into
and out of cells?
• Why and how are the size and
shape of a cell important?

288 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems

T his long, thin bacterium is
being engulfed by a macrophage.
This is a type of cell that defends the
body against invading disease-causing
organisms. How does the macrophage
— a single cell — carry out such a
complex function? What is the story
behind the picture? Cells are much
more than a collection of organelles
and cytoplasm. The lives of cells
depend on how these structures
function and interact, with each
other and with the outside world.
Thousands of chemical reactions
are taking place within this macro-
phage. Like the other cells of your
body, the macrophage is sending and
receiving signals, dividing, using
energy, and building new molecules.
To carry out these activities, cells
Membranes allow the passage of
some materials but not others. The
properties of membranes allow cells
to change shape. The macrophage
does this when it surrounds and
engulfs the bacterium. In fact,
membrane properties are so useful
that people have created many types
of artificial membranes for different
applications. For example, artificial
membranes have been developed to
safely transport medications from
one part of the body to another.
In Chapter 8, you will explore the
structure of membranes. You will also
learn how membranes manage the
basic activities of living cells by
controlling the passage of water
and other materials.
o
oki
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must be able to store and transport

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Why are there multic

L

head
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materials. Some chemicals must be How do cells work

ellular organisms?
head together in a multic
A

combined in the cell, and others lular organism, su

ch as a plant? In a
el-
group, come up wi small
must be kept separate. How are th possible proced
could use to answ ures you
er these questions
to learn about a lea . For instance,
cell activities controlled? Among f’s functions, you ma
dissect the leaf. Th y need to
e strategies you de
the most important structures a cell you with “Design Yo vise will help
ur Own Investigati
Out: The Parts of Pla on: Inside
relies on to carry out these activities nts,” which you wi
ll complete
at the end of Unit 3.
are its membranes.

Chapter 8 Dynamic
Solar Energy Cells •• MHR
and Climates MHR 289
289
 8.1 Membrane Properties
Why do cells need membranes? Consider what you would require to keep
tropical fish. You would need an aquarium to hold water, which could be kept
warm with a small heater. A lid with a light attached to it may cover the top
of the tank. Like the tropical fish in Figure 8.1, cells survive in a controlled
environment. Instead of glass and plastic, a cell has a membrane to separate its
interior from its surroundings. By defining the inside versus the outside of cells,
membranes allow cells to survive as individual units of life.
A cell must also allow some materials to move in and out of it. Similarly, the
aquarium may require a bubbler to introduce oxygen from the air into the water.
Someone must feed the fish and, when wastes build up, replace the dirty water.
Materials entering or exiting a cell must cross the cell membrane. Unlike the hard,
inflexible walls of an aquarium, however, cell membranes change according
to each cell’s needs. The flow of matter between a cell and its environment
makes it an open system.

Figure 8.1 In what ways is an aquarium of tropical fish similar to a cell?

In what ways is it different?

Membrane Structure
Cell membranes are primarily composed of a double layer of phospholipids
(a type of lipid). Proteins and other molecules are embedded between and
attached to the phospholipids. What happens if you try to dissolve lipids, such
as cooking oil, in water? Even with the most vigorous mixing, the oil does not
dissolve. Although the mixing may cause small droplets of fat to separate, the
droplets float back to the surface to form a thin film. The behaviour of the
phospholipids that make up cell membranes is similar to that of the fat droplets.
In the presence of water, phospholipids spontaneously form thin layers.

290 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems

 As shown in Figure 8.2, each phospholipid molecule has a head and a tail.
The two ends have different chemical compositions that cause them to inter-
act differently with water. The head end is hydrophilic, or “water-loving.”
Hydrophilic molecules dissolve easily in water. The tail end, however, is
hydrophobic, or “water-fearing.” Hydrophobic molecules, such as fats and
oils, do not dissolve readily in water. Water molecules repel, or push away,
the tail end of a phospholipid.
The dual nature of phospholipid molecules causes them to arrange themselves
automatically into layers that are two molecules thick. As Figure 8.3 shows,
in each double-layered membrane, the phospholipids’ hydrophilic heads point
toward the water. Their hydrophobic tails are sandwiched in the middle, where
they are shielded from the water. The two layers of phospholipid molecules
are called phospholipid bilayers. Viewed from the side, the two layers of
phospholipids look almost like mirror images of one another. In the Find Out
Activity on the next page, you can investigate the properties of membranes.

CH3
nitrogen CH2 +
N CH3
group CH2 CH3
O hydrophilic
phosphate O P O- head group
group
O
CH2 CH CH2
glycerol
O O

C O C O
CH2 CH2 head hydrophilic heads
CH2 CH2
hydrophobic tails
CH2 CH2 tail
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
fatty acids

hydrophobic
CH2 CH2 tail group water
CH2 CH
CH2 CH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH3
CH2
CH3

Figure 8.2 A phospholipid molecule has hydrophobic Figure 8.3 The molecular structure of a phospholipid bilayer.
fatty acid tails and a hydrophilic head. The head contains Unlike the cell membrane of a living cell, the bilayer shown
a phosphate group and, in some cases, a nitrogen group. here surrounds only water.

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 291


Bubble Biology
How do membranes behave? What do they look
like? A soap bubble is one type of membrane.
Soap molecules are very similar to phospholipids;
they have a water-soluble head and a water-
insoluble tail. As a result, soap bubbles have
several similarities to cell membranes. In this
activity, you will use soap bubbles to explore
the nature of membranes.
Safety Precautions
• Avoid spilling soapy water on the floor, and
clean up any spills.
Materials
newspapers straws detergent solution
cotton string scissors cafeteria trays
Procedure Performing and Recording
1. Work with a partner to spread newspapers on
the table and floor in your work area.
2. Thread a piece of cotton string through two
straws. Hold the straws parallel to each other
and pull them apart to make parallel sides of
a rectangle that is smaller than the cafeteria
tray. Cut and knot the ends of the string.
3. Without making the detergent solution frothy,
pour it into the tray to a depth of about 1 cm.
4. Dip the string-and-straw rectangle into
the detergent solution, then lift it to create
a thin film.
292 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems
Find Out
5. Predict what will happen if you stretch, fold,
or alter the shape of the detergent solution
membrane. Test your predictions and describe
what happens to the membrane.
(a) Slide the straws of the string-and-straw
apparatus into different positions to create
different shapes.
(b) Hold the apparatus perpendicular to the
floor, then sweep it sideways to stretch
the membrane.
(c) To test the effect of folding the membrane,
slowly bend and fold the apparatus.
(d) As one partner holds the membrane, the
other should wet a finger in the detergent
solution and slowly push it through and
sideways in the membrane.
6. After holding the membrane out of the solution
for several seconds, observe the membrane
surface closely for movement.
7. Clean and dry your work area.
What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
1. (a) How does the membrane respond to
bending and prodding?
(b) What do your observations suggest about
the properties of cell membranes?
2. Based on your observations, would you
expect the phospholipids in cell membranes
to move within the membrane? Explain
your answer.
3. How might the properties of membranes
affect their functions?
At about 10 nanometres, the thickness of a soap bubble
membrane is very similar to that of a cell membrane.
Membranes Contain Proteins
Cell membranes contain embedded proteins. These proteins move substances
across the membrane and carry out chemical reactions. Other proteins protrude
from the membrane’s surface. Some proteins have “marker” molecules on
them that allow cells to recognize each other and, in some cases, protect cells
from infection. Such proteins may also act as an attachment site for “messenger
molecules,” such as hormones. Messenger molecules are used in cell-to-cell
communication and control of cell functions.

Membranes Are Fluid

Viewed under the microscope, cell membranes may appear motionless.
However, the molecules that make up membranes are thought to be in constant
What is a mosaic? Compare the
motion, as in a fluid. This model suggests that, like canoes on a lake, membrane
structure of a mosaic of tiles or
phospholipids and proteins drift past one another. This fluidity helps membrane stones with the structure of a
proteins to function by allowing them to move within the membrane. It also membrane. In your notebook,
gives membranes flexibility, allowing cells to change shape. This model of write a short note relating the
everyday meaning of “mosaic”
membrane structure is called the fluid-mosaic model, because the fluid motion
to your understanding of the
within membranes changes the pattern of proteins on the cell surface. The fluid fluid-mosaic model.
mosaic model is shown in Figure 8.4. Carbohydrates (such as sugars) are attached
to lipids and proteins on the membrane’s outer surface. These carbohydrates
are thought to be involved in cell-to-cell communication. Together, the proteins,
lipids, and carbohydrates of the membrane form a biological mosaic. In the next
investigation you will learn about an experiment that supports the hypothesis
that membranes are fluid.

Outside cell

carbohydrate
chain

phospholipid
integral bilayer
protein

cholesterol

Inside cell peripheral filaments of

protein the cytoskeleton

Figure 8.4 The fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure. Inside the cell, parts of the cell’s skeleton
(called the cytoskeleton) support the membrane. Each type of cell has its own unique “fingerprint” of
carbohydrate chains on the outer surface that distinguishes it from other kinds of cells.

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 293

 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

8–A
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

Fusing Fluid Cell Membranes

Think About It
Cell membranes are about seven millionths of a millimetre thick.
Until the invention of electron microscopes, it was not possible
to observe membranes directly. Even so, scientists were able to
make inferences about membranes by studying the movement of mouse cell human cell
protein molecules embedded within them. In one experiment,
illustrated here, researchers labelled membrane proteins with
dyes. The dyes made the proteins visible under a microscope. cell fusion
Then, two labelled cells — one mouse cell and one human cell
— were fused. Observations of the resulting hybrid cell led to
some important new insights about the structure and behaviour
of the cell membrane.

What to Do immediately after fusion

1 On the previous page you learned that membranes
are fluid. Before scientists discovered this, an
alternative hypothesis might have stated that
membranes are rigid. Both hypotheses can be
tested by the mouse-human cell fusion experi-
ment. Based on the two hypotheses, develop two
predictions about the movement of membrane
proteins during cell fusion. Write each prediction
in your notebook. mixed membrane proteins
After human cells and mouse cells fuse,
2 The cell fusion experiment is illustrated in the the membrane proteins of the mouse cell
diagram to the right. Describe any differences (blue spheres) and of the human cell
in membrane protein distribution before and (red spheres) mix within a short time.
after the human and mouse cells were fused.

Analyze
1. Describe the behaviour of the membrane
proteins. What does their distribution tell
you about the ability of the proteins to move
within the membrane?
2. Compare the results of the experiment with
your predictions. Which prediction was
more accurate?
In just one second, the average
phospholipid molecule travels
about two micrometres (two
millionths of a metre) within a cell’s
membrane. Although that distance might not seem far, it’s
about the full length of a large bacterial cell. Scaled up to the
size of a human, this would be equivalent to a person travelling
a kilometre in a single second — fast enough to break the
sound barrier! Membrane proteins are much larger than
lipids and move more slowly.

3. Determine which hypothesis is more consistent

with the results you observed. Explain
your decision.

294 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems

Membrane Function
A Biological Barrier
The cell membrane prevents many substances from entering
a cell. The fluids that bathe cells contain chemicals such as salts,
sugar, and proteins. Electrically charged molecules and atoms
(ions) are also present in these fluids. Also, organisms such as
viruses and bacteria may float in the space around cells. The cell
membrane often prevents such materials from entering cells.
Membranes organize the insides of cells into many smaller
compartments. Most organelles are surrounded by membranes
and chemical reactions take place within these organelles. By
keeping certain chemicals together, membranes help to promote
the reactions that are needed for life. They also prevent unwanted
chemical reactions. For example, lysosomes are filled with enzymes
Figure 8.5 During a process called apoptosis, the
that digest other cell parts. What would happen if those enzymes contents of the lysosomes are released into the cell,
were not contained within a membrane? If they were allowed thus digesting it from the inside. Shown here, in green
to float freely through the cytoplasm, the enzymes would digest and red, is the fragmenting cytoplasm of a cell
everything they contacted. This would kill the cell. At certain undergoing apoptosis. The nucleus is shown in yellow.
times, however, the contents of lysosomes are purposely released
into cells. For example, Figure 8.5 shows how older cells in the
body are broken down and digested by the enzymes contained
in the lysosomes. New cells then replace these older cells.
How is a cell membrane similar to a plastic zip-up
A Selective Filter freezer bag? How is it different? In your notebook,
describe how a freezer bag may be viewed as
The role of the cell membrane in regulating movement of a model of a cell membrane.
substances in and out of the cell is vital. Cells cannot survive
for long without taking in food and gases and getting rid of
wastes. Also, the functions of many cells depend on the movement of materials
across the membrane. To absorb nutrients, for example, cells must be able to
transfer these molecules across the membrane. Cell membranes must allow some
materials to cross while excluding others. That is, cell membranes must be
semi-permeable. The fabric used in the jacket in Figure 8.6 is semi-permeable.
Air can move in and out of the fabric, but water cannot.
How does the cell membrane regulate which particles can enter and leave
the cell? One basis for semi-permeability is particle size. Some molecules,
such as oxygen gas or water, are so small that they can cross the membrane
by slipping between phospholipid molecules. Larger molecules, such as sugar,
are too large to cross directly between the phospholipids of the membrane.
A window screen is an example of a membrane that is permeable to some
“particles” but not to others. The screen’s fine mesh allows air to flow
through, but keeps insects out. Figure 8.6 This Gore-Tex™ jacket
is semi-permeable. Some air passes
Membrane proteins also contribute to the cell membrane’s semi-permeability.
freely through pores in the fabric,
Proteins that protrude from the membrane may bind to specific chemicals based allowing the material to “breathe”
on their shape or their electrical charge. These selected molecules are then when the person wearing the
transported across the membrane by the protein. In the following section, you jacket perspires. Liquid water
will learn more about the ways cells move materials across their membranes. cannot pass through the fabric,
however. Thus Gore-Tex™
protects against rain and snow.

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 295

 extra-cellular
space

Because membrane proteins are partially buried within the lipid layers,
they can be difficult to see. Scientists use freeze-fracture to study these cytoplasm
proteins. Using freeze-fracture, researchers can look at how proteins membrane
are distributed. To prepare cells, specimens are frozen in liquid nitrogen. proteins When cell membranes
Then, they are cracked using a cold knife. The cells shatter along a fracture are freeze-fractured the
line that follows the path of least resistance. Sometimes, that line falls
two phospholipid layers
between the cell membrane’s two phospholipid layers. The layers are
peeled apart, making the membrane proteins visible. The fractured specimen
are split.
is then coated with platinum and examined with an electron microscope.
Electron micrographs resemble miniature moonscapes. Proteins create
bumpy hills and craters separated by smooth membrane plains. By Two layers of
studying these contours, researchers can learn where proteins lie in the freeze-fractured cell
membrane. Freeze-fracture has provided some of the best evidence for membranes, showing
the fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure. the membrane proteins.

Section 8.1 Summary

The cell membrane protects the cell organelles and regulates the flow of matter
between the cell and its environment. Cell membranes are made of a double
layer of phospholipids, which have a hydrophobic fatty acid tail and a hydrophilic
head. The cell membrane is semi-permeable. This means that only substances
with certain characteristics (e.g., a particular size) can move through the cell
membrane. Protein molecules embedded in the cell membrane are like passage-
ways in or out of the cell — they transport certain substances through the
membrane. The lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in the cell membrane are
in constant motion resulting in a membrane that is fluid and flexible. This
model of membrane structure is the fluid-mosaic model.

Check Your Understanding

1. (a) List the major types of molecules that make up a cell membrane.
(b) Identify the components of the cell membrane that give it
a fluid consistency.
2. Explain why a cell is considered an open system.
3. Describe the fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure.
4. Thinking Critically How would cell function be affected if
cell membranes were rigid and inflexible, like walls?
5. Thinking Critically Explain why blocking all transport across
a cell’s membranes would shorten the cell’s life span.
6. Scientists who study cell membranes often work with membranes from
which the proteins have been removed.
(a) Thinking Critically Explain how the function of the protein-free
membranes would differ from regular cell membranes.
(b) Apply How could you use a protein-free membrane to investigate
the functions of the missing proteins?

296 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems

8.2 Transport Across Cell Membranes
The cell membrane controls most of the movement in and out of the cell.
It distinguishes between different molecules based on their size, shape, and
electric charge. Only certain substances are allowed to cross. Movement across
membranes is therefore called selective transport. How does a molecule get Based on the particle model of
to the other side of the membrane? In some cases, the cell must use energy matter, explain why it takes longer
for a sugar cube to dissolve in
in order to transport materials across the membrane. Other molecules are iced tea than in hot tea.
moved across the membrane without using any energy. In this section you
“will learn about the different ways in which materials are transported across
cell membranes.

Particles Are In Constant Motion

According to the particle model of matter, all matter is made up of tiny particles.
In liquid or air these particles are in constant, random motion. This movement
is called Brownian motion. You will investigate Brownian motion in the
Find Out Activity below.

Find Out
Brownian Motion
One of the first people to observe the random Procedure Performing and Recording
movement of microscopic particles was a Scottish
1. Place a very small drop of water in the centre
scientist named Robert Brown (1773–1858). In 1827,
of a clean microscope slide.
Brown used a microscope to observe pollen grains
suspended in water, and he noticed that the 2. Dip a toothpick into the milk, then dip and
pollen grains moved constantly in little jerks. stir it into the drop of water on the slide.
See if you, too, can observe evidence of the
random motion of molecules, now described
as Brownian motion.

Safety Precautions
• Do not eat or drink anything in the laboratory.
• Handle the microscope slides and cover slips 3. Cover the fluid droplet with a cover slip. Use
with care. They break easily. the paper towel to dab away any excess fluid.

4. Examine the specimen under the microscope

Materials
at low power. Look for fat droplets in the
distilled water cover slip
water. Focus and gradually increase the
microscope slide paper towel magnification to high power.
toothpick compound light microscope
whole milk What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting

Describe and explain any movement you

observed in the specimen.

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 297

 Concentration Gradients
The random movement of particles results in a net movement toward
areas where the concentration of particles is lower. For example, when
you add sugar to a cup of tea, the sugar molecules will eventually
spread out to give the tea a uniform sweetness. At first, the sugar
molecules are highly concentrated in one part of the cup. Over time,
the sugar molecules move toward areas of low concentration, where
there are fewer sugar molecules. The difference in concentration
between the two areas is called a concentration gradient. Just as the
cyclist in Figure 8.7 can coast downhill on a bicycle, molecules move
down a concentration gradient.
A state of equilibrium occurs once molecules are distributed evenly.
The sugar molecules (the solute) in the cup of tea reach equilibrium
when their concentration is equal throughout the water (the solvent).
The molecules do not stop moving after reaching equilibrium. The net
flow, or overall distribution, however, does not change. In the Find Out
Activity below, you will measure the concentration of solutes in a solution.

Figure 8.7 When coasting downhill on your bicycle, you do not need to expend
energy to transport yourself to the bottom of the hill. Similarly, molecules moving
down a concentration gradient get a “free ride.”

The Amount of Water in Solutions
We often refer to the concentration of solutes in
a solution. However, we do not usually talk about
the amount of water in a solution. Two solutions
with different solute concentrations also contain
differing amounts of water molecules. Dissolved
molecules take up space in a solution, reducing
the volume left for water molecules.
Find Out
2. Gently fill beaker B with pebbles to the 300 mL
mark. Again, add water to bring the total
volume up to 400 mL.
3. Using a slotted spoon, remove all the pebbles
from each solution. Do not remove any of
the water.

4. Read the approximate volume of water

Materials remaining in each beaker.
2 500 mL beakers tap water
pebbles slotted spoon What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting

1. (a) Which solution had the higher concentration

Procedure Performing and Recording
Communication and Teamwork of pebble “solutes”?
(b) Which solution had more water?
1. Working with a lab partner, label one 500 mL
beaker “A” and the other 500 mL beaker “B.” 2. All cells require water to survive. Explain
Gently place enough pebbles in beaker A to why many types of bacteria cannot live in
reach the 100 mL mark. Complete the pebble extremely sugary foods, such as honey.
“solution” by adding enough water to bring
the total volume up to 400 mL.

298 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems

Passive Transport
Brownian motion and concentration gradients help materials move across cell
membranes. Molecules move down a concentration gradient passively, or without
using any energy. Movement across cell membranes without an input of energy
is called passive transport. There are three types of passive transport: diffusion,
osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.

Diffusion Across Cell Membranes A Greater solute concentration

The net movement of particles from an area of high concen-
tration to an area of low concentration is called diffusion.
Many molecules diffuse across cell membranes. Very small
particles can move between the phospholipid molecules
from one side of the cell membrane to the other.
Cells do not expend energy to transport materials by H 2O
diffusion. Just as you transport your body by coasting
downhill on a bicycle, cells can benefit from the movement H2O
of molecules down a concentration gradient. For example,
oxygen travels down a concentration gradient from the fluid
surrounding cells, through the cell membrane, and into the
cytoplasm. However, the oxygen in your cells never reaches
equilibrium with the oxygen outside your cells. Since your
cells consume oxygen, the concentration of oxygen is always B Equal solute concentration
lower inside cells than outside.

Osmosis: The Diffusion of Water Across

a Membrane
Most of the molecules that fill and surround cells are water
molecules. Substances that diffuse through the cell membrane H2O
and within cells move through this watery medium. Water
H2O
itself can also diffuse across the cell membrane. The diffusion
of water molecules across a membrane is called osmosis.
Water molecules move from areas where they are in a
higher concentration to areas where they are in a lower
concentration. When the random movement of water
molecules into and out of a cell occurs at the same rate,
the water is in a state of equilibrium. water molecules
In Figure 8.8A, the solution of water and solute outside
dissolved substances
the cell is hypotonic to the solution in the cell cytoplasm.
Hypotonic solutions lose water. Because there is a higher Figure 8.8 The top cell (A) is in a solution that is
concentration of water molecules outside the cell than hypotonic to the cytoplasm. The bottom cell (B) is
inside, the net flow of water is into the cell. In contrast, the in a solution that is isotonic with the cytoplasm. In this
cytoplasm is hypertonic to the solution of water and solute case, the membrane is permeable to water but not to
the solute molecules.
surrounding the cell. This means that the solute concentration
inside the cell is higher than that of the solute solution outside.
Hypertonic solutions gain water. After osmosis occurs, the solute
concentrations inside and outside the cell reach equilibrium Look up the meanings of the words “gradient” and
(see Figure 8.8B). At this point, the cytoplasm and the solution “grade” in a dictionary. Brainstorm a list of other words
outside the cell are considered isotonic to one another. This beginning with “grad-” and write them in your notebook.
means they have the same concentration of solutes. What similar concepts unite the words’ meanings?

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 299

 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

8–B
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

Osmosis in a Model Cell

The small size of living cells makes it difficult to observe osmosis occurring across their
membranes. However, you can make a model of a cell to study osmosis. You will use
dialysis tubing as the membrane of a model cell. Dialysis tubing is semi-permeable,
allowing osmosis but not the diffusion of starch molecules. As water flows into or out
of the model cell, the volume of the cell changes. As well, if iodine and starch interact,
the solution will turn black. In this investigation, you will conduct an experiment to
determine how solute concentration inside and outside the cell affects osmosis.

Question
How does solute concentration inside and outside a model cell affect the
direction and amount of osmosis?

Hypothesis
For tips on designing scientific
Formulate a hypothesis about how different solute concentrations would experiments, turn to Skill Focus 5.
affect the direction of osmosis across a semi-permeable membrane.

Safety Precautions Materials

• Do not eat or drink anything in the science laboratory. tape or labels for beakers
• Iodine can stain. Wear gloves when handling it and 3 pieces of dialysis tubing
avoid getting it on your skin or clothes. (approximately 15 cm long)
string
Apparatus starch solutions (150 g/L and 300 g/L)
3 250 mL glass beakers or large jars water
graduated cylinder iodine solution
analytical balance paper towels
timer or watch

Procedure While holding the dialysis tubing under

1 Create a table such as the one shown below
before beginning your investigation.
2 Label the beakers as Starch Solution 1 (150 g/L),
Starch Solution 2 (300 g/L), and Control. Fill
each beaker two-thirds full of distilled water.
Add a few drops of iodine to the water until
it turns pale yellow.
3
running water, open it by rubbing it between
your fingers. Use the string to tie one end of
the dialysis tubing closed.
4 Fill one dialysis tube with 25 mL of Starch
Solution 1. Twist the open end of the tube and
tightly tie it closed. Rinse the tube with water
and dry it using a paper towel.

Data (observations) Analysis (using data)

Starch Time Colour of Colour of Initial mass Final mass Change in Change in model
concentration solution in tube solution in beaker (g) (g) mass (g) cell volume (density
of water ! 1 g/mL)

300 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems


Repeat step 3 and create two more model cells,
5
one tube filled with Starch Solution 2 and a
second filled with distilled water.
Use the balance to measure the initial mass of
6
your model cells. Record the measurements and
any observations of colour in your data table.
(Initial observations are recorded at time ! 0.)
Note: You will need to calculate the difference
between the initial mass and the mass recorded
at each subsequent time point. Since the density
of water is 1 g/mL, you can then determine the
volume of water lost or gained by the cell.
7 Immerse the model cells in the appropriately
labelled beaker. The cells should be completely
underwater.
8 Based on your hypothesis, predict what will
happen to the model cells when the solute
concentration inside the cell differs from the
solute concentration outside the cell.
9 After 15 mins record the colour of the starch
solution and the water in each beaker. Remove
the model cells from the water. Use a paper
towel to dry the outside of the cells and
measure their mass.
0 Repeat step 9 after 30 min, 60 min and,
if possible, again after leaving your model
cells overnight.
Analyze
1. Prepare line graphs illustrating your data.
Plot the change in model cell volume vs.
time for each cell.
2. Compare your predictions with the actual
results. How did the differing solutions inside
and outside the cell influence osmosis?
3. Describe the solution in each of the model
cells as hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic
compared with the solution in the beaker.
4. What evidence do you have that the amount
of water inside the cell was or was not changed
by osmosis?
5. (a) In this investigation what is: the manipu-
lated variable? (b) the responding variable?
(c) the experimental control? Explain why
an experimental control is necessary.
6. Is the dialysis tubing: (a) permeable to
starch? (b) permeable to water? (c) permeable
to iodine? Explain your answers.
Conclude and Apply
7. Was your hypothesis supported or rejected?
Explain why. If your hypothesis was not
supported, suggest a new hypothesis.
8. Compare the dialysis tubing that formed your
model cell’s membrane with the cell membrane
of a living cell. In what ways is the dialysis
tubing a good model? What are its limitations?
9. Based on the results of your experiment, infer
how living cells would be affected by being
bathed in solutions of different concentrations.
Extend Your Skills
10. What other problem or question could you
investigate using this equipment?
Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 301

Based on your understanding of the process of
osmosis, what do you think is the meaning of the
word “osmoregulation”? Write a definition for
osmoregulation in your science notebook. Check your
answer with your teacher. How might osmoregulation
be important for the well-being of cells?
A B
cell membrane
C
Figure 8.9 Animal cells placed in distilled water
(A) will eventually burst. Animal cells placed in
relatively salty water (B) will shrivel, a process called
plasmolysis. Plant cells will also shrivel if placed in
a very hypertonic solution relative to the cytoplasm
(C) as the plant’s central vacuole loses water.
People must drink water daily to stay alive. If you
were stranded on a desert island with only salt
water to drink, you would die in a matter of days.
Explain why in your notebook.
302 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems
Osmosis in Living Cells
Maintaining water balance across the cell membrane is vital for
cell survival. Too much or too little water can kill a cell. When
cells are placed in an environment in which the concentration
of solutes is different from that in the cytoplasm, water diffuses
across the cell membrane by osmosis. If the water concentration
outside the cell is high relative to the inside, water flows into
the cell by osmosis. This occurs when cells are placed in distilled
water. As water flows in by osmosis, the cells swell and may burst
as shown in Figure 8.9A. In plant cells, the cell wall can withstand
the pressure from the uptake of water. This resistance creates
turgor pressure, an internal force that keeps plant structures firm.
When the cells are placed in strong salt water, as in Figure 8.9B,
the solution outside the cells is hypertonic to the cytoplasm. In
this case, the charged salt ions cannot diffuse into the cell, but
water diffuses out. As cells lose water, they may shrink and lose
their shape. Eventually, they may die. The same is true for plant
cells (see Figure 8.9C).
Facilitated Diffusion
Water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide can diffuse through the cell
membrane. Other substances cannot pass through on their own.
For example, glucose molecules are too big to squeeze between
the phospholipid molecules of the membrane. Yet, somehow,
glucose must be transported through the cells lining the intestine
in order to reach the blood and other cells of the body. Ions,
although very small, are also unable to cross the membrane by
simple diffusion. Their charge causes them to be repelled by
the hydrophobic tails of membrane phospholipids, as shown
in Figure 8.10.
noncharged molecule
H2O
charged ions
macromolecule
+
–
cell
membrane
– +
Figure 8.10 How molecules cross the cell membrane. The curved arrows for
the macromolecule and charged ions indicate that these substances cannot
cross the plasma membrane without help. The back-and-forth arrows for the
noncharged molecule and water indicate that these substances can freely cross
the cell membrane.
How do glucose, ions, and other substances that cannot cross the membrane by
simple diffusion get in and out of the cell? Transport proteins are membrane Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder.
proteins that help move materials across the membrane. The use of transport This disease involves faulty channel
proteins to aid, or facilitate, the diffusion of particles across the cell membrane proteins, which cause some ions
to build up inside cells, and other
is called facilitated diffusion. Facilitated diffusion always occurs down a ions to build up outside cells. As
concentration gradient. Since the interaction between the particles and their a result, water moves out of the
transport proteins provides enough energy to cause their diffusion through mucous layer that coats and
protects the body’s passageways
the membrane, facilitated diffusion is considered a type of passive transport.
and into the cells by osmosis. The
Transport proteins have three-dimensional shapes that make them highly mucous left behind is unusually
selective. These proteins recognize atoms or molecules by their shape, size, thick and sticky. In the lungs,
and electrical charge. Just as a key fits only a certain lock, transport proteins the thick mucous interferes with
breathing and traps disease-causing
move only certain particles. Carrier proteins and channel proteins are two types bacteria that would normally be
of transport proteins. A particular carrier protein (Figure 8.11) facilitates the coughed up. In the intestines,
diffusion of glucose across the cell membrane. A molecule of glucose fits into the mucous interferes with the
a groove on the carrier protein. This causes the protein’s shape to change. absorption of nutrients.
As the protein moves, it releases the glucose molecule on the other side
of the membrane.

Figure 8.11 These carrier

carrier
proteins are specific for
protein
glucose. Carrier proteins
change shape to allow certain
molecules to cross the cell
membrane.

+ + +
+ +
negatively charged +
channel protein +

Some transport proteins form tunnel-like pores in the membrane.

The pores created by these channel proteins (Figure 8.12) are filled
with water. When the pores are open, they allow charged ions in and +
out of the cell.

Active Transport
Sometimes, the direction of a concentration gradient is opposite to the +
direction in which transport is needed. For example, there are times when +
you have to use energy to ride your bicycle uphill. Cells, too, must +
sometimes use energy to transport certain materials across their membranes.
This is called active transport. Figure 8.12 Channel proteins provide
Cells use active transport when they have to work against a concentration water-filled passages through which
small dissolved ions can diffuse.
gradient. For example, root cells require minerals from the soil. However,
as Figure 8.13 on the next page shows, the roots may already contain a higher
concentration of minerals than the surrounding soil. In this case, the minerals
cannot move into the root cells by passive transport. Cells must expend
energy to pump the minerals against the concentration gradient. The energy
is used by membrane transport proteins, which bind to the minerals and
move them across the membrane.

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 303


mineral
root
cell
carrier molecule
Figure 8.13 Plant root cells use active transport to take in minerals from
the surrounding soil. Because there are already more minerals in the root
cells than in the water around the roots, the root cells rely on carrier
molecules and energy to move additional minerals into the root cells.
Active transport uses a large
amount of cellular energy. Even
when a person is resting, his or
her cells use up to 40 percent of
their energy on active transport.
Many types of specialized cells use
even more energy. For example,
the cells in your kidneys that filter
your blood use up to 90 percent
of their energy on active transport.
Passive and active transport both
allow materials to cross the cell
membrane, yet they do so by
different means. How are these
two transport mechanisms similar
and different? Make two lists
to compare active and passive
transport. Using your notes as
a reference, create a poster that
illustrates the steps involved in
active and passive transport. Be
sure to highlight the similarities
and differences of these processes.
Your poster should address the
following topics:
• cell membrane structures
• type of materials transported
• direction of transport
• concentration gradients
• equilibrium
• consumption of energy
304 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems
Active transport helps cells maintain an
internal environment that is different from
cell membrane
soil their external environment. As in the case
of root cells, many cells must concentrate
nutrients for growth or other cell activities.
In addition, many of the cell’s waste products
are highly toxic. They must be removed
energy
and discarded outside the cell.
Cells are not limited to using only one
process to move materials across their
mineral membranes. Can you identify the types of
transport that are occurring across the cell
membrane in Figure 8.14?
Na" Na"
Na" Na"
H2O O2 "
Na" Na"
A
B
"
D
" C "
" "
" Na"
Figure 8.14 Cells can use more than one process to transport materials across their membranes.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Passive and active transport move a wide range of substances across the cell
membrane. However, some molecules, such as cholesterol, cannot dissolve in
water. Diffusion is impossible for such molecules. Other materials (e.g., large
protein molecules and bacterial cells) are too large to cross membranes even
if carrier proteins are used.
Cells take in substances that can’t be moved by passive or active transport
through endocytosis. In this process, the cell membrane forms a pocket around
the material to be transported. The membrane folds in and encloses the item
in a sphere. The sphere typically pinches off as a vesicle, which transports its
contents to other locations within the cell. Or the sphere may form a vacuole,
which acts as a storage site for the ingested material. Some single-celled organ-
isms, such as the amoeba pictured in Figure 8.15, take in food by endocytosis.
When cells “eat” by taking in large particles or other cells, the type of
endocytosis is called phagocytosis (see Figure 8.16A). When cells “drink” by
taking in droplets of fluid, the process is called pinocytosis (see Figure 8.16B).
 Figure 8.15 The amoeba shown here is engulfing a
food particle with its cell membrane. As endocytosis
proceeds, the membrane begins to surround the What are the meanings of the
particle. When the leading edges of the membrane prefixes “endo-” and “exo-”?
meet, they fuse, and a sphere pinches off from the How do they relate to the
membrane. The resulting vesicle enters the cytoplasm. processes of endocytosis and
exocytosis? What are some other
A lysosome may fuse with the vesicle, and release
words that use these prefixes?
digestive enzymes. Make a list in your notebook.

Outside cell
red blood cell solute particles secreted particles
cell membrane

vesicle
vesicle
Inside cell
A Phagocytosis B Pinocytosis C Exocytosis
Figure 8.16 A Phagocytosis is used by cells to ingest food or other solids. B In pinocytosis, the
cell membrane surrounds droplets of fluid. A portion of the membrane pinches off, forming a
vesicle. C Exocytosis is used to dispose of wastes or secrete cell products. The membrane of
the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane and the contents are released to the outside of the cell.

Membrane proteins can assist in endocytosis. Proteins called receptors

protrude from the membrane surface. Like antennae, the receptors detect
specific compounds or cells in their environment. When a receptor identifies
an item for transport, the receptor binds it and triggers endocytosis. Cells use
this process, called receptor-mediated endocytosis, to take in molecules such
as cholesterol. As shown in Figure 8.17, virus particles, such as the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), can also enter cells by receptor-mediated
endocytosis. In a sense, HIV “tricks” the cell into transporting it inside by
binding to receptors specialized for transport of other molecules.
Cells must dispose of wastes, as well as take in food. Exocytosis is the Figure 8.17 HIV is too large
reverse of endocytosis. Exocytosis allows the materials stored in vesicles to cross the cell membrane by
and vacuoles to exit the cell. In this diffusion or by passive or active
transport. Instead, HIV interacts
mechanism, the membrane of the
with receptors on the cell’s
vesicle or vacuole fuses with the www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/
surface, causing the cell to take
cell membrane, and the stored sciencefocus10
in the virus by receptor-mediated
contents are released as shown There are several ways materials are transported endocytosis. Eventually, HIV may
in and out of the cell: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated
in Figure 8.16C. Exocytosis is diffusion, active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
replicate inside the cell.
especially important in cells Review these modes of cell transport by watching
that specialize in the secretion computer animations. Go to the web site above to
of cell products, such as find out where to go next. As you view the
animations, create a chart that summarizes
enzymes and hormones. the basic features of each type
of transport.

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 305

 Membranes at Work
The value of semi-permeable membranes extends far beyond their role in
living cells. A variety of technological and medical applications also use diffusion
and selective transport across membranes.

Figure 8.18 A reverse osmosis
filtration system.
Water Purification
Reverse osmosis is used to purify water. In this process, water is filtered
through an artificial membrane containing very fine pores. The pores are
large enough to allow water to pass through. However, larger particles,
such as bacteria, salts, and other dissolved molecules, cannot pass through.
Pressure is used to force contaminated water through the membrane. The water
collected on the other side of the membrane contains far fewer impurities than
before being filtered. Reverse osmosis filtratration systems, such as the one in
Figure 8.18, are commonly used in Canada to purify drinking water.

Many industries produce large
volumes of contaminated water.
Water treatment plants clean some
waste water before it is released
into the environment. However,
industries are allowed to let a
certain amount of untreated water
leak directly into lakes and rivers.
This contaminated water can reach
the ground water and harm organ-
isms that come into contact with
it. How could water purification
systems be applied to minimize
environmental damage caused by
industrial waste water? Suggest
some possibilities in your notebook.
Kidney Dialysis
Blood carries oxygen, nutrients, and wastes to and from the cells of the
body. Wastes that accumulate in the blood must be eliminated. But valuable
substances, such as proteins, glucose, amino acids, and certain ions, must be
retained. The kidneys filter the blood and regulate its solute and water content.
Damaged kidneys do not filter the blood properly and wastes can build up
to toxic, even fatal, levels. Patients with failing kidneys must receive a kidney
transplant, or be treated by filtering their blood through an artificial membrane.
In kidney dialysis, as shown in Figure 8.19, the patient’s blood is pumped
through tubing made from a synthetic, semi-permeable membrane. The
membrane, called dialysis tubing, is immersed in a salt solution with a
concentration similar to blood, but which does not contain wastes. Pores in
the tubing allow small dissolved waste molecules to diffuse out of the blood
while retaining large proteins and blood cells. Because salts and water are in
equilibrium between the blood and the salt solution that bathes the tubing,
there is no loss of salts and water from the blood.

Controlled Delivery of Medications

Medicines bring us many health benefits. However,
pump blood semi-permeable
tubing
providing the right dosage and maintaining a medication
blood
flow dialysate at constant levels in the body can be difficult. The use of
flow semi-permeable membranes is one way to deliver some
medications in a safe, controlled manner. The medications
dialysate
can be placed in a flat transdermal patch that sticks to
the skin. A semi-permeable membrane lining the inner
surface of the patch allows the drugs to diffuse out of
the patch at a slow, constant rate.
The medications must be able to diffuse through the
skin to reach the blood. Therefore, this technology is most
fresh dialysate used dialysate (contains effective with medications that pass easily through the skin.
urea and excess salts) These medications include nicotine for help in quitting
Figure 8.19 As the patient’s blood is pumped through dialysis smoking, drugs to prevent motion sickness, pain reducers,
tubing, it is exposed to a dialysate (dialysis solution). Wastes and hormones to correct some hormone imbalances.
exit from blood into the solution because of a pre-established
concentration gradient. Blood is not only cleansed, but its
water-salt and acid-base balance can also be adjusted.

306 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems

 Another method of delivering medications uses artificial vesicles, called
liposomes (see Figure 8.20). Some liposomes have been developed that transport
medications safely from one part of the body to another. Liposomes are used to
transport anti-cancer medications to tumours in some cancer patients.

Section 8.2 Summary

Cell membranes control movement of molecules in and out of the cell. Most
substances are moved by passive or active transport. In passive transport, the
cell does not expend energy to move molecules across the membrane. Passive
transport includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
Active transport is necessary when the concentration gradient is opposite
to the direction in which the transport is needed. Active transport requires
the output of energy. Figure 8.20 Liposomes are non-
Molecules too large to be transported by carrier proteins are moved in and out toxic, which makes them useful
of the cell by the formation of vesicles in processes of endocytosis and exocytosis. for delivering medications
throughout the body.

Check Your Understanding

1. (a) Write a definition for diffusion.
(b) Describe how diffusion occurs, using the particle model of matter
to support your explanation.
One of the ways active transport
2. (a) Distinguish between osmosis and diffusion. differs from passive transport is
(b) Compare what makes osmosis and diffusion similar. that it moves particles against a
concentration gradient rather than
3. Explain why facilitated diffusion is considered a form of passive transport, down a concentration gradient. In
even though it requires the use of membrane proteins. your notebook, explain how active
transport might affect equilibrium
4. List four ways in which semi-permeable membranes are used in medical, across the cell membrane.
industrial, or other applications.
5. Thinking Critically Paramecium, a single-celled fresh-water organism,
takes in water by osmosis. Paramecium uses an organelle called a contractile
vacuole to remove excess water from the cell.
(a) Describe what would happen to Paramecium if it did not have
a contractile vacuole.
(b) Predict the effect of placing Paramecium in salt water.
6. Apply
(a) Design an experiment to find out if a fluorescent dye can pass
through a cell membrane.
(b) Assuming the fluorescent dye could pass through a cell membrane,
how would you determine if the dye was transported by active or
passive transport?
7. Thinking Critically When materials enter the cell by passive or active
transport, these materials literally cross through the cell membrane. Can
the same be said of materials that enter the cell by phagocytosis? Explain
your answer.
8. Apply A researcher wants to use bacteria to make a protein that will be
added to food. How can the researcher use a semi-permeable membrane
to obtain a pure sample of the protein?

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 307

 8.3
Assume that the rate of diffusion
of a molecule within a hypothetical
cell is 2 nm (nanometres —
billionths of a metre) per second.
How long would it take the molecule
to diffuse from the cell membrane
to the centre of a cell with a diam-
eter of 1#m (1#m ! 1 millionth
of a metre)? What about a cell
with a diameter of 100#m? Which
cell is more likely to survive?
According to the fossil record,
dinosaurs shared Earth with
metre-long millipedes and
cockroaches as big as house
cats. What made “gigantism”
possible three hundred million
years ago? Some scientists
think that the existence of the
prehistoric giants can be
explained by the concentration
of oxygen in the air. Instead of
using lungs, insects breathe
oxygen through long tubes
called tracheoles. The distance
oxygen travels down the
tracheoles depends on the
oxygen concentration gradient.
Today, the air is made up of 21
percent oxygen. Paleozoic air,
however, was composed of
about 35 percent oxygen. The
higher concentration of oxygen
in the air resulted in a steeper
concentration gradient down the
tracheoles. Therefore, oxygen
could have travelled farther into
the insects’ bodies, making
larger body sizes possible.
308 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems
Cell Size and Function
Once a particle is transported across the cell membrane, it is available for use
by the cell. The particle then diffuses throughout the cytoplasm to reach the
areas inside the cell where they are used. Diffusion occurs without any input
of energy, but it has one major limitation: it takes time.
One factor that permits diffusion across cell membranes is a concentration
gradient. In general, however, concentration gradients within the cell are not
nearly as great as those across the cell membrane. Once molecules have diffused
through the cell membrane, their rate of diffusion within the cell tends to
slow abruptly. Diffusion over long distances inside the cell is slow and inefficient.
For example, as shown in Figure 8.21, oxygen passing into a hypothetical cell
with a diameter of about 1.65 m would take more than a week to reach a
mitochondrion at the cell’s centre. A cell this large would die long before
oxygen and nutrients could reach the organelles that need them.
To ensure access to oxygen and nutrients, cells must minimize the distance
over which substances diffuse. As a result, there is an upper limit on cell
size. The relative magnitude of a cell’s surface area to its volume is called its
surface area-to-volume ratio. In this section you will see how cell surface
area, volume, shape, and function are affected by size limitations. In the Find
Out Activity on the next page you will see how surface area changes in relation
to a cell’s volume.
Substances diffuse
rapidly through the
cell’s thin membrane
(in less than a second).
0.6 m
1.65 m
0.5 m
1.65 m
Substances diffuse very slowly throughout
the cell’s internal fluid (taking more than a
week to reach the centre).
Figure 8.21 A human-sized amoeba? An amoeba could never be human-sized for two reasons:
(1) It would take a very long time for molecules critical to its survival, such as oxygen, to reach
its centre via diffusion. (2) Relative to its volume, an amoeba does not have much surface area
(cell membrane) across which substances can move in and out.

Charting Cell Size
What is the relationship between cell surface area
and volume? In this activity, you will calculate cell
surface area and volume for cells of different
sizes. You will then determine how the surface
area-to-volume ratio changes as the cells grow.
Find Out
surface area, volume, and surface area-to-
volume ratios. Experiment with different ways
of looking at these relationships. You may
draw your graph by hand or use a computer.

Procedure Performing and Recording

1. Draw a table or set up a computer spreadsheet
to calculate surface area and volume for cube-
shaped cells. Your table or spreadsheet should
have four columns: cell width, surface area,
For tips on creating spreadsheets or graphs on your
computer, turn to Skill Focus 7.
What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting

volume, and surface area-to-volume ratio.
2. In separate rows, calculate surface area
and volume for cells 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm,
and 4 mm wide.
1. Describe how surface area and volume
change as cell width increases.
2. Describe how the surface area-to-volume
ratio changes as cell width increases.

3. Using your results for surface area and volume,
calculate the surface area-to-volume ratio for
each cell.
4. Create line graphs to illustrate the data.
There are several ways of plotting the data to
investigate relationships between cell width,
3. (a) What did you learn from each of
the graphs?
(b) Which were most helpful for illustrating
how changing cell size affects surface
area-to-volume ratio? Explain your answer.

The Importance of Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio

As a cell grows, its volume increases much faster than its surface area.
How does the surface area-to-volume ratio affect cell function?
The 2 mm wide cell pictured in Figure 8.22 would require eight
times more nutrients and would have eight times more waste to
eliminate than the 1 mm wide cell. The surface area of the 2 mm
cell, however, would increase only by a factor of four. Therefore,
the cell membrane might not have enough surface area to transport
oxygen, nutrients, and wastes.
A very large cell with a very low surface area-to-volume ratio
could either starve to death or be poisoned from the buildup of
its own wastes. Such a cell would not survive to reproduce.
2 mm
1 mm
Figure 8.22 Shown here are imaginary cube-
shaped cells. A cell with 1 mm sides has a
surface area of 6 mm2 and a volume of 1 mm3.
This gives the cell a surface area-to-volume
ratio of 6 : 1. If the width of the cell is doubled
to 2 mm, the surface area increases four times
to 24 mm2. The volume, however, increases to
8 mm3, eight times greater than in the 1 mm
cell. Therefore, the surface area-to-volume
ratio is 24 : 8, or 3 : 1, half that for the 1 mm
wide cell.

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 309

 The relationships between variables are not always linear. Non-linear relationships occur when
one of the variables changes by a factor that includes an exponent. For example, when the width
(W ) of a square increases, the area of the square increases by a factor of W 2. When the width
of a cube increases, the area of the cube increases by a factor of W 3. Brainstorm a list of other
relationships that change by non-linear, or exponential, factors. Write the list, and any relevant
mathematical formulas you know, in your notebook.

Cell Shape and Surface Area

One way to express surface area-
to-volume ratio is as a fraction,
with surface area as the numerator
and volume as the denominator.
How can the numerator and
denominator be changed to either
increase or decrease this ratio?
Relate these changes to the shape
and size of cells.
Certain cell shapes boost surface area-to-volume ratios. Some bacteria are
almost cube-shaped, much like the imaginary cell in Figure 8.22. However,
cells come in an endless variety of shapes. Some shapes have a high surface
area-to-volume ratio. For example, infoldings of the membrane and flattened
cell shapes produce cells with large surface areas and relatively low volumes.
The higher the surface area-to-volume ratio, the more transport is possible
across the cell membrane. Cells specialized for transporting nutrients, such
as those lining your digestive tract seen in Figure 8.23, have shapes that result
in high surface area-to-volume ratios. Plant root hairs, such as those in
Figure 8.24, also have a high surface area-to-volume ratio. This increases
the absorption of nutrients across the root. In the next activity you will
experiment with cell shape and size.

When a cell divides, it distributes its cytoplasm roughly

equally between the two daughter cells. How is cell division
important in keeping surface area-to-volume ratio from
microvilli
getting too low? Write an explanation in your notebook.

mitochondria

Figure 8.23 Microvilli are projections of cells that line the

digestive tract. The large surface area of the microvilli helps
them to absorb nutrients and water from digested food as it
passes by.

Figure 8.24 Plant root hairs

perform a similar function to
microvilli by taking in nutrients from
the soil. The slender shape of the root hair
provides a high surface area-to-volume ratio
for the passage of nutrients into the cell.

310 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems

 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

8–C
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

Exploring Surface h = height

Area-to-Volume w = width
l = length
r
h
l
Ratios in Model Cells
w
r = radius Spheroid Cuboid
r
In this investigation, you will experiment with different Formulas for surface area: l
cell shapes to see which shapes and sizes maximize or Spheroid area ! 4$r2($ ! 3.14159) Cylinder
minimize the surface area-to-volume ratio. Cuboid area ! 2wl " 2hl " 2hw
Cylinder area ! 2$rl " 2$r2
Challenge
Create model cells with different shapes that produce Formulas for volume:
4
very high or very low surface area-to-volume ratios. Spheroid volume ! %3% $r3($ ! 3.14159)

Apparatus Cuboid volume ! lwh

ruler Cylinder volume ! $r2l
table knife
calculator (optional) Sample calculation:
A sphere with a radius of 2 cm has a surface
Materials area of 50.26 cm2
modelling clay
4 & 3.14159 & (2cm & 2cm) ! 50.26 cm2
and a volume of 33.5cm3
Design Specifications 4
%% & 3.14159 & (2cm & 2cm & 2cm) ! 33.5 cm3
A. Your model cell will be built from modelling clay. 3

B. The amount of modelling clay you work with
will remain constant; only the shape of your
cell will change.
C. Identify shapes that give the highest and lowest
surface area-to-volume ratios.
Plan and Construct
1 Create a model cell using the modelling clay.
Make a cell that is cuboid (six-sided, but not
necessarily square), spheroid, or a cylinder.
2 Sketch the shape of the cell in your notebook.
3 Use the formulas provided on this page to
measure and record the volume and surface
area of your cell in your notebook. If you make
a sphere, use the table knife to carefully cut
your sphere in half so that you can accurately
measure the radius.
4 Make two other cells that are cuboid, spherical,
or cylindrical (shaped like a cylinder). You may
also alter the size of the cell while keeping the
same shape. Repeat steps 2 and 3.
Evaluate
1. Using the surface area and the volume of each
cell, determine the surface area-to-volume ratios.
Record the values in your notebook.
2. Based on your results and those of your class-
mates, which shapes produced the highest and
lowest surface area-to-volume ratios?
Extension
3. (a) Which cell shapes are most likely to be
found in cells specialized for transporting
materials across the cell membrane?
(b) Which cell shapes are most likely to restrict
cells to very small sizes?

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 311


Figure 8.25 Reaching heights over 90 m,
redwood trees are thought to be the tallest
trees in the world. These massive organisms
depend on the functioning of individual
specialized cells.
Earlier in this chapter, you learned
that placing cells in different kinds
of solutions can cause them to swell
or shrink. How would a human
cheek cell’s surface area-to-volume
ratio change if it were placed in
a strong salt solution? How would
it change in a solution of pure
water? Explain your response to
this question in your notebook.
312 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems
From One Cell to Many Cells
Although certain shapes allow some cells to be much
larger than other cells, there is a limit to how large
cells can be. How, then, do some organisms, such
as the redwood tree shown in Figure 8.25, achieve
such outstanding size? Multicellular organisms such
as humans and trees, have millions of cells of many
different types. Multicellular organisms grow by
adding more cells instead of simply growing larger
cells. Because the sizes of their individual cells are
small, rapid diffusion within the cells of multicellular
organisms is possible.
In single-celled organisms, one cell must perform
all the functions of a living organism. Having many
cells makes it possible for different groups of cells to
become specialized. In multicellular organisms, cells
are organized into tissues that do specific jobs. The
cells within each tissue are specialized to carry out a
subset of the organism’s functions. For example, a
redwood tree has cells in its roots that are specialized
for absorbing water and minerals from the soil.
Cells in the trunk are specialized for transporting
water from the roots to the leaves. Cells in the leaves
are specialized for absorbing the energy of sunlight
to synthesize sugars. In the next investigation you
will see how cell shape relates to its function.
In some organisms, such as
the aquatic alga Volvox, many
individual cells live together in
colonies. Each cell in the colony
must perform nearly all the
functions of a single-celled
organism. However, the group
of cells also functions together
as one “organism.” Each Volvox
colony forms a hollow ball.
Inside, a daughter colony will grow. When the daughter colony reaches maturity,
it digests a passageway through the side of its parent colony and swims away.
 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

8–D
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

Comparing Specialized
Plant and Animal Cells
Earlier in this unit, you examined several different
types of cells. You then made inferences about the
relationship between a cell’s function and its size and
shape. In this investigation, you will examine several
specialized plant and animal cells. You will then relate
their specific shapes to the specialized function of
transport across the cell membrane.
Question
How does a cell’s shape relate to its specialized
function?
2 Based on your observations, predict what the
specialized function of each cell might be.
Explain your prediction.
Analyze
1. (a) How were you able to determine which
of the cell types had the highest surface
area-to-volume ratios?
(b) What other information would you need
to confirm your answer?

Hypothesis 2. What was the reasoning behind your predictions

Formulate a hypothesis to explain how a cell’s shape
relates to the function of membrane transport.
Safety Precaution
• Handle microscope slides carefully to avoid
breaking them and cutting yourself.
Apparatus
compound light microscope
prepared slides of intestinal villi, adipose tissue cells,
root hair cells, and leaf spongy tissue cells
For tips on making scientific diagrams and drawings, turn to
Skill Focus 9.
about the cells’ functions?
3. Compare the two plant cell types with the two
animal cell types. Discuss any similarities and
differences you saw between the two.
Conclude and Apply
4. Gather information about the cells you
observed from your teacher, or search the
library or Internet.
(a) In your notebook, write a few sentences
about the specialized function of each
of the four cell types.
(b) How are their sizes and shapes important
to their functions?

5. Compare the cells’ actual functions with

Procedure your predictions. How did the two differ?
Observe each of the slides under the microscope. How sound was your reasoning in
1 formulating the predictions you made?
Identify the following cells on the appropriate
slides. Draw two or three of each kind of cell
in your notebook.
• cells of intestinal villi
• adipose (fat) tissue cells
• root hair cells
• leaf spongy tissue cells

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 313

 Dr. Pierre Côté is a civil engineer whose interest in
environmental engineering, specifically water treatment,
led to his development of a new “membrane.” ZeeWeed
is a unique filtration membrane that represents a
revolution in water treatment. Typical water treatment
involves passing water through clean sand, followed
by gel-like coagulants. Chlorine is then added to kill
bacteria. Dr. Côté’s ZeeWeed can be used to treat
ground water or surface water for drinking or to purify municipal
and industrial waste water before discharge to the environment.
ZeeWeed is composed of thin, hollow fibres. The membrane of
the fibres has pores small enough to block the passage of viruses
and micro-organisms. These fibres are mounted in an
open frame that can be immersed directly in the water to
be treated. The fibres float freely like seaweed. ZeeWeed
requires little energy. A light stream of air bubbles keeps
the ZeeWeed fibres moving, thereby exposing the fibre
membranes to incoming water currents. A slight suction
on the clean-water side draws water through the pores
of the membranes into the hollow interior of the fibres,
leaving the micro-organisms and viruses behind. ZeeWeed has
won an innovation award for Dr. Côté and his team.
• Research further to discover how civil engineers are solving
other real-world environmental problems.

Section 8.3 Summary

Once molecules diffuse into the cell, their diffusion rate slows. Because of this,
it is inefficient for cells to become too large — it would take too long for critical
nutrients to reach cell organelles and the cell could die. As well, as cells grow,
their volume increases much faster than their surface area. So, smaller cells,
or cells with a high surface area such as the microvilli in the human intestine,
have a higher surface area-to-volume ratio. Small cells are more efficient.
Multicellular organisms grow so large by having thousands of small cells,
rather than fewer very large cells.

Check Your Understanding

Throughout this chapter, you have
seen how the characteristics of
solutions, membranes, and cell
shapes affect transport across
the cell membrane. List three
ways these properties can be
manipulated to increase the rate
of transport of a solute into a cell.
1. Which cell has a higher surface area-to-volume ratio: a spherical cell
with a diameter of 10 nm, or a spherical cell with a diameter of 15 nm?
Explain your answer.
2. Describe two features of multicellular organisms not seen in single-
celled organisms.
3. Thinking Critically To keep warm on a cold day, dogs often lie down
curled up in a round ball. To cool off on a hot day, they stretch flat
on the floor, bellies exposed. Why would this behaviour help dogs to
regulate their body temperature?
4. Thinking Critically Explain why cells the size of basketballs do not exist.
5. Apply As blood circulates through your arteries and veins, it exchanges
material with the surrounding tissues. When blood vessels enter a tissue,
they branch from one wide vessel into many smaller vessels. How does
this branching influence the delivery of nutrients and removal of wastes
to and from the tissues?
6. Apply The ZeeWeed water filtration system described above filters water
through many thin tubes. Suppose an engineer wishes to redesign the
ZeeWeed system with fewer and wider tubes. Will the design improve
the efficiency of the filter? Explain your reasoning.
7. Thinking Critically In terms of minimizing the surface area-to-volume
ratio, there are clear benefits to a cell if it is small. Why then are all
organisms not microscopic single-celled organisms?

314 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems

Now that you have completed this chapter, try to do the following. If you
cannot, go back to the sections indicated in parentheses after each part.

(a) Describe the structure of a cell membrane. (8.1)
(b) What is a semi-permeable membrane? (8.1)
(c) Explain why semi-permeability is important
to the function of cell membranes. (8.1)
(i) Explain how a cell’s shape influences its surface
area-to-volume ratio. (8.3)
(j) Explain why large organisms must be multicellular
rather than single-celled. (8.3)

(d) Describe some of the functions of membrane

proteins. (8.1, 8.2)

(e) Describe the distribution and behaviour of

particles that are in equilibrium. (8.2)

(f ) Describe how materials move across a cell

membrane against a concentration gradient. (8.2)

(g) Explain how the concentration of solutes in

solutions affects the direction of osmosis. (8.2)

(h) Describe the function and mechanisms of

endocytosis and exocytosis. (8.2)

Summarize this chapter by doing one of the
following. Use a graphic organizer (such as a
concept map), produce a poster, or write the
summary to include the key chapter concepts.
Here are a few ideas to use as a guide:
• Draw a concept map to summarize what you
learned about membranes in this chapter. One
branch of the map should address membrane
structure; another should address the role of
membranes in transport in and out of the cell; a
third should address the role of membrane
surface area. Look for links between different
branches of the map.
• Write a letter to a classmate who has been
away, explaining how cell membranes control
the internal environment of cells. Explain why
you think this is important for cell survival.
• Create a chart that lists the ways in which types
of materials are transported in and out of cells.
Describe how each method of transporting
materials works, and what factors influence the
direction of transport.
• Write a short poem or rap song to help you
remember some of the new terms you
learned in this chapter.

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 315

 8
C H A P T E R

Review
Key Terms

macrophage equilibrium channel protein receptor-mediated

phospholipid passive transport active transport endocytosis
hydrophilic diffusion membrane transport exocytosis
hydrophobic osmosis protein reverse osmosis
bilayer hypotonic endocytosis kidney dialysis
fluid-mosaic model hypertonic vesicle dialysis tubing
semi-permeable isotonic vacuole transdermal patch
selective transport transport proteins phagocytosis liposomes
Brownian motion facilitated diffusion pinocytosis surface area-to-volume ratio
concentration gradient carrier protein receptors multicellular organisms

Understanding Key Concepts 4. Name the type of transport and cell structures
If you need to check an item, section numbers are that would most likely be used to move the
provided in brackets below. following materials into or out of a cell. (8.2)
(a) bacterial cell
1. Explain why a cell membrane is called a bilayer.
(b) carbon dioxide
(8.1)
(c) water
2. Which of the following are open systems? (8.1) (d) sodium ion
(a) a school cafeteria
5. How does the particle model of matter help
(b) a sealed glass jar to explain the process of diffusion? (8.1)
(c) a cell
6. List three types of membrane proteins and
(d) a plant vacuole their roles. (8.2)
(e) a closed metal box
7. Explain why the structure of phospholipid
3. (a) In the diagram below a protein in the cell molecules causes them to spontaneously form
membrane recognizes a glucose molecule and membrane bilayers. (8.1)
changes its shape to receive it. Which type of 8. Explain how a dialysis membrane is used to filter
cell transport is being represented? the blood of patients with kidney failure. (8.2)

outside 9. What limits cell size and why? (8.3)

cell 10. Compare and contrast receptor-mediated endo-
cytosis and active transport. Discuss at least one
similarity and one difference between the two. (8.2)

Developing Skills
11. Three cubes of potato are placed in beakers
containing solutions of different concentrations.
inside
Compared with the fluid in the potato cells, the
cell
solutions are hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic.
(b) Redraw the diagram in your notebook and (a) Make diagrams to illustrate the movement
label the components of the cell membrane. of water across the cell membranes of the
(8.1, 8.2) potato cells.

316 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems

 (b) Predict any changes that will occur in the
potato cubes over a period of two days.
12. Make a model cell membrane that shows its
different components. Include a legend that
makes your model easy to understand. Use
modelling clay or make a computer model.
13. Beet root cells can be used to study the effects of
different solvents on membrane permeability. As
each solvent dissolves the cell membrane, coloured
pigments inside the cells leak out, tinting the
solution. Slices of beet root were placed in
three different solutions for 10 min. A special
device was then used to measure the absorbance
(measure of pigment concentration) in each
solution, as shown below.
15. Imagine that you have been given two solutions
of unknown concentrations and a piece of dialysis
tubing. Devise a way to experimentally determine
which solution has the higher solute concentration.
16. A bird’s egg is surrounded by a thin biological
membrane and enclosed by a shell. Both the
membrane and the shell are semi-permeable. If
the shell is carefully removed from an egg, the
membrane underneath is left intact. Design a lab
to explore osmosis with this living membrane.
17. Some organisms live in shallow ponds that dry
up after a few weeks of hot, dry weather. This
means that the concentration of solutes in the
water will change. How will this affect the cells
of organisms living in the ponds?

Absorbance for each alcohol

Alcohol Critical Thinking
concentration (%) Methanol Ethanol Propanol
18. Explain why a cell can be considered an open
0 250 250 250
system even though a membrane barrier
20 300 270 262 surrounds it.
40 500 350 299
19. What would happen to a cell if its cell membrane
60 625 453 366
were permeable rather than semi-permeable?
80 625 630 500
100 628 628 600 20. Your lungs are made up of millions of tiny sacs
that fill with air when you breathe in. Among
the air sacs are many blood vessels that pick up
(a) Make a line graph of the data. Identify the
oxygen to be carried throughout the body. The
manipulated and responding variables.
cells making up the air sacs are very flat and are
(b) At lower concentrations, which alcohol was only one cell layer thick. Using your knowledge
most damaging to beet cell membranes? of the influence of cell shape on diffusion, infer
(c) Which alcohol appears to affect beet cell why this cell shape is beneficial.
membranes the most? Explain how you
arrived at your conclusion.

Problem Solving/Applying
14. List three common household items that
contain or have features of a semi-permeable 21. Give two reasons why scientists believe that cell
membrane. Explain how the semi-permeability membranes have a fluid structure.
of each item relates to its function.

Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 317