INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY - concerned with the issues of leadership, job 1918, World War I provides I/O psychologists with
I provides I/O psychologists with the first
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
- a branch of psychology that applies the principles of
psychology to the workplace
- goal is to increase the productivity and well-being of
employees.
Two Approaches in I/O Psychology
1. Industrial Approach – focuses on determining the
competencies needed to perform a job, staffing the
organization with employees who have those
competencies, and increasing those competencies
through training.
2. Organizational Approach – creates an organizational
structure and culture that will motivate employees to
perform well, give them the necessary information to do
their jobs, and provide working conditions that are safe
and result in an enjoyable and satisfying work/life
environment.
Major Fields of Industrial/Organizational Psychology
1. Personnel Psychology
- field of study that concentrates on the selection and
evaluation of employees.
- study and practice in such areas as analyzing jobs,
recruiting applicants, selecting employees, determining
salary levels, training employees, and evaluating
employee performance
- choose existing tests or create new ones that can be
used to select and promote employees which are then
constantly evaluated to ensure that they are both fair
and valid
- analyze jobs to obtain a complete picture of what
each employee does, often assigning monetary values
to each position
- determines complete job descriptions and constructs
performance-appraisal instruments to evaluate
employee performance
- examine various methods that can be used to train and
develop employees
- usually work in a training department of an organization
and are involved in such activities as identifying the
organization’s training needs, developing training
programs, and evaluating training success
2. Organizational Psychology
- field of study that investigates the behavior of
employees within the context of an organization.
satisfaction, employee motivation, organizational
communication, conflict management, organizational
change, and group processes within an organization
- often conduct surveys of employee attitudes to get
ideas about what employees believe are an
organization’s strengths and weaknesses
- serves the role of a consultant, thus makes
recommendations on ways problem areas can be
improved (ex. low job satisfaction might be improved
by allowing employees to participate in making certain
company decisions, and poor communication might be
improved by implementing an employee suggestion
system)
3. Human Factors/Ergonomics
- field of study concentrating on the interaction
between humans and machines.
- concentrate on workplace design, human machine
interaction, ergonomics, and physical fatigue and stress
- frequently work with engineers (such as Industrial
Engineers) and other technical professionals to make
the workplace safer and more efficient
- includes activities such as designing the optimal way to
draw a map, designing the most comfortable chair, and
investigating the optimal work schedule
Ψ There are different areas/settings as to which you can
apply I/O Psychology that requires Human Resource
Management (HRM) such as in educational setting,
organizational/business setting, clinical setting, and
etc…
Brief History of I/O Psychology
In 1903, Walter Dill Scott wrote “The Theory of
Advertising”, in which psychology was first applied to
business. In 1911, he published Increasing Human
Efficiency in Business.
1913, Hugo Munsterberg publishes Psychology and
Industrial Efficiency (German version published in 1910).
The term “industrial psychology” was seldom used
prior to World War I. Instead, the common terms for
the field were “economic psychology,” “business
psychology,” and “employment psychology”
(Koppes & Pickren, 2007).
1917, Journal of Applied Psychology first published
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opportunity for large-scale employee testing and
selection.
(Army Alpha, for literate & Army Beta, for those who
can’t read)
John Watson, who is better known as a pioneer in
behaviorism, served as a major in the U.S. Army in World
War I and developed perceptual and motor tests for
potential pilots.
Henry Gantt, were responsible for increasing the
efficiency with which cargo ships were built, repaired,
and loaded
Thomas A. Edison created a 150-item knowledge test
that he administered to over 900 applicants. Only 5% of
the applicants passed.
Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth, one of the
pioneer scientists to improve productivity and reduce
fatigue by studying the motions used by workers.
1921, First Ph.D. in I/O psychology awarded to Bruce
Moore and Merrill Ream at Carnegie Tech
1932, First I/O text written by Morris Viteles
1933, Hawthorne studies were published, conducted at
the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in
the Chicago area, demonstrated that the interpersonal
interactions between managers and employees played
a tremendous role in employee behavior. It was initially
designed to investigate such issues as the effects of
lighting levels, work schedules, wages, temperature, and
rest breaks on employee performance. Employees
changed their behavior and became more productive
because they were being studied and received
attention from their managers
(Hawthorne effect.)
1937, American Association for Applied Psychology
established
1945, Society for Industrial and Business Psychology
established as Division 14 of APA with 130 members
1951, Marion Bills elected as first woman president of
Division 14
1960, Division 14 renamed as Society for Industrial
Psychology, membership exceeds 700
1963, Equal Pay Act passed
1964, Civil Rights Act passed. First issue of The Industrial-
Organizational Psychologist (TIP) published
1970, Division 14 membership exceeds 1,100
1971, B.F. Skinner publishes Beyond Freedom and Dignity
1980, Division 14 membership exceeds 1,800
1982, Division 14 renamed Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology (SIOP)
1986, Society for Industrial and Organizational
Psychology (SIOP) holds first annual national conference
separate from APA meeting
1989, Supreme Court sets conservative trend and
becomes more “employer friendly”
1990, Americans with Disabilities Act passed. SIOP
membership exceeds 2,500
1991, Civil Rights Act of 1991 passed to overcome 1989
conservative Supreme Court decisions
1997, SIOP celebrates golden anniversary at its annual
conference in St. Louis
2000, SIOP membership exceeds 3,600
2005, Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs
(OFCCP) and Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC) become more aggressive in fighting
systemic discrimination
2008, The journal Industrial and Organizational
Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice
begins publication as an official journal of SIOP
2009, Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act and Americans with
Disabilities Act Amendment Act (ADAAA) passed
2010, SIOP membership exceeds 8,000; SIOP members
narrowly vote to keep the name Society for Industrial
Organizational Psychology rather than change the
name to the Society for Organizational Psychology
2013, OFCCP issues new regulations affecting the hiring
of military veterans and individuals with disabilities
2014, SIOP membership exceeds 8,300
CHAPTER 2: JOB ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
Job Analysis
- the process of gathering and analyzing information
about the work an employee performs, the conditions
under which the work is performed, and the worker
characteristics needed to perform the work under the
identified conditions.
- is the process of determining the work activities and
requirements
- job analysis and job descriptions serve as the basis for
many HR activities, including employee selection,
evaluation, training, and work design.
- goal is to identify the tasks performed in a job, the
conditions under which the tasks are performed, and the
knowledge, skills, attitudes, other factors (KSAOs)
needed to perform the tasks under the conditions
identified
Job Description
- is the written result of the job analysis
- should contain the following eight sections: job title,
brief summary, work activities, tools and equipment
used, work context, performance standards,
compensation information, and personal requirements.
Methods Used in Conducting a Job Analysis
1. Observation
- the analyst observes and documents all the activities
performed by current job holders while they work
- useful for repetitive jobs and in conjunction with other
methods of job analysis or as a way to verify information
2. Interview
- analyst conducts structured interviews with job holders
and supervisors using a series of job-related questions to
identify the tasks and responsibilities of a job
- a standardized interview form is used often to record
information
- both the employee and the employees supervisor must
be interviewed to obtain complete details
- group or panel interviews are used
- a team of subject matter experts (SME) who have
varying insights about a group of jobs can be assembled
to provide job analysis information as well
3. Questionnaire
- widely used method of gathering data about jobs
- offer the major advantage of efficiency in
effectiveness as a large number of jobs can be
collected inexpensively in an over a relatively short
period of time
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- using the same questionnaire for all position provides
standard types of data across jobs
- assumes that employees can accurately analyze and
communicate information about their own job
Steps in Conducting a Job Analysis
Step 1: Identify Tasks Performed
- identify the major job dimensions and the tasks
performed for each dimension, the tools and equipment
used to perform the tasks, and the conditions under
which the tasks are performed.
Gathering Existing Information.
Interviewing Subject Matter Experts (people who
are knowledgeable about the job and include job
incumbents, supervisors, customers, and upper-level
management)
Observing Incumbents. (the job analyst observes
incumbents performing their jobs in the work setting)
Job Participation.
Step 2: Write Task Statements
- will be used in the task inventory and included in the
job description.
- a properly written task statement must contain an
action (what is done) and an object (to which the action
is done). Often, task statements will also include such
components as where the task is done, how it is done,
why it is done, and when it is done.
Step 3: Rate Task Statements
- conduct a task analysis — using a group of SMEs to rate
each task statement on the frequency and the
importance or criticality of the task being performed.
 Task analysis – the process of identifying the tasks for
which employees need to be trained.
Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs
- identify the KSAOs needed to perform the tasks.
Knowledge – is a body of information needed to
perform a task.
Skill – is the proficiency to perform a learned task.
Ability – is a basic capacity for performing a wide
range of different tasks, acquiring knowledge, or
developing a skill.
Other characteristics – include such personal factors
as personality, willingness, interest, and motivation and
such tangible factors as licenses, degrees, and years of
experience.
Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs
- will be used to select new employees and include such
methods as interviews, work samples, ability tests,
personality tests, reference checks, integrity tests,
biodata, and assessment centers.
Job Evaluation
- the process of determining the monetary worth of a job
- is typically done in two stages: determining internal pay
equity and determining external pay equity.
- concerns the worth of the job itself, not the worth of a
person in the job.
Four Methods of Job Evaluation
1. Ranking
- a simple system that places jobs in order from highest
to lowest by their value to the organization
- is a quantitative method in which the entire job is
considered rather than individual components
- generally is more appropriate for a small organization
that has relatively few jobs
2. Classification
- uses written descriptions of job classes in which each
job is put into a category that it best matches
- major difficulty with this method is that subjective
judgments are needed to develop class descriptions
that then you place job descriptions in
3. Point Factor
- most widely used job evaluation method
- looks at compensable factors in a group of similar jobs
and assigns weights or points to them
- a compensable factor identifies a dimension that is
part of every job that can be rated for each job
- relatively simple to use and considers the components
of the job rather than the total
4. Market Pricing
- uses market pay data to identify the relative value of
jobs based on what other employers pay for similar work
- identifies relevant market pay data for jobs that are
good matches with the employers jobs
Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity and Ambiguity
(VUCA)
- captures the experience of operating in complex
environments made prevalent by the rise of
globalization and information technology
 Volatility
- means liable to change rapidly and unpredictably
- change is constant, violent, and uncontrollable
- strategy needs to evolve from resisting change to
working with it through agility and enabling
adaptive capacity
 Uncertainty
- the inability to know everything fully
- future is unpredictable, making it hard to prepare
for
- comes from the large number of elements with
nonlinear interactions and their capacity to adapt
to local events as they co-evolution over time
 Complexity
- refers to many parts being interconnected and
interdependent
- with so much going on, things can often feel
chaotic and confused
- managing complexity means giving up traditional
conceptions of strategy and leadership
 Ambiguity
- the quality of being open to more than one
interpretation
- results in the haziness of reality and the potential
for misreading
- lack clarity because it’s hard to know what the
root cause of the problem is
- arises due to lack of models to explain an
observed phenomena caused by complex
environments
- understanding the context within which the event
takes place resolves it
- requires systems thinking to see the
interconnections, to gain different perspectives in
order to build up the full context within which an
event can be properly understood
- steps in coping up with a VUCA environment:
1. Counter volatility with vision
- create a compelling vision and values for your
people that will give them a clear focus so that they
can react quickly to change
2. Meet uncertainty with understanding
- when you know the current trends, you’ll be able
to anticipate threats and take advantage of new
opportunities
3. React to complexity with clarity
- be crystal clear when you communicate, and
promote teamwork and collaboration thus leading
to a clear direction and encouragement of solving
complex problems together
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4. Fight ambiguity with agility
- stay adaptable even during uncertain times by
learning new skills, stimulating debate, and
embracing creativity
CHAPTER 3: LEGAL ISSUES IN EMPLOYEE SELECTION
Labor-Management Relations
- labor relations, relationships between employee on
one hand and management on the other
- nowadays, the term is used to cover the relationships
between management and labor unions
Labor Relations as Personnel Management Function
- the efficient use of the material resources as any
organization depends on how well it is utilized by its
personnel and manpower.
- a code of ways of organization and treating individual
at work so that they will each get the greatest possible
realization of their intrinsic abilities.
Labor Problem
- is a difficulty caused by impairment of the harmonious
relations between employees and management
- the existence of such problem affects the morale of
employees and in serious cases impairs the efficient
operations of the company
- sources of labor problems: irritation, complaints,
grievances, and misunderstanding
Satisfaction of Human Needs
- basic physiological needs: hunger, rest and sleep,
protection, reproduction
- social needs: companionship, approval of others,
assertion of oneself, self-approval
Satisfaction of Personal Needs
- wage or salary
- company personnel policy
- working conditions
- job security and stability
- opportunity for advancement and self-improvement
- supervisors who are understanding, fair, and tactful in
dealing with workers
- sympathetic assistance
Complaint
- is a spoken or written dissatisfaction that disturbs the
worker enough to cause a negative reaction to be
brought to the attention of supervisor/management
- is a feeling of dissatisfaction, expressed or suppressed,
valid or not, concerning a matter or situation relating to
work
Grievance
- any dissatisfaction, complaint, irritation, or
misunderstanding
- it arises from his job or his relationship with his employer,
any violation of the CBA or Labor Code that he thinks or
feels he is wronged or treated unfairly
Settling Disputes
1. Mediation
- is a process of negotiation in which the disputing parties
come together to discuss their differences under the
supervision of a mediator
- the mediator may be court-appointed or chosen jointly
by the parties
2. Conciliation
- is similar to mediation but is more commonly used by
government agencies or tribunals
- for example, industrial disputes involving employers
and employees may often be referred to conciliation
3. Arbitration
- is quite similar to a court hearing
- the disputing parties are present, commonly
accompanied by their lawyers, and the dispute is
determined by an impartial arbitrator who may be
court-appointed
- the benefit of using arbitration is that it is cheaper and
the rules of arbitration are not as rigid as the rules of
court.
Discrimination
- is the behavior or actions, usually negative, towards an
individual or group of people, especially on the basis of
sex/race/social class, etc.
Adverse Impact – is based on the 80% or 4/5ths rule
Unfairness – it occurs when minorities and non-minorities
score differently on the predictor test yet perform
similarly on the criterion. (ex. MCAT)
Differential Validity – occurs when there are significantly
different criterion-related validity for different group on
the same test. put more simply, differential validity
means that the test is more valid for predicting the
performance of one group than it is for predicting the
performance of another. (ex. male vs. females)
Prejudice – is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually 3. Employee Selection
negative) towards an individual based solely on the - is the process by which an employer evaluates
individual’s membership of a social group. information about the pool of applicants generated
during the recruitment phase
- after assessing the candidates, the company decides
CHAPTER 4: EMPLOYEE SELECTION – RECRUITMENT AND which applicant will be offered the position.
INTERVIEWING
Complete Process Cycle From Job Vacancy To
Selection Process Employee Evaluation
- can be defined as the process of selection and
shortlisting of the right candidates with the necessary
qualifications and skill set to fill the vacancies in an
organization
- the selection process varies from industry to industry,
company to company and even among departments
of the same company.
Importance of the Selection Process
1. Proper selection and placement of employees lead
to growth and development of the company. The
company can similarly, only be as good as the
capabilities of its employees.
2. The hiring of talented and skilled employees results in
the swift achievement of company goals.
3. Industrial accidents will drastically reduce in numbers
when the right technical staff is employed for the right
jobs.
4. When people get jobs they are good at, it creates a
sense of satisfaction with them and thus their work
efficiency and quality improves.
5. People who are satisfied with their jobs often tend to
have high morale and motivation to perform better
Steps in the Recruiting Process Hiring Selection Matrix – after recruitment and screening,
1. Planning qualified candidates are short-listed to finally select the
- is when a company settles on the number of most appropriate candidate for the job using previously
employees they are looking to hire and the skill sets they identified competencies.
require of these employees
- compare their needs to the expected number of How Companies Hire Employees
qualified candidates in the labor market. 1. Job Applications
2. Applicant Tracking Systems
2. Recruitment 3. Applicant Talent Assessments
- takes place when the company tries to reach a pool 4. Interview Process
of candidates through job postings, job referrals, 5. Interview Follow Up
advertisements, college campus recruitment, etc… 6. Applicant Drug Testing
- candidates who respond to these measures then come 7. Background Checks
in for interviews and other methods of assessment 8. Credit Checks
- employers may check the background of prospective 9. Reference Checks
employees, as well as check references 10. Job Offers
11. Hiring Paperwork
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Ψ After careful selection and hiring, successful Strengths and - the rater is forced to make a choice. HR
employees are invited for an orientation program. Topics Development needs department does actual assessment
often include: Administrative Decisions Salary - advantages: absence of personal biases because
 Safety / Uses Promotion of forced choice
 The work environment Retention / Termination - disadvantages: statements may be wrongly
 The new job description Recognition framed
 Benefits and benefits eligibility Lay offs
 The employee's new manager and coworkers Poor Performers 4. Forced Distribution Method
 Company culture (Links to an external site.) identification - here employees are clustered around a high point
 Company history HR Planning on a rating scale
 The organization chart Training Needs - rater is compelled to distribute the employees on
 Anything else that is relevant for the new employee Organizational Goal all points on the scale
to working in the new company Organizational achievements - it is assumed that the performance is conformed
Maintenance Goal Identification to normal distribution
HR Systems Evaluation - disadvantages: assumption of normal distribution,
CHAPTER 7: EVALUATING EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE Reinforcement of unrealistic, errors of central tendency
organizational needs
Employee Evaluation Documentation Validation Research 5. Critical Incidents Method
- is the assessment and review of a worker’s job For HR Decisions - is focused on certain critical behaviors of
performance that is conducted either twice or once a Legal Requirements employee that makes all the difference in the
year performance
- typically these assessments are done at year-end or on Methods of Performance Evaluation - supervisors as and when they occur record such
the employee's service anniversary - broadly all methods of appraisals can be divided into incidents
- many companies tie their annual raises to employee two different categories: - advantages: evaluations are based on actual job
evaluations. a. Past Oriented Methods behaviors, ratings are supported by descriptions,
1. Rating Scales feedback is easy, reduces recency biases, chances
Performance Appraisals and Job Analysis Relationship - rating scales consists of several numerical scales of subordinate improvement are high
Performance Performance representing job related performance criterions - disadvantages: negative incidents can be
Job Analysis
Standards Appraisals such as dependability, initiative, output, prioritized, forgetting incidents, overly close
Translate job Describe the attendance, attitude etc. that ranges from supervision; feedback may be too much and may
Describe the appear to be punishment
requirements job relevant excellent to poor and the total numerical scores are
work and
into levels of strengths and computed and final conclusions are derived
personnel 6. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales:
acceptable or weaknesses of - advantages: adaptability, easy to use, low cost,
requirement of - statements of effective and ineffective behaviors
unacceptable each every type of job can be evaluated, large number
a particular job. determine the points and are said to be
performance individual. of employees covered, no formal training required.
- disadvantages: rater’s biases behaviorally anchored
Use of Performance Appraisals - the rater is supposed to say, which behavior
1. Promotions 2. Checklist describes the employee performance
2. Confirmations - under this method, checklist of statements of traits - advantages: helps overcome rating errors
3. Training and Development of employee in the form of Yes or No based - disadvantages: suffers from distortions inherent in
4. Compensation reviews questions is prepared most rating techniques
5. Competency building - the rater only does the reporting or checking and
6. Improve communication HR department does the actual evaluation 7. Field Review Method
7. Evaluation of HR Programs - advantages: economy, ease of administration, - is an appraisal done by someone outside
8. Feedback & Grievances limited training required, standardization employees’ own department usually from
- disadvantages: raters biases, use of improper corporate or HR department
4 Goals of Performance Appraisals weighs by HR, does not allow rater to give relative - advantages: useful for managerial level
General Goals Specific Goals ratings promotions, when comparable information is
needed
Developmental Use Individual needs
3. Forced Choice Method - disadvantages: outsider is generally not familiar
Performance feedback
- the series of statements arranged in the blocks of with employees work environment, Observation of
Transfers and
two or more are given and the rater indicates which actual behaviors not possible
Placements
statement is true or false

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8. Performance Tests & Observations
- is based on the test of knowledge or skills
- the tests may be written or an actual presentation
of skills
- tests must be reliable and validated to be useful
- advantage: tests may be apt to measure
potential more than actual performance
- disadvantage: tests may suffer if costs of test
development or administration are high
9. Confidential Records
- mostly used by government departments,
however its application in industry is not ruled out
- here the report is given in the form of Annual
Confidentiality Report (ACR) and may record
ratings with respect to following items; attendance,
self-expression, team work, leadership, initiative,
technical ability, reasoning ability, originality and
resourcefulness etc.
- the system is highly secretive and confidential
- feedback to the assessee is given only in case of
an adverse entry
- disadvantage is that it is highly subjective and
ratings can be manipulated because the
evaluations are linked to HR actions like promotions
etc.
10. Essay Method
- in this method the rater writes down the employee
description in detail within a number of broad
categories like, overall impression of performance,
promoteability of employee, existing capabilities
and qualifications of performing jobs, strengths and
weaknesses and training needs of the employee
- advantage: it is extremely useful in filing
information gaps about the employees that often
occur in a better-structured checklist
- disadvantages: it its highly dependent upon the
writing skills of rater and most of them are not good
writers, may get confused success depends on the
memory power of raters.
11. Cost Accounting Method
- here performance is evaluated from the monetary
returns yields to his or her organization
- cost to keep employee, and benefit the
organization derives is ascertained
- hence it is more dependent upon cost and benefit
analysis.
12. Comparative Evaluation Method (Ranking &
Paired Comparisons)
- these are collection of different methods that
compare performance with that of other co-
workers
- the usual techniques used may be ranking
methods and paired comparison method.
 Ranking Methods
- superior ranks his worker based on merit, from
best to worst
- however how best and why best are not
elaborated in this method
- it is easy to administer and explanation
 Paired Comparison Methods
- in this method each employee is rated with
another employee in the form of pairs
- the number of comparisons may be
calculated with the help of a formula:
N x (N-1) / 2
b. Future Oriented Methods
1. Management by Objectives
- It means management by objectives and the
performance is rated against the achievement of
objectives stated by the management
- MBO process goes as:
 Establish goals and desired outcomes for each
subordinate
 Setting performance standards
 Comparison of actual goals with goals
attained by the employee
 Establish new goals and new strategies for
goals not achieved in previous year
- advantage: It is more useful for managerial
positions
- disadvantages: not applicable to all jobs,
allocation of merit pay may result in setting short-
term goals rather than important and long-term
goals etc.
2. Psychological Appraisals
- these appraisals are more directed to assess
employee’s potential for future performance rather
than the past one
- is done in the form of in-depth interviews,
psychological tests, and discussion with supervisors
and review of other evaluations
- is more focused on employees emotional,
intellectual, and motivational and other personal
characteristics affecting his performance
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- this approach is slow and costly and may be useful
for bright young members who may have
considerable potential
- however, quality of these appraisals largely
depend upon the skills of psychologists who perform
the evaluation.
3. Assessment Centers
- this technique was first developed in USA and UK
in 1943
- is a central location where managers may come
together to have their participation in job related
exercises evaluated by trained observers
- is more focused on observation of behaviors
across a series of select exercises or work samples
- assessees are requested to participate in in-basket
exercises, work groups, computer simulations, role
playing and other similar activities which require
same attributes for successful performance in
actual job
- the characteristics assessed in assessment center
can be assertiveness, persuasive ability,
communicating ability, planning and
organizational ability, self-confidence, resistance to
stress, energy level, decision making, sensitivity to
feelings, administrative ability, creativity and mental
alertness etc.
- advantages: well-conducted assessment center
can achieve better forecasts of future performance
and progress than other methods of appraisals; also
reliability, content validity and predictive ability are
said to be high in assessment centers; the tests also
make sure that the wrong people are not hired or
promoted; it clearly defines the criteria for selection
and promotion.
- disadvantages: costs of employees traveling and
lodging, psychologists, ratings strongly influenced
by assessee’s inter-personal skills; solid performers
may feel suffocated in simulated situations; those
who are not selected for this also may get affected.
4. 360-Degree Feedback
- is a technique which is systematic collection of
performance data on an individual group, derived
from a number of stakeholders like immediate
supervisors, team members, customers, peers and
self
- in fact anyone who has useful information on how
an employee does a job may be one of the
appraisers
- is highly useful in terms of broader perspective,
greater self-development and multi-source
feedback is useful
 - are useful to measure inter-personal skills,
customer satisfaction and team building skills
- however on the negative side, receiving
feedback from multiple sources can be
intimidating, threatening etc.
- multiple raters may be less adept at providing
balanced and objective feedback.
Peter Principle - the idea that organizations tend to
promote good employees until they reach the level at
which they are not competent—in other words, their
highest level of incompetence.
Conducting a Performance Appraisal
1. Design a legally valid performance review process
- Patricia King, in her book, Performance Planning and
Appraisal, states that the law requires that performance
appraisals be: job-related and valid; based on a
thorough analysis of the job; standardized for all
employees; not biased against any race, color, sex,
religion, or nationality; and performed by people who
have adequate knowledge of the person or job
- be sure to build in the process, a route for recourse if an
employee feels he or she has been dealt with unfairly in
an appraisal process, e.g., that the employee can go to
his or her supervisor's supervisor. The process should be
clearly described in a personnel policy.
2. Design a standard form for performance
appraisals (Links to an external site.)
- include the name of the employee, date the
performance form was completed, dates specifying the
time interval over which the employee is being
evaluated, performance dimensions (include
responsibilities from the job description, any assigned
goals from the strategic plan, along with needed skills,
such as communications, administration, etc.), a rating
system (e.g., poor, average, good, excellent), space for
commentary for each dimension, a final section for
overall commentary, a final section for action plans to
address improvements, and lines for signatures of the
supervisor and employee
- signatures may either specify that the employee
accepts the appraisal or has seen it, depending on
wording on the form.
3. Schedule the first performance review for six months
after the employee starts employment
- schedule another six months later, and then every year
on the employee's anniversary date.
4. Initiate the performance review process and
upcoming meeting
- tell the employee that you're initiating a scheduled
performance review. Remind them of what's involved in
the process. Schedule a meeting about two weeks out.
5. Have the employee suggest any updates to the job
description and provide written input to the appraisal
- have them record their input concurrent to your
recording of theirs. Have them record their input on their
own sheets (their feedback will be combined on the
official form later on in the process)
- you and the employee can exchange each of your
written feedback in the upcoming review meeting
- note that by now, employees should have received the
job descriptions and goals well in advance of the review,
i.e., a year before
- the employee should also be familiar with the
performance appraisal procedure and form
6. Document your input – reference the job description
and performance goals
- be sure you are familiar with the job requirements and
have sufficient contact with the employee to be making
valid judgments
- don't comment on the employee's race, sex, religion,
nationality, or a handicap or veteran status
- record major accomplishments, exhibited strengths
and weaknesses according to the dimensions on the
appraisal form, and suggest actions and training or
development to improve performance
- use examples of behaviors wherever you can in the
appraisal to help avoid counting on hearsay
- always address behaviors, not characteristics of
personalities
- the best way to follow this guideline is to consider what
you saw with your eyes
- be sure to address only the behaviors of that employee,
rather than behaviors of other employees
7. Hold the performance appraisal meeting
- state the meeting's goals of exchanging feedback and
coming to action plans, where necessary
- let the employee speak first and give their input
- respond with your own input then discuss areas where
you disagree
- attempt to avoid defensiveness; admitting how you
feel at the present time, helps a great deal
- discuss behaviors, not personalities
- avoid final terms such as "always," "never," etc.
- encourage participation and be supportive
- come to terms on actions, where possible
- try to end the meeting on a positive note.
7
8. Update and finalize the performance appraisal form
- add agreed-to commentary on to the form
- mote that if the employee wants to add attach written
input to the final form, he or she should be able to do so
- the supervisor signs the form and asks the employee to
sign it
- the form and its action plans are reviewed every few
months, usually during one-on-one meetings with the
employee.
9. Nothing should be surprising to the employee during
the appraisal meeting
- any performance issues should have been addressed
as soon as those issues occurred
- nothing should be a surprise to the employee later on
in the actual performance appraisal meeting
- surprises will appear to the employee as if the supervisor
has not been doing his/her job and/or that the supervisor
is not being fair
- it is okay to mention the issues in the meeting, but the
employee should have heard about them before
CHAPTER 8: DESIGNING AND EVALUATING TRAINING
PROGRAM
Training
- is the “systematic acquisition of skills, rules, concepts, or
attitudes that result in improved performance”
(Goldstein & Ford, 2002, as cited in Aamodt, 2016)
- is essential for an organization because it ensures that
employees have the knowledge and skills necessary to
perform the job
- In some cases, a lack of skill or knowledge is due to an
organization having difficulty hiring applicants with the
necessary knowledge and skills to perform a job; thus,
training compensates for the inability to select desired
applicants.
Needs Analysis / Assessment
- is the first step in developing an employee training
system (Noe, 2013, as cited in Aamodt, 2016)
- purpose is to determine the types of training, if any, that
are needed in an organization, as well as the extent to
which training is a practical means of achieving an
organization’s goals
- the importance of needs assessment was
demonstrated by a meta-analysis indicating increased
training effectiveness when a needs assessment had
been done prior to the creation of the training program
(Arthur, Bennett, Edens, & Bell, 2003, as cited in Aamodt,
2016).
Training Needs Assessment Process
1. The facilitator gathers all employees who have the
same job in a conference room with a whiteboard or flip
charts and markers. (Alternatively, if each employee has
access, you could use a program like Google Docs or
another online shared access service. You would lose
some of the immediacies of the more visual whiteboard
or flip chart, however.)
2. Ask each employee to write down their ten most
important training needs. Emphasize that the employees
should write specific needs. Communication or team
building are such broad training needs, as an example,
that you would need to do a second training needs
assessment on each of these topics, how to resolve a
conflict or how to deeply and effectively listen to a
coworker are more specific training needs.
3. Then, ask each person to list their ten training needs.
As they list the training needs, the facilitator captures the
stated training needs on the whiteboard or flip chart.
Don't write down duplicates but do confirm by
questioning that the training need that on the surface
appears to be a duplicate, really is an exact duplicate.
Otherwise, participants can feel as if their needs were
marginalized.
4. When all of the training needs have been listed, use a
weighted voting process to prioritize the training needs
of the group. In a weighted voting process, you use
sticky dots or numbers written in magic marker (not as
much fun) to vote on and prioritize the list of training
needs. Assign a large dot 25 points and smaller dots five
points each. Distribute as many dots as you like but make
sure that every employee has the same number of
points. Tell needs assessment participants to place their
dots on the chart to vote on their priorities. Give the
group a ten or fifteen-minute time limit so that you don't
have people pondering their decision for a lengthy
period of time.
5. List the training needs in order of importance, with the
number of points assigned as votes determining priority,
as determined by the sticky dot voting process. Make
sure you have taken notes (best taken by someone on
their laptop while the process is underway) or the flip
chart pages to maintain a record of the training needs
assessment session. Or, if available, use more modern
technology like a dry-erase board or a web whiteboard.
6. Take time, or schedule another session, to
brainstorm the needed outcomes or goals from the first
three to five training sessions identified in the needs
assessment process. This will help as you seek and  Are the training methods suitable for the topics and
schedule training to meet the employees' needs. You the participants?
can schedule more brainstorming later, but you will
 Is there a need for follow-through activities to
generally find that you need to redo the needs
ensure that learning is applied at work?
assessment process after the first few training sessions.
 What expected behaviors must be observed from
7. Note that the top one or two needs of each the participants to prove that they have learned?
employee, may not have become the priorities for the  How can the supervisor help to maintain and to
group. Try to build that top priority training opportunity continuously improve these behaviors?
into the employee's personal performance  With the overall output of the department, what
development plan. You will also want to use the results organizational goals are fulfilled?
for the employees' career development planning when
they meet with their managers. This will ensure they have Analyzing Training Effectiveness using Kirkpatrick Model
support to pursue the training that they need and want.
Additional Tips about Training Needs Assessment
Ψ Training needs assessment can be, and often needs
to be, much more complicated than this. But, this is a
terrific process for a simple training needs assessment.
Ψ Make sure that you keep the commitments generated
by the training needs assessment process. Employees will
expect to receive their key identified training sessions
with the brainstormed objectives met.
Ψ Ensure that the training needs assessment results are
built into the employee's quarterly performance
development plan. It is important that the employee's
manager becomes a co-owner of the employee's
ongoing performance development hopes and needs.
Ψ Make sure that you are tracking the training and
development opportunities that you provide for each of
your employees.
New Employee Onboarding and Orientation Kirkpatrick's Four-Level Training Evaluation Model
- employee training that is crucial in bringing a new - first published by Donald Kirkpatrick, former Professor
employee up-to-speed as quickly as possible Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin in 1959
- It starts when you welcome the new employee to your - each successive level of the model represents a more
organization and continues until the employee is precise measure of the effectiveness of a training
proficiently performing the new job program
- these resources will help you announce the arrival of - four levels are:
new employees and formulate and implement a  Level 1: Reaction
successful onboarding process - you want people to feel that training is valuable,
measuring how engaged they were, how actively
Evaluating a Training Program they contributed, and how they reacted to the
- some guide questions: training helps you to understand how well they
 Do employees appreciate their learning and received it
development experience in terms of preparation - it also enables you to make improvements to future
and delivery? programs, by identifying important topics that might
 Do contents of the training program address the have been missing
competency gaps?
8
  Level 2: Learning
- focuses on measuring what your trainees have
and haven't learned. In the New World version of
the tool, Level 2 also measures what they think
they'll be able to do differently as a result, how
confident they are that they can do it, and how
motivated they are to make changes.
- this demonstrates how training has developed
their skills, attitudes and knowledge, as well as their
confidence and commitment.
 Level 3: Behavior
- this level helps you to understand how well people
apply their training
- it can also reveal where people might need help
but behavior can only change when conditions are
favorable
- one of the best ways to measure behavior is to
conduct observations and interviews
- another is to integrate the use of new skills into the
tasks that you set your team, so that people have
the chance to demonstrate what they know
 Level 4: Results
- at this level, you analyze the final results of your
training. This includes outcomes that you or your
organization have decided are good for business
and good for your team members, and which
demonstrate a good return on investment (ROI).
(Some adapted versions of the model actually
have a Level 5, dedicated to working out ROI.)
- likely be the most costly and time-consuming
- your biggest challenge will be to identify which
outcomes, benefits, or final results are most closely
linked to the training, and to come up with an
effective way to measure these outcomes in the
long term
CHAPTER 9: EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
Motivation
- is the internal force that drives a worker to action as well
as the external factors that encourage that action
(Locke & Latham, 2002 as cited in Aamodt, 2016)
- ability and skill determine whether a worker can do the
job, but motivation determines whether the worker will
do it properly.
5 Theories of Motivation
1. Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
- otherwise known as dual-factor theory or motivation-
hygiene theory) was developed by psychologist
Frederick Herzberg in the 1950s.
- Herzberg found 2 factors that influence employee
motivation and satisfaction…
 Motivator factors
- simply put, these are factors that lead to
satisfaction and motivate employees to work
harder
- examples might include enjoying your work,
feeling recognised and career progression
 Hygiene factors
- these factors can lead to dissatisfaction and a lack
of motivation if they are absent
- examples include salary, company policies,
benefits, relationships with managers and co-
workers
- according to Herzberg’s findings, while motivator and
hygiene factors both influenced motivation, they
appeared to work completely independently of each
other
- while motivator factors increased employee
satisfaction and motivation, the absence of these
factors didn’t necessarily cause dissatisfaction
- likewise, the presence of hygiene factors didn’t appear
to increase satisfaction and motivation but their
absence caused an increase in dissatisfaction
- how to apply it to the workplace:
a. This theory implies that for the happiest and most
productive workforce, you need to work on improving
both motivator and hygiene factors.
b. To help motivate your employees, make sure they
feel appreciated and supported. Give plenty of
feedback and make sure your employees understand
how they can grow and progress through the
company.
c. To prevent job dissatisfaction, make sure that your
employees feel that they are treated right by offering
them the best possible working conditions and fair
pay. Make sure you pay attention to your team and
form supportive relationships with them.
d. Don’t forget that all of your employees are different
and what motivates one person might not motivate
another. Paul Hebert of Symbolist believes that
benefits packages should not be one-size-fits all
9
2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- was coined by psychologist Abraham Maslow in his
1943 paper “A Theory of Human Motivation”
- the crux of the theory is that individuals’ most basic
needs must be met before they become motivated to
achieve higher level needs
- the hierarchy is made up of 5 levels:
1. Physiological – these needs must be met in order for
a person to survive, such as food, water and shelter.
2. Safety – including personal and financial security
and health and wellbeing.
3. Love/belonging – the need for friendships,
relationships and family.
4. Esteem – the need to feel confident and be
respected by others.
5. Self-actualisation – the desire to achieve everything
you possibly can and become the most that you can
be.
- according to the hierarchy of needs, you must be in
good health, safe and secure with meaningful
relationships and confidence before you are able to be
the most that you can be
- how to apply it to the workplace:
a. Help employees understand the meaning of their
roles during a staff retreat
b. In order to get the most out of your team, you
should also make sure you support them in other
aspects of their lives outside work. Perhaps you could
offer flexible working hours to give employees time to
focus on their families and make sure they are paid
fairly to help them feel financially stable.
3. Hawthorne Effect
- was first described by Henry A. Landsberger in 1950 who
noticed a tendency for some people to work harder and
perform better when they were being observed by
researchers
- employees became motivated to work harder as a
response to the attention being paid to them, rather
than the actual physical changes themselves
- how to apply it to the workplace:
a. The Hawthorne Effect studies suggest that
employees will work harder if they know they’re being
observed. Try providing regular feedback, letting your
team know that you know what they’re up to and
how they’re doing.
 b. Showing your employees that you care about them
and their working conditions may also motivate them
to work harder. Encourage your team to give you
feedback and suggestions about their workspace
and development.
4. Expectancy Theory
- proposes that people will choose how to behave
depending on the outcomes they expect as a result of
their behavior
-in other words, we decide what to do based on what
we expect the outcome to be
- at work, it might be that we work longer hours because
we expect a pay rise.
- also suggests that the process by which we decide our
behaviours is also influenced by how likely we perceive
those rewards to be
- in this instance, workers may be more likely to work
harder if they had been promised a pay rise (and thus
perceived that outcome as very likely) than if they had
only assumed they might get one (and perceived the
outcome as possible but not likely)
- is based on three elements:
1. Expectancy
- the belief that your effort will result in your desired
goal
- is based on your past experience, your self-
confidence and how difficult you think the goal is to
achieve.
2. Instrumentality – the belief that you will receive a
reward if you meet performance expectations.
3. Valence – the value you place on the reward.
- people are most motivated if they believe that they will
receive a desired reward if they hit an achievable target
- they are least motivated if they don’t want the reward
or they don’t believe that their efforts will result in the
reward.
- how to apply it to the workplace:
a. The key here is to set achievable goals for your
employees and provide rewards that they actually
want.
5. Three-Dimensional Theory of Attribution
- explains how we attach meaning to our own, and
other people’s, behavior
- assumes that people try to determine why we do what
we do
- the reasons we attribute to our behaviour can
influence how we behave in the future
- theory is that specific attributions (e.g. bad luck, not
studying hard enough) were less important than the
characteristics of that attribution
- three main characteristics of attributions that can
affect future motivation:
 Stability
- how stable is the attribution?
- an unstable factor is less permanent
- stable attributions for successful achievements
can lead to positive expectations, and thus higher
motivation, for success in the future.
- however, in negative situations, stable attributions
can lead to lower expectations in the future
 Locus of control – was the event caused by an
internal or an external factor?
 Controllability – how controllable was the situation?
- how to apply it to the workplace:
a. Make sure you give your employees specific
feedback, letting them know that you know they can
improve and how they can about it. This, in theory, will
help prevent them from attributing their failure to an
innate lack of skill and see that success is controllable
if they work harder or use different strategies.
b. You could also praise your employees for showing
an improvement, even if the outcome was still not
correct.
Ψ According to Aamodt (2016), various theories suggest
that employees will be highly motivated if:
 they have a personality that predisposes them
to be motivated;
 their expectations have been met;
 the job and the organization are consistent
with their values;
 the employees have been given achievable
goals;
 the employees receive feedback on their goal
attainment;
 the organization rewards them for achieving
their goals;
 the employees perceive they are being
treated fairly; and
 their coworkers demonstrate a high level of
motivation.
10
CHAPTER 12: LEADERSHIP
Ψ As cited by Aamodt (2016), recent reviews suggest
that:
 people high in openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, masculinity, creativity, and
authoritarianism and low in neuroticism are more
likely to emerge as leaders than their counterparts
(Ensari, Riggio, Christian, & Carslaw, 2011; Judge,
Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002);
 high self-monitors (people who adapt their
behavior to the social situation) emerge as leaders
more often than low self-monitors (Day &
Schleicher, 2006; Day, Schleicher, Unckless, & Hiller,
2002);
 more intelligent people are more likely to emerge
as leaders than are less intelligent people (Ensari et
al., 2011; Judge, Colbert, & Ilies, 2004); and
 looking at patterns of abilities and personality traits
is more useful than looking at single abilities and
traits (Foti & Hauenstein, 2007)
CHAPTER 13: GROUP BEHAVIOR, TEAMS, AND CONFLICT
Group
- some experts define it as two or more people who
perceive themselves as a group and interact in some
way
- other definitions require that a group must involve some
degree of structure and permanency
- Gordon (2001) believes that for a collection of people
to be called a group, the following four criteria must be
met:
a. The members of the group must see themselves as
a unit;
b. The group must provide rewards to its members;
c. Anything that happens to one member of the
group affects every other member; and
d. The members of the group must share a common
goal
CHAPTER 14: ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT
Organizational Development – the process of improving
organizational performance by making organization-
wide, rather than individual changes.
Kurt Lewin’s Change Management Theory
Stage 1: Unfreezing
- the organization must convince employees and other
stakeholders (e.g., shareholders, the community) that
the current state of affairs is unacceptable and that
change is necessary
- includes 4 steps:
1.1 Determine what needs to change
- survey the organization to understand the current
state
- understand why change has to take place
1.2 Ensure there is strong support from senior
management
- use Stakeholder Analysis and Stakeholder
Management to identify and win the support of key
people within the organization
- frame the issue as one of organization-wide
importance
1.3 Create the need for change
- create a compelling message about why changes
has to occur
- use your vision and strategy as supporting evidence
- communicate the vision in terms of the change
required
- emphasize the “why”
1.4 Manage and understand the doubts and
concerns
- remain open to employee concerns and address
them in terms of the need to change
Stage 2: Moving/Stage
- the organization takes steps (e.g., training, new work
processes) to move the organization to the desired state
- includes 4 steps:
2.1 Communicate often
- do so throughout planning and implementation of
the changes
- describe the benefits
- explain exactly how the changes will affect
everyone
- prepare everyone for what is coming
2.2 Dispel rumors
- answers questions openly and honestly
- deal with problems immediately
- relate the need for change back to operational
necessities
2.3 Empower action
- provide lots of opportunity for employee
involvement
- have line managers provide day-to-day direction
2.4 Involve people in the process
- generate short-term wins to reinforce the change
- negotiate with external stakeholders as necessary
Stage 3: Refreezing
- the organization develops ways to keep the new
changes in place, such as formalizing new policy and
rewarding employees for behaving in a manner
consistent with the new change
- includes 3 steps:
3.1 Anchor the changes into the culture
- identify what supports the change
- identify barriers to sustaining change
3.2 Develop ways to sustain the change
- ensure leadership support
- create a reward system
- establish feedback systems
- adapt the organizational structure as necessary
3.3 Provide support and training
Five Stages that Employees Go Through During Major
Organizational Changes
Stage 1: Denial – employees deny that any changes will
actually take place, try to convince themselves that the
old way is working, and create reasons why the
proposed changes will never work
Stage 2: Defense
- when employees begin to believe that change will
actually occur, they become defensive and try to justify
their positions and ways of doing things
- the idea here is that if an organization is changing the
way in which employees perform, there is an inherent
criticism that the employees must have previously been
doing things wrong
Stage 3: Discarding
- employees begin to realize not only that the
organization is going to change but that the employees
are going to have to change as well
11
- that is, change is inevitable, and it is in the best interest
of the employee to discard the old ways and start to
accept the change as the new reality
Stage 4 Adaptation
- employees test the new system, learn how it functions,
and begin to make adjustments in the way they perform
- employees spend tremendous energy at this stage and
can often become frustrated and angry
Stage 5: Internalization – employees have become
immersed in the new culture and comfortable with the
new system and have accepted their new coworkers
and work environment
Important Factors
1. The type of change
a. Evolutionary – is the continual process of upgrading or
improving processes
b. Revolutionary – a “real jolt to the system” that
drastically changes the way things are done; and is
more difficult than evolutionary change
2. The reason behind the stage
- financial problems, external mandates, or attempts to
improve the organization
- acceptance is lower when employees perceive the
change to be in organizational philosophy, a whim on
the part of the person making the change or a change
because everyone else is changing
- employees are least likely to accept change if they
don’t understand or were not told the reasons behind
the change
3. The person making the change
- workers are more positive about change when the
source of change is within the work group rather than an
external source
- changes proposed by leaders who are well liked and
respected and who have a history of success are more
likely to be accepted than changes proposed by
leaders whose motives are suspect
4, A person being changed
 Change Agents
- are people who enjoy change and often make
changes just for the sake of it
- motto might best be expressed as “If it ain’t broke,
break it”
- reasoned change is good, but change for the sake
of change is disruptive
  Change Analysts – a person who is not afraid of
change but makes changes only when there is a
compelling reason to do so
 Receptive Changers – a person who is willing to
change
 Reluctant Changers – a person who will initially
resist change but will eventually go along with it
 Change Resister – a person who hates change
and will do anything to keep change from
occurring
Implementing Change
1. Creating an atmosphere for change
2. Communicating details
3. Time frame
4. Training needs
Organizational Culture
- the shared values, beliefs, and traditions that exist
among individuals in an organization
- includes people orientation, team orientation,
aggressiveness, stability, innovation and risk taking,
attention to detail, outcome orientation
Corporate Culture
- the ways the organization conduct its business, treats its
employees, customers, and the wider community
- the extent to which freedom is allowed in decision-
making, developing new ideas, and personal expression
- how power and information flow throughout its
hierarchy and how committed employees are towards
collective objectives
Weak Culture
- a culture is weak when its beliefs, behavioral rules,
traditions, and rituals are not apparent to its members of
there is incongruence between stated values and
behavior
- can happen for a variety of reasons (1) with no
knowledge of what the organization stands for or, (2)
how things are actually done (rather than how policy
indicates things should be done)
- weak cultures work against the success of an
organization 2. Transactional and Transformational Leadership Model
- has four characteristics: - created by Warner Burke and George Litwin
1. Narrow/Isolated Thinking - this theory, "helps OD practitioners define areas of first-
2. Resistance to Change order and second-order change"
3. Political Internal Environment - Directed towards:
4. Unhealthy Promotion Practices
 Structure
Strong Culture  Management practices
- manifests when there is cohesion around beliefs,  Systems (policies and procedures)
behavioral rules, traditions, and rituals  Interventions directed toward mission and strategy
- typically feature these in public displays so that  Leadership
employees can use these cultural elements for decision-
 Culture
making throughout the organization
- has four characteristics:
1. Culture-reinforcing Tools
2. Intensely People-Oriented
3. Results Oriented
4. Emphasis on Achievement and Excellence
Theories and Models of Organizational Development
1. Equilibrium Theory
- Created by Kurt Lewin and other contributors
- This theory identifies: "the balance point between
desirable and non-desirable behaviors that OD
practitioners and industrial/organizational psychologists
use to move the equilibrium point to one side or the
other to gain ideal results"
- Lewin’s second idea: "mirrors the first in the basic idea
that the behavior can be moved by unfreezing, moving,
and freezing certain behavioral traits found within the
change process"
12
3. Model of Organizational Change 5. Teams and Teamwork Model
- created by Porras and Robertson
- focuses on individual behavior
- impact of overall disposition of the organization
4. Empowerment Model
- "OD designs with this approach are specifically
designed to increase participation of organizational
members" (Cornett, 2011)
CHAPTER 15: STRESS MANAGEMENT – DEALING WITH THE
DEMANDS OF LIFE AND WORK
Stress
- is a normal reaction to everyday pressures, but can
become unhealthy when it upsets your day-to-day
functioning
- can be brief, situational and a positive force motivating
performance, but if experienced over an extended
period of time it can become chronic stress, which
negatively impacts health and well-being
13
APPENDIX A: WORKING CONDITIONS AND HUMAN
FACTORS
Types of Problem Employee Behaviors
1. Gossiping – refers to the action of an individual who
habitually reveals personal or sensational information
about others, whether factual or not.
2. Displaying general incivility/insolence
- includes engaging in rude, disrespectful speech or
behaviors and physical intimidation, such as making
insulting and demeaning statements; using angry, hostile
tones; berating staff and colleagues in front of others;
and shouting, throwing things or slamming doors when
displeased
- often directed at anyone the employee disagrees with
or is agitated by
3. Bullying
- certainly can include uncivil behaviors
- can also use less visible means of harming other
employees, such as social isolation, condescending or
contemptuous communications, and manipulation
- often directed at specific individuals, characterized by
persistent abusive and intimidating behavior or unfair
actions causing the recipient to feel threatened,
abused, humiliated, or vulnerable
- is about having power over someone else—often a
direct report, but also anyone who may seem weaker to
the bully
4. Exhibiting Insubordination
- refers to an employee’s intentional refusal to obey an
employer’s lawful and reasonable orders
- can manifest as a single event worthy of discipline or
termination or as a series of lesser events that work to
undermine a supervisor’s authority over time
HR’s Role
1. HR professionals can play an integral role in providing
guidance and training to managers with difficult
employees.
2. HR should adopt the role of business partner and help
managers look at the presenting issue and uncover the
underlying issue.
3. A critical step is getting the manager to recognize that
a problem exists. HR professional can assist managers in
identifying problems and strategizing possible solutions.
4. Employees should ensure that conflicts are resolved
early on as part of an overall organizational strategy to
prevent workplace violence from occurring.
Strategies for Dealing with Difficult Employees and References:
Disruptive Behaviors
1. Train Aamodt, M. (2016). Industrial/Organizational
2. Take notice and listen Psychology: An Applied Approach 8th Edition.
3. Provide honest feedback Cengage Learning
4. Document and follow disciplinary policies
Cruz, T. (2020). Module and Syllabus in
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
APPENDIX B: FUNDAMENTALS OF GOOD ERGONOMICS
AND HEALTH IMPROVEMENT

The Five Dimensions of Optimal Health Compiled by: Bryle Zyver R. Pineda | @brylezyver
1. Physical Health – are the fitness and exercise initiatives
organized in a workplace setting which is influenced by
factors such as smoking, alcohol & nutrition.

2. Emotional Health – is an individual’s mental state of

being. It is influenced by stress, the reaction to stress and
the individual’s ability to relax and devote time to leisure

3. Social Health – is the ability to ‘get along’ with others,

such as family members, friends and colleagues, giving
and receiving love or friendship and feeling goodwill
toward others.

4. Spiritual Health – is the condition of an individual’s

spirit, such as having a feeling of purpose in life.

5. Intellectual Health – is conditioned by an individual’s

achievements such as those experienced at work,
school, hobbies and cultural pursuits or serving the
community.

Posture and its Importance in the Workplace

Good Posture/Optimal Posture – allows for the least
mechanical stress and strain on the body and optimal
performance

When posture is poor:

1. Pain/injury
2. Dysfunctional movement patterns
3. Poor training technique or poor use of functional
exercise
4. Emotional/ mental stress sympathetic dominance
5. Poor breathing pattern
6. Organ dysfunction (digestion, reproductive,
circulatory, adrenal)

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