Yukl LIO Chapter On Charismatic and Transformational

Chapter 12
'_theories of Charismatic and

Transformational Leadership
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
■ Understand how charismatic and transformational theories differ from earlier theories.
■ Understand similarities and differences between charismatic and transformational
leadership.
■ Understand how leaders,followers, and the situation affect attributions ofcharisma.
■ Understand the traits, behaviors, and influence processes included in each major theory.
■ Understand the benefits and costs ofcharismatic leadership for followers and the
organization.
■ Understand how to inspire more follower commitment and optimism.
In the 1980s, management researchers became very interested in the emotional and symbolic
aspects ofleadership. These processes help us to understand how leaders influence followers to
make self-sacrifices and put the needs of the mission or organization above their materialistic
self-interests. Theories of charismatic and transformational leadership describe this important
aspect ofleadership.
Charisma is a Greek word that means "divinely inspired gift;' such as the ability to per-
form miracles or predict future events. Weber(1947) used the term to describe a form ofinflu-
ence based not on tradition or formal authority but rather on follower perceptions that the
leader is endowed with exceptional qualities. According to Weber, charisma occurs during a
social crisis when a leader emerges with a radical vision that offers a solution to the crisis and
attracts followers who believe in the vision. The followers experience some successes that make
'the vision appear attainable, and they come to perceive the leader as extraordinary.
300
Chapter 12 • Theories of Charismatic and Transformational Leadership 301
In the past two decades, several social scientists formulated newer versions of the theory
to describe charismatic leadership in organizations (e.g., Conger & Kanungo, 1987, 1998; House,
1977; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993). These "neo-charismatic" theories incorporate some of
Weber's ideas, but in other respects they depart from his initial conception about charismatic
leadership (Beyer, 1999; Conger, 1989). The newer theories describe the motives and behaviors
of charismatic leaders and psychological processes that explain how these leaders influence fol-
lowers (Jacobsen & House,2001).
Transformational leadership in another type oftheory used to describe how effective lead-
ers inspire and transform followers by appealing to their ideals and emotions. The terms trans-
formational and charismatic are used interchangeably by many writers, but despite the similarities
there are some important distinctions. This chapter describes the major theories of charismatic
and transformational leadership, compares and evaluates the theories, reviews the research find-
ings, and provides some practical guidelines for leaders.
Attribution Theory ®f Charismatic Leadership

Conger and Kanungo (1987) proposed a theory of charismatic leadership based on the
assumption that charisma is an attributional phenomenon. Subsequently, a refined version of
the theory was presented by Conger (1989) and by Conger and Kanungo (1998). According to
the theory, follower attribution of charismatic qualities to a leader is jointly determined by the
leader's behavior, expertise, and aspects ofthe situation.
Leader Behaviors
Follower attributions of charisma depend on several types of leader behavior. These
behaviors are not assumed to be present in every charismatic leader to the same extent, and their
relative importance depends to some extent on the leadership situation.
Novel and Appealing Vision. Charisma is more likely to be attributed to leaders who advocate
a vision that is highly discrepantfrom the status quo,but not so radical that followers will view the
leader as incompetent or insane. A leader who supports the status quo or advocates only small,
incremental changes will not be viewed as charismatic. The ability to see opportunities that oth-
ers fail to recognize is another reason for a leader to be viewed as extraordinary. Attributions of
charisma are likely for leaders who influence people to collectively achieve objectives that initially
seemed impossible.
Emotional Appeals to Values. Followers are more likely to attribute charisma to leaders who
inspire them with emotional appeals to their values and ideals. Leaders who use authority to
implement an innovative strategy for attaining important objectives may gain more expert power
ifthe strategy is successful, but unless they articulate an ideological vision to justify the strategy,
they are unlikely to appear charismatic. Likewise,followers who meet with the leader to develop
a consensus strategy may be satisfied and highly motivated by the experience of empowerment,
but the leader will not appear to be extraordinary.
Unconventional Behavior. Charisma is more likely to be attributed to leaders who act in

unconventional ways to achieve the vision. The leader's methods for attaining the idealized goal
must differ from conventional ways of doing things in order to impress followers that the leader
302 Chapter 12 • Theories of Charismatic and Transformational Leadership
is extraordinary. The use of innovative strategies that appear successful results in attribution of
superior expertise to the leader by followers. The risks inherent in the use of novel strategies
make it important for the leader to have the skills and expertise to make a realistic assessment of
environmental constraints and opportunities for implementing the strategies. Timing is critical;
the same strategy may succeed at one time but fail completely if implemented earlier or later.
Self-Sacrifices. Leaders are more likely to be viewed as charismatic ifthey make self-sacrifices
for the benefit offollowers, and they take personal risks or incur high costs to achieve the vision
they espouse. Trust appears to be an important component of charisma,and followers have more
trust in a leader who seems less motivated by self-interest than by concern for followers. Most
impressive is a leader who actually risks substantial personal loss in terms ofstatus, money,lead-
ership position, or membership in the organization.
Confidence and Optimism. Leaders who appear confident about their proposals are more
likely to be viewed as charismatic than leaders who appear doubtful and confused. Unless the
leader communicates self-confidence, the success ofan innovative strategy may be attributed more
to luck than to expertise. A leader's confidence and enthusiasm can be contagious. Followers
who believe the leader knows how to attain the shared objective will work harder,thereby increas-
ing the actual probability of success.
Influence Processes
The primary influence process is personal identification, which involves a follower's desire
to please and imitate the leader. Charismatic leaders appear so extraordinary, due to their stra-
tegic insight, strong convictions, self-confidence, unconventional behavior, and dynamic energy
that subordinates idolize these leaders and want to become like them. Leader approval becomes
a measure ofthe subordinate's own self-worth. This approval is expressed by praise and recogni-
tion of subordinate behavior and accomplishments, which builds self-confidence and a deeper
sense of obligation to live up to the leader's expectations in the future. Many subordinates of
charismatic leaders reported that desire for leader approval was their primary source of motiva-
tion. At the same time,it was evident that followers were also motivated by fear of disappointing
the leader and being rejected.
The influence of a charismatic leader may also involve internalization of new values and
beliefs by followers. Conger (1989) emphasized that it is more important for followers to adopt
the leader's attitudes and beliefs about desirable objectives and effective strategies than merely
to imitate superficial aspects of the leader's behavior such as mannerisms, gestures, and speech
patterns. A charismatic leader who articulates an inspirational vision can influence followers to
internalize attitudes and beliefs that will subsequently serve as a source of intrinsic motivation
to carry out the mission ofthe organization. An example is influencing followers to believe they
can collectively overcome formidable obstacles to attainment ofthe vision.
Facilitating Conditions
Contextual variables are especially important for charismatic leadership because the attri-
bution of exceptional ability to a leader is rare and may be highly dependent upon characteris-
tics of the situation. One important situational variable is follower fear and anxiety about the
future. Charismatic leaders are more likely to emerge in crisis situations where people are wor-
riid about economic loss, physical danger,or threats to core values. Nevertheless, Weber (1947),
forma tional Leadership 303
Chapter 12 . Theories of Charismatic and Trans
e
objec tive crisi s to be a nece ssar y condi tion for char-
Conger and Kanungo do not consider an create dis-
a genuine crisis, a leader may be able to
ismatic leadership. Even in the absence of g futur e. To set the
ide a vision of a more promisin
f satisfaction with current conditions and prov pted ways of doing
try to discredit the old, acce
stage for proposing new ways, the leader may ive that conven-
egies is greater when followers perce
things. The impact of unconventional strat e a crisi s where
ly, the leader may also precipitat
tional approaches are no longer effective. Final in deali ng with
demonstration of superior expertise
none existed previously to set the stage for
the problem in unconventional ways.
Leadership
Self-Concept Theory of Charrfisr tóc
charismatic leadership in terms of a set of test-
House (1977) proposed a theory to explain ir et al.
il
sses rather than folklore and mystique. Sham
able propositions involving observable proce vati on and
porating more aspects of human moti
e (1993)revised and extended the theory by incor
ng influence processes.
e a more detailed description ofthe underlyi and a
ided by the leader—follower relationship,
e Evidence of charismatic leadership is prov that the
effects on followers. Followers perceive
•s charismatic'leader has profound and unusual leade r,
the leader, they feel affection toward the
leader's beliefs are correct, they willingly obey perfo r-
ofthe group or organization, they have high
they are emotionally involved in the mission bution
contribute to the success ofthe mission. Attri
mance goals, a' nd they believe that they can Cong er
but in contrast to the attribution theory by
ofextraordinary ability to the leader is likely, .
ssary condition for charismatic leadership
and Kanungo (1987),it is not considered a nece
í-
Leader Traits and Behaviors
ry ng need for power, high self-confidence, and
Charismatic leaders are likely to have a stro in how
ideals. The leadership behaviors that expla
i- a strong conviction in their own beliefs and incl ude the follo wing:
udes and behavior of followers
a charismatic leader influences the attit comm unic atio n when
g strong, expressive forms of
pf (1) articulating an appealing vision,(2) usin n,
risks and making self-sacrifices to attain the visio
a- articulating the vision,(3) taking personal iden ce in follo wers,
expressing optimism and conf
ig (4) communicating high expectations,(5) of the
the vision,(7) managing follower impressions
(6) modeling behaviors consistent with empo weri ng follo wers.
group or organization, and (9)
tá leader,(8) building identification with the ery, and meta phor s
des symbols, slogans, imag
pt Charismatic leaders use language that inclu chari smati c leade rs
s offollowers. Several studies of
1y that are relevant to the experience and value an appealing
communications that help to communicate
:h have identified specific aspects of their of U.S. presidents
y that content analyzed the speeches
to and optimistic vision. For example, a stud smati c (Mio , Riggio,
by presidents regarded as very chari
found more frequent use of metaphors as enth usia sm and
of strong positive emotions such
ey Levin, & Reese, 2005). Finally, expression rs to influ ence fol-
or strategy is another way for leade
optimism about a new initiative, project,
).
lower motivation (Sy, Cote,& Saavedra,2005
Influence Processes
ri- tion is
colleagues recognize that personal identifica
is- Personal Identification. Shamir and his of a chari smati c leade r. When
occur for some followers
he one type of influence process that may leade r's behav ior, carr y out the
wers will imitate the
)r- strong personal identification occurs, follo r. Pers onal ident ifica tion and
t to please the leade
7), leader's requests, and make an extra effor
304 Chapter 12 . Theories of Charismatic and Transformational Leadership
cates an the
follower attributions of charisma to a leader are more likely when the leader communi
way, demonstr ates courage and convictio n, and th(
appealing vision in an expressive and dramatic
(e.g., Choi & Mai-Dalt on, 1999; DeCreme r, wc
makes self-sacrifices for followers or the mission
s, 2004; Yorges et al., 1999). However , personal ca(
2002; Halverson, Holladay, Kazama, & Quinone
than social ex,
identification is considered a less important source ofleader influence over followers
of individua l and collective self-efficacy. foi
identification, internalization, and augmentation sic
pride in being sh
Social Identification. Strong social identification occurs when people take
most importan t social
part of the group or organization and regard membership as one of their
roles are related to a
identities (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). They see how their efforts and work Fz
are more willing to
larger entity, making their work more meaningful and important. They
for the sake of the
place the needs of the group above individual needs and make self-sacrifices er
beliefs, and
group. Moreover, social identification results in strengthening of shared values, m
behavior norms among members ofthe group. dc
a
Charismatic leaders can increase social identification by articulating a vision that relates ca
(see Conger,
follower's self-concept to shared values and role identities associated with the group bt
and the
Kanungo, & Menon, 2000). By emphasizing the ideological importance of the mission uc
unique collec-
group's unique qualifications to perform it, the leader can imbue the group with a id
symbols
tive identity. Social identification can also be increased by the skillful use of slogans, C2
saluting the
(e.g., flags, emblems, uniforms), rituals (singing the organization's song or anthem, m
relevant leader-
flag,reciting the creed),and ceremonies (e.g.,initiation ofnew members). Other
, and sym-
ship behaviors include telling stories about past successes, heroic deeds by members
bolic actions by the founder or former leaders.
mission or
Internalization. With this influence process, followers embrace the leader's
ent. Sometim es charisma tic leaders
objectives as something that is worthy of their commitm
is common for charisma tic leaders to
influence followers to embrace new values, but it more
al terms that reflect existing follower
articulate a vision describing task objectives in ideologic
aspects of the work, the leader makes it
values. By emphasizing the symbolic and ideological
The ultimate form of internali za-
seem more meaningful, noble, heroic, and morally correct.
role as insepara bly linked to their self-
tion occurs when followers come to view their work
nature
concepts and self-worth. They carry out the role because it is a part of their essential
and destiny.
acy and
Self and Collective Efficacy. Task motivation also depends on individual self-effic
and capable of
collective efficacy. Individual self-efficacy is the belief that one is competent
expend more
attaining difficult task objectives. People with high self-efficacy are willing to
longer in overcomi ng obstacles to the attainme nt of task objectives (Bandura,
effort and persist
accomplish
1986). Collective efficacy refers to the perception of group members that they can
willing
exceptional feats by working together. When collective efficacy is high, people are more
A leader can
to cooperate with members oftheir group in a joint effort to carry out their mission.
vision, express-
enhance follower self-efficacy and collective efficacy by articulating an inspiring
it can be accompli shed, and providin g necessar y coaching and assistance
ing confidence that
(see Kark,Shamir,& Chen,2003).
involve
Emotional Contagion. The effects of a charismatic leader on followers may also
was not emphasi zed by Shamir et al. (1993) when
emotional contagion,'although this process
in the theory was initially proposed. A leader who is very positive and enthusiastic can influence
the mood of followers to be more positive, which is likely to increase their enthusiasm for the
work and their perception that they can accomplish difficult objectives (e.g., collective effi-
al cacy). Moreover, emotional contagion can occur among followers themselves, so that feelings of
al excitement and optimism can spread quickly in a group or organization. Bono and Hies (2006)
found thatleaders who were viewed as charismatic by followers were also rated higher on expres-
sion ofemotion and overall effectiveness. The positive mood offollowers mediated the relation-
ship between leader expression ofemotion and ratings ofleader effectiveness.
al
a Facilitating Conditions
0
ie The motivational effects of charismatic leaders are more likely to occur when the lead-
d er's vision is congruent with existing follower values and identities. Thus, charismatic leaders
must be able to understand the needs and values offollowers. In addition, it must be possible to
a define task roles in ideological terms that will appeal to followers. High-technology industries
r, can be linked to values such as scientific progress, economic development, and national pride,
e but it is more difficult to develop an appealing ideology in industries with controversial prod-
ucts such as alcoholic beverages, tobacco, or firearms. Work roles that have low potential for
s ideological appeals include simple, repetitive work with little inherent meaning or social signifi-
e cance. However,the following story ofthe two bricklayers shows that even routine work can be
made more meaningful.
When asked what he was doing, one bricklayer replied that he was making a wall.
The second bricklayer replied that he was building a cathedral.
Accordingto the theory, a crisis condition is not necessary for the effectiveness of charis-
matic leadership. Nevertheless, charismatic leadership is more likely to occur when a group or
organization is in serious trouble, there is not an obvious way to resolve the problem, and there
is considerable anxiety or even panic among the members (e.g., Bligh, Kohles, & Meindl, 2004;
Halverson et al., 2004; House et al., 1991; Pastor, Mayo, & Shamir, 2007; Pillai, 1996; Pillai &
Meindl, 1998). Such conditions favor the emergence of a charismatic leader who is able to inter-
pret the crisis and offer credible strategies for coping with it successfully. However, the attribu-
tion of charisma may be temporary unless the leader's vision continues to be relevant after the
immediate crisis is resolved (Boal & Bryson, 1988; Hunt,Boal,& Dodge,1999). A good example
is provided by the career of Winston Churchill.
f
As the prime minister of Britain during World War II, he rallied resistance to Nazi aggression
and his inspiring speeches sustained hope for an eventual victory. During that time he was
widely viewed in Britain and allied countries as a charismatic leader. However, after the war
he had,a sharp decline in popularity and was unable to retain his leadership position.
Other Conceptions of Charisma

This section reviews some other conceptions of charisma that provide useful insights into
the nature ofthis complex form ofleadership. These conceptions ofcharisma include psychody-
namic processes, close versus distant charismatics, and a typology that differentiates charismatics
from ideological and pragmatic leaders.
Psychodynamic Processes
A few theorists have attempted to explain charisma in terms of Freudian psychodynamic
processes in followers (Kets de Vries, 1988; Lindholm, 1988). These theorists attempt to explain
the unusual and seemingly irrational influence ofsome charismatic leaders who are idolized as a
superhuman hero or worshiped as a spiritual figure. The intense personal identification of fol-
lowers with such leaders is explained in terms of psychodynamic processes such as regression,
transference, and projection. Regression involves a return to feelings and behaviors that were
typical of a younger age. Transference occurs when feelings toward an important figure from the
past (e.g., a parent) are shifted to someone in the present. Projection involves a process of attrib-
uting undesirable feelings and motives to someone else, thereby shifting the blame for things
about which one feels guilty.
According to one psychoanalytic explanation, followers suffering from fear, guilt, or
alienation may experience a feeling of euphoric empowerment and transcendence by submerg-
ing their identity in that of a seemingly superhuman leader. For example, a young man has
a severe identity crisis because he is unable to develop a clear conception of an ideal self due
to weak or abusive parents. He develops a strong emotional attachment and dependence on a
charismatic gang leader who serves as the ideal to emulate. In another example, a person who
has caused injury to others suffers from overwhelming guilt. By identifying with a charismatic
C
religious leader who is perceived to exemplify moral values, the person vicariously experiences
the leader's moral superiority and is able to overcome the guilt. Followers of a charismatic leader
may regress to childhood feelings of dependence on a parent who seemed to have magical pow-
ers, they may identify with the leader as an idealized self who exemplifies their wishes and fan-
~
tasies, and they may be encouraged to project their feelings of guilt and hostility to an external
figure or group. (
a
Attributions of charisma are especially likely by people who have feelings of inadequacy,
a
guilt,fear, and alienation, and who share beliefs and fantasies that will serve as the basis for emo-
c
tional and rational appeals by the leader. For example, the combination of a severe economic
e
depression and the collective shame of defeat in World War I left a fertile ground in Germany for
the rise ofHitler. Hero worship and personal identification with charismatic entertainers is more
likely to occur among adolescents who have low self-esteem and a weak social identity.
(
Close and Distant Charisma
Shamir (1995) proposed that attributions of charisma for people who have close contact e
with the leader differ in some important ways from attributions made by people who only view the 2
leader from a distance. An exploratory study was conducted in Israel to see whether the proposed 1(
differences could be verified. Students were interviewed and asked to describe a charismatic leader t]
with whom they had a direct relationship and one with whom they did not have a direct relation- t]
ship. Responses were content analyzed to identify leader traits, skills, behaviors, and effects. c
The results from the initial study support Shamir's proposition that the amount of direct c
interaction between a leader and followers affects attributions ofcharisma. Distant charismatics p
were described more often in terms of their substantive achievements and effects on follower P
political attitudes. Close charismatics were more often described in terms oftheir effects on fol-
lower motivation, task behavior, and identification with the leader. The fmdings suggest that a
attributions of greatness for distant leaders are affected more by performance cues and shared a:
stereotypes, whereas attributions of greatness for close leaders are affected more by leader it
behavior and interpersonal skills. However, the exploratory study had several limitations, and n
ip 307
Chapter 12 • Theories of Charismatic and Transformational Leadersh
for the proposition

a subsequent study by Yagil (1998) in the Israeli army did not find support
ions charisma for close
of
that interpersonal qualities are more important in determining attribut
t in Korean companies
rather than distant leaders. A survey study of managers at differen levels
close and distant subor-
(Chun et al., 2009)examined the•influence of charismatic leadership on
dinates with multilevel analyses, but the results were mixed.
be affected also by
Attribution of charisma to a distant charismatic leader is likely to
The perception of a distant
influence processes among the followers themselves(Meindl, 1990).
reputation and defend con-
leader may be influenced by individuals who promote the leader's
Waldman,2010). Emotional
troversial actions and decisions by the leader (Galvin, Balkundi, &
The qualities attributed
contagion can increase follower enthusiasm and devotion to the leader.
circulate among people who
to a leader may become highly exaggerated as rumors and stories
leader's heroic deeds and
have no direct contact with the leader. For example, stories about a
stories about miracles
exceptional feats may spread among members of a political movement;
cult.
performed by the leader may spread among members of a religious
a may be made not only by the member s of an organization,
Attributions about charism
closely (e.g., inves-
but also by outsiders who do not have an opportunity to observe the leaders
officers (CEOs) have a vari-
tors, customers, suppliers, government officials). Chief executive
confidence and support
ety of ways to influence the impressions of external stakeholders whose
Misangyi, 2006; Treadway,
are important to success and survival of the organization (Fanelli &
Adams, Ranft,& Ferris, 2009).
charisma,and stronger
More research is needed to clarify how distance affects attributions of
ofresearch. Antonakis and
methods will be needed to avoid the limitations common in this type
n vertical social distance
Atwater(2002)pointed out the need to make a careful distinction betwee
l distance. The frequency
(proximity in the authority hierarchy of an organization) and physica
position power and control,
and nature of interactions with followers, and the amount of leader
on followers. Advances in
also determine how distance will moderate the influence of a leader
lly distant followers to
communication and social networking technology may allow physica
s to the relationship experienced
experience a virtual relationship that is similar in many respect
by followers who are physically close to the leader.
rs
Charismatic versus Ideological and Pragmatic Leade
n three types oflead-
Another theory involving charismatic leadership differentiates betwee
nce, and uncerta inty (Hunter et al.,
ers that can emerge in situations involving crises, turbule
ch, 2008). In turbule nt situations,
2011; Mumford,2006; Mumford, Antes, Caughron,& Friedri
cation of threats and opportu nities and
leaders have more potential influence over the identifi
t types of leaders that can emerge in
the selection of appropriate responses. The three differen
ic leaders . Each type of leader
these situations are labeled charismatic, ideological, and pragmat
behavio r, and influen ce process es. The
can be effective, but they differ in terms of their traits,
ns where there is a high level of
charismatic and ideological leaders are more effective in situatio
are more effectiv e when there is little
political and ideological conflict, whereas pragmatic leaders
solving .
political confict and more emphasis on constructive problem
culture ofshared values,
Ideological leaders are more likely to emerge when there is a strong
Ideolog ical leaders make emotional
and they can articulate a vision that embodies these values.
identif ying strategi es for resolv-
appeals to shared values and beliefs, and they involve followers in
of followe rs, ideolog ical leaders
ing a crisis or attaining desirable objectives. To retain the trust
must act in ways that are consistent with the values and vision.
ormational Leader ship
308 Chapter 12 • Theories of Charismatic and Transf
articulate a vision that builds confidence
The charismatic leaders appeal to emotions and
e a crisis and overcome obstacles to desirable
that the leader can show followers how to resolv
ofthe organization who trust the leader and are
objectives. The vision appeals to some members
ers who do not share the leader's vision may
willing to become loyal followers, but other memb
become opponents.
e they are perceived by followers to
The pragmatic leaders are more likely to emerg when
to guide the proce ss of strategy formation and
have the expertise and commitment necessary ers who are able to under-
al appeals to follow
crisis management. Pragmatic leaders make ration
ving shared object ives.
stand and carry out proposed strategies for achie
p
Consequences of Charismatic Leadershi
can be found in studies of political lead-
Examples of positive and negative charismatics
out ofthe Great Depression,implemented major
ers. Franklin D.Roosevelt lifted the United States
ized the nation for World War II. In the same
social programs such as Social Security, and mobil
any in a manner resulting in paranoid aggres-
historical period, Adolf Hitler transformed Germ
ns ofpeople. This section discusses the posi-
sion, persecution, destruction, and the death ofmillio
ship for followers and the organization.
tive and negative consequences of charismatic leader
Positive and Negative Charismatics

ve charismatic leaders has been a problem
How to differentiate between positive and negati
er a particular leader should be classified as
for leadership theory. It is not always clear wheth
is to examine the consequences for follow-
a positive or negative charismatic. One approach
positive and negative effects on followers, and
ers. However, most charismatic leaders have both
is beneficial or detrimental.
it is not always clear whether a particular outcome
A better approach for differentiat ing betwe en positi ve and negative charismatics is in terms of
Howell,1988; Musser, 1987). Negative charis-
their values and personality(House & Howell, 1992;
emphasize personal identification rather than
matics have a personalized power orientation. They
devotion to themselves more than to ideals. They
internalization. They intentionally seek to instill
s to gain power, after which the ideology is
may use ideological appeals, but merely as a mean
personal objectives. They seek to dominate and
ignored or arbitrarily changed to serve the leader's
dependent on the leader. Authority for making
subjugate followers by keeping them weak and
ds and punishments are used to manipulate
important decisions is centralized in the leader, rewar
and used to maintain an image ofleader infal-
and control followers, and information is restricted
zation. Decisions of these leaders reflect a
libility or to exaggerate external threats to the organi
g power than for the welfare offollowers.
greater concern for self-glorification and maintainin
power orientation. They seek to instill
In contrast, positive charismatics have a socialized
elves. In terms of influence processes, they
devotion to ideology more than devotion to thems
fication. Self-sacrifice and leading by example
emphasize internalization rather than personal identi
values and the mission ofthe unit, not to glorify
are used to communicate commitment to shared
extent, information is shared openly, participate
the leader. Authority is delegated to a considerable
to reinforce behavior consistent with the mis-
tion in decisions is encouraged,and rewards are used
their leadership is more likely to be beneficial
sion and objectives of the organization. As a result,
gies encouraged by the leader are inappropriate.
to followers, although it is not inevitable ifthe strate
teristics help explain the type ofchar-
t. Howell and Shamir(2005)proposed thatfollower charac
theorists, they do not believe that attributions of
ismatic relationship that will occur,but unlike some
:e charisma are limited to followers who lack self-esteem and a clear self-identity. Followers who lack a
le clear self-identity and are confused and anxious about their lives are more attracted to a strong leader
re with a personalized power orientation who can provide a clear social identity for them as disciples
iy or loyal supporters. The followers will identify more with the leader than with the organization or
mission. In contrast,followers with a clear self-concept and high self-esteem will be responsive to a
:o leader who can explain how the mission ofthe group or organization is relevant to their core values
.d and strong self-identity. These followers will identify more with the mission and the organization
r- than with the leader.
Effects of Positive Charismatics

The consequences for followers are better with a positive charismatic leader than with a
negative charismatic. They are more likely to experience psychological growth and development
oftheir abilities, and the organization is more likely to adapt to an environment that is dynamic,
hostile, and competitive. A positive charismatic leader usually creates an "achievement-oriented"
culture (Harrison, 1987), a "high-performing system"(Vain., 1978), or a "hands-on,value-driven"
organization (Peters & Waterman, 1982). The organization has a clearly understood mission
that embodies social values beyond mere profit or growth, members at all levels are empowered
to make important decisions about how to implement strategies and do their work, commu-
nication is open and information shared, and organization structures and systems support the
mission. Such an organization has obvious advantages, but Harrison (1987, p. 12) contends that
proponents also overlook some potential costs:
In their single-minded pursuit of noble goals and an absorbing task, people lose their sense of
balance and perspective; the end can come to justify the means. The group or organization
exploits its environment, and its members—to the detriment of their health and quality of
life—willingly exploit themselves in the service ofthe organization's purpose.
The positive charismatic can lead the organization in coping with a temporary crisis, but
if prolonged for a long period of time, a single-minded achievement culture creates excessive
stress and causes psychological disorders for members who are unable to tolerate this stress. If an
achievement culture is created within one subunit ofa larger organization,it may result in elitism,
isolation, and lack of necessary cooperation with other subunits. Harrison concludes that sub-
ordinating member needs to the mission can be justified in a severe crisis, the moral equivalent
of war, but under less demanding conditions a better balance between task concerns and people
concerns is appropriate.
The Dark Side of Charisma

The major theories of charismatic leadership emphasize the positive consequences, but a
number of social scientists have also considered the "dark side" of charisma (Bass & Steidlmeier,
1999; Conger, 1989; Conger & Kanungo, 1998; Hogan, Raskin,& Fazzini, 1990; House & Howell,
1992; Kets de Vries & Miller, 1985; Mumford, Gessner, Connelly, O'Connor, & Clifton, 1993;
O'Connor et al., 1995; Sandowsky, 1995). Negative consequences that are likely to occur in
organizations led by charismatics are summarized in Table 12-1. Two interrelated sets of conse-
quences combine to increase the likelihood that the leader's career will be cut short. Charismatic
leaders tend to make more risky decisions that can result in a serious failure, and they tend to
make enemies who will use such a failure as an opportunity to remove the leader from office.
TABLE 12-1 Some Negative Consequences of Charismatic Leaders

• Being in awe of the leader reduces good suggestions by followers.
• Desire for leader acceptance inhibits criticism by followers.
• Adoration by followers creates delusions of leader infallibility.
• Excessive confidence and optimism blind the leader to real dangers.
• Denial of problems and failures reduces organizational learning.
• Risky, grandiose projects are more likely to fail.
• Taking complete credit for successes alienates some key followers.
• Impulsive, nontraditional behavior creates enemies as well as believers.
• Dependence on the leader inhibits development of competent successors.
• Failure to develop successors creates an eventual leadership crisis.
Leader optimism and self-confidence are essential to influence others to support the lead-
er's vision, but excessive optimism makes it more difficult for the leader to recognize flaws in
the vision or strategy. Identifying too closely with a vision undermines the capacity of people to
evaluate it objectively. If other executives believe the leader has exceptional expertise, they will
be inhibited from pointing out flaws or suggesting improvements in the leader's strategies and
plans (see Finkelstein, 2003). Earlier successes and adulation by many subordinates may cause
the leader to become overconfident about his or her judgment. In a persistent quest to attain the
vision, a charismatic leader may ignore or reject early signs that it is unrealistic. How overcon-
fidence can result in a bad decision is evident in this example about Edwin Land,the inventor of
the Polaroid camera (Conger, 1989).
Land had been correct in his earlier perception that people wanted cameras that would make
instant photographs, but in 1970 he decided to develop a radical new camera (the SX-70)
that would make the earlier versions obsolete. Ignoring evidence that the market demand
would be very limited,Land invested a halfbillion dollars to develop and produce the "perfect"
instant camera. This strategy proved to be unsuccessful. Sales for the first year were far below
estimated levels, and several years of design changes and price cuts were necessary to gain
market acceptance for the camera.
The same impulsive, unconventional behavior that some people view as charismatic will
offend and antagonize other people who consider it disruptive and inappropriate. Likewise, the
leader's strong conviction to untraditional ideologies alienates people who remain committed to
the traditional ways of doing things. Even some of the initial supporters may become disillu-
sioned ifthe leader fails to acknowledge their significant contributions to major achievements by
the group or organization. Bass (1985) noted that the response of people to a charismatic leader
is likely to be polarized; the same leader arouses extreme admiration by some people and extreme
hatred by others. The advantage ofhaving some dedicated followers who identify with the leader
is offset by having determined enemies,including powerful people who can undermine the lead-
er's programs or conspire to remove the leader from office.
Charisma is a transitory phenomenon when it is dependent on personal identification with
an individual leader who is perceived to be extraordinary. When the leader departs or dies, a
succession crisis is likely, and many organizations founded by a charismatic leader fail to survive
this crisis (Bryman, 1992; Mintzberg, 1983). The process of trying to perpetuate a charismatic
leader's influence on the organization is called routinization ofcharisma. Sometimes the leader's
vision can be embedded in the culture of the organization, but this approach requires a vision
Before
that continues to be relevant and appealing to members long after the leader is gone.
departing the leader's authority can be transferred to a designated successor through rites and
ary as the
ceremonies, but it is seldom possible to fmd a successor who will appear as extraordin
initial charismatic leader. In addition, a leader who fears potential rivals or is preoccupi ed with
the mission may fail to identify a strong successor early enough to ensure a smooth transition.
The leader can also create an administrative structure that will continue to implement
the
the vision with rational—legal authority (Weber, 1947). However, it is difficult to maintain
enthusiastic commitment of organization members when a charismatic leader with whom they
identified is succeeded by bland bureaucrats who emphasize obedience to formal rules. Even
in
when not actively encouraged by the leader, a formal administrative structure usually evolves
a new organization as it grows larger and more successful. Conflicts are likely between bureau-
to
cratic administrators and the charismatic leader, and sometimes the administrators are able
(1993)
wrest control ofthe organization away from the charismatic leader. A case study by Weed
ad- provides a vivid example.
in
to Candy Lightner is the charismatic founder of Mothers Against Drunk Driving(MADD). In
1980, after her daughter was killed by a drunk driver who was a repeat offender, she cre-
Yvill
ated MADD to lobby for stricter penalties for drunk driving in California. By 1985 she
and
had successfully built MADD into a large national organization with 360 local chapters in
use the United States and a budget of $13 million. As MADD grew its central administrat
ive
the was increased, and its
structure became more formalized. The size of the Board of Directors
on- composition changed from local chapter directors who were very loyal to Lightner to pro-
r of fessionals with a background in law, public relations, social services, and nonprofit advocacy
staff
organizations. The central staff evolved from a small circle of close friends to a larger
n rather than to
of professional administrators whose primary loyalty was to the organizatio
Lightner. By 1983 there were increasing conflicts between Lightner and other members of the
her
central staff, who resented her autocratic style, her inconsistency about assignments, and
about criticism or dissent. Turnover increased, and disputes erupted about her use
defensiveness
posi-
offunds. Finally when her contract lapsed in 1985, the Board ousted Lightner from her
tion as president of MADD.
Despite the adverse consequences for negative charismatic leaders, these leaders are not
make
all doomed to fail. Success is possible for a narcissistic charismatic with the expertise to
power, and the good luck to be in a favorable situ-
will good decisions, the political skill to maintain
the c charismati cs who establishe d political empires,
ation. There are many examples of narcissisti
of them
i to founded prosperous companies, or initiated new religious sects and retained control
llu- throughout their lifetime.
s by
Lder Practical Implications for Organizations
:me
A few writers have proposed the idea that charismatic leadership is a good solution
for the
Lder
reasons why it may not be feasible
:ad- problems of large organizations, but critics point out several
sector
or desirable to have charismatic leaders occupy important positions in private and public
vith organizations(Bryman, 1992; Schein, 1992; Trice & Beyer, 1993).
too
:s, a Charismatic leadership is risky. It is impossible to predict the result when people give
that he or she will actually be able
vive much power to an individual leader in the often irrational hope
remains an
atic to deliver on a vision of a better future. The power is often misused while the vision
untold death, destructio n, and
íer's empty dream. History is full of charismatic leaders who caused
, or founding a new religion.
;ion misery in the process ofbuilding an empire,leading a revolution
312 Chapter 12 . Theories of Charismatic and Transformational Leadership
tra
Charismatic leadership implies radical change in the strategy and culture of an organiza-
us lea
tion, which may not be necessary or appropriate for organizations that are currently prospero
to make radical change in an organizat ion if no obvious crisis exists mc
and successful. It is difficult
in the fo1
and many members see no need for change. If there is more than one charismatic leader
ble visions, the organizat ion may be torn apart by disrup- to
organization and they have incompati
difficult to th~
tive conflict. Historical accounts suggest that many charismatic leaders find it too
existing organizat ion, and they leave to establish a new m;
implement their radical vision within an
order, political party, or social movement ). an
one (e.g., a new business, religious
fo]
Charisma is a rare and transitory phenomenon. The beneficial accomplishments of a char-
that make us
ismatic leader may not persist after the leader departs. The early dramatic successes
the seeds of eventual failure if overconfi dence encourag es
a leader appear charismatic can sow
the organizat ion and its members. LE
risky decisions that will endanger
that
The research on effects ofcharismatic leaders in organizations is limited, but it suggests
for most chief executives . The descriptiv e research found
charisma is not a beneficial attribute br
that few leaders of successful organizations were viewed as charismatic (e.g., Bennis &
Nanus,
na
Posner, 1987; Peters & Austin, 1985; Tichy & Devanna,
1985; Collins, 2001a, 2001b; Kouzes & en
before and
1986). In a study of corporations that examined financial performance in the years of
charisma, financial performa nce was predicted by past
after a survey conducted to measure CEO is
(Angle et al., 2006). Another study of corporati ons found
performance but not by CEO charisma cr
able to persuade their board of directors to give them
that CEOs who appeared charismatic were ar
not improve financial performa nce for their compa-
higher compensation, but these CEOs did ca
nies (Tosi et al., 2004). sy
A
al
Transformationan Leadership ot
r th
Much ofthe thinking about transformational leadership was influenced by James McGrego
political leadershi p. Burns contraste d trans-
Burns (1978), who wrote a best-selling book on
the moral ti;
forming leadership with transactional leadership. Transforming leadership appeals to
ness about ethical issues and to mobilize fir
values offollowers in an attempt to raise their conscious
onal leadershi p motivates followers
their energy and resources to reform institutions. Transacti
si
activities is
by appealing to their self-interest and exchanging benefits. For a political leader, these
, and support for desired legisla- rr
include providing jobs,subsidies,lucrative government contracts
reelect the leader. Transacti onal leader-
tion in return for campaign contributions and votes to
exchange process, such as honesty,
ship may involve values, but they are values relevant to the
p
fairness, responsibility, and reciprocity. Finally, Burns also identified a third form of leadershi 1
and tradition. Bureaucra tic organi-
influence based on legitimate authority and respect for rules
n.
zations emphasize this form ofinfluence more than influence based on exchange or inspiratio
emotions is a central feature in
The process by which leaders appeal to followers' values and
ions (e.g., Bass, 1985, 1996;
current theories oftransformational and visionaryleadership in organizat
to Burns,
Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Sashkin & Fulmer, 1988; Tichy & Devanna, 1986). In contrast
d with attainmen t of
however,the newer theories oftransformational leadership are more concerne
social reform. The views of
pragmatic task objectives than with the moral elevation offollowers or
Burns on ethical leadership are discussed in Chapter 13.
but the
Several theories of transformational or inspirational leadership were proposed,
d leadershi p research more
version of the theory formulated by Bass (1985, 1996) has influence
is the distinctio n
than any ofthe others. Building on the ideas ofBurns,the essence ofthe theory
transform ational and li
between transformational and transactional leadership. For Bass (1985),
Transformational Leadership 313
Chapter 12 • Theories of Charismatic and
sformational
mutually exclusive processes. With tran
transactional leadership are distinct but not ect towa rd the leade r, and they are
on,loyalty, and resp
leadership, the followers feel trust, admirati lead er tran sfor ms and motivates
expected to do. The
motivated to do more than they originally cing them
the importance oftask outcomes,(2)indu
followers by(1) making them more aware of tion or team , and (3) activating
sake of the organiza
to transcend their own self-interest for the lves an exch ange proc ess that
actional leadership invo
their higher-order needs. In contrast, trans likel y to gene rate enth usiasm
er requests but is not
may result in follower compliance with lead mati onal lead ersh ip incr eases
rding to Bass, transfor
and commitment to task objectives. Acco ersh ip, but effec tive lead ers
than transactional lead
follower motivation and performance more
.
use a combination of both types ofleadership
Leader Behaviors
s of two
ership behaviors are described in term
Transformational and transactional lead . The origi-
specific subcategories (see Table 12-2)
broad meta-categories of behavior, each with ized influ-
e types of transformational behavior. Ideal
nal formulation ofthe theory included thre exam ple
ification with the leader, such as setting an
ence is behavior that increases follower ident al stim ulat ion
sacrifices to benefit followers. Intellectu
ofcourage and dedication and making self- for more
problems from a new perspective and look
is behavior that influences followers to view uragement,
ation includes providing support, enco
creative solutions. Individualized consider onal behavior
of the theory added another transformati
and coaching to followers. A revision n, and using
udes communicating an appealing visio
called inspirational motivation, which incl by Bass and
s & Avolio, 1990a). Yet another revision
symbols to focus subordinate effort (Bas of charisma,
ized influence behavior and attributions
Avolio (1997) distinguished between ideal to measure
was retained in a questionnaire designed
although it is not clear why the latter scale bution biases, so
ership behavior are susceptible to attri
observable behavior. Any ratings of lead
vioral charisma is confusing.
)r the distinction between attributed and beha : con-
included two types of transactional behavior
;- The original formulation of the theory includes clari-
by exception. Contingent reward behavior
al tingent reward and passive management tives to influence
to obtain rewards, and the use of incen
;e fication of accomplishments necessary ingent pun-
gement by exception includes use ofcont
rs subordinate task motivation. Passive mana ptable perfor-
response to obvious deviations from acce
ishments and other corrective action in exception was
l behavior called active management by
:s
a- mance standards. Another transactiona
r-
Y, Behaviors
actional
ip TABLE 12-2 Transformational andTrans
1-
L. Transformational Behaviors
in • Idealized influence
6; • Individualized consideration
• Inspirational motivation
of • Intellectual stimulation
of Transactional Behaviors
• Contingent reward
ze • Active management by exception
're • Passive management by exception
1d Based on Bass(1996).
ip
314 Chapter 12 • Theories of Charismatic and Transformational Leadersh
behavior is defined in
added in more recent versions ofthe theory (Bass & Avolio, 1990a). This
terms oflooking for mistakes and enforcing rules to avoid mistakes.
is defined as pas-
Newer versions of the theory also include laissez-faire leadership, which
s,ignoring subordinate
sive indifference about the task and subordinates (e.g., ignoring problem
rather than as an example of
needs). It is best described as the absence of effective leadership
mes called the "Full Range
transactional leadership. The revised version of the theory is someti
the model does not
Leadership Model" (Avolio, 1999). This label is inappropriate because
2002; Yukl, 1999a).
include several important leadership behaviors (Antonakis & House,
Influence Processes
al leadership are
The underlying influence processes for transactional and transformation
d from the descrip tion of the behavio rs and effects
not clearly explained, but they can be inferre
ce process for transac tional leaders hip is probably
on follower motivation. The primary influen
rmation al leaders hip probabl y involve s inter-
instrumental compliance (see Chapter 8). Transfo
s efforts to link the task to followe r values and
nalization, because inspirational motivation include c
ional vision. A leader can increas e intrinsi
ideals with behavior such as articulating an inspirat
rs that task objectiv es are consist ent with their
motivation by increasing the perception offollowe
Barling,& Kelloway,2001).
authentic interests and values(see Bono & Judge,2004; Charbonneau,
Transformational leadership also appears to involve persona l identification. Followers
r, and embrac e the values and ideals
may identify with the leader, imitate the leader's behavio
include followe r attribut ions of charisma
espoused by the leader. Personal identification may
sma is a necessa ry ingredi ent of transfor-
to the leader. According to Bass (1985, p. 31), "Chari
to for the transfo rmation al process?'
mational leadership, but by itselfit is not sufficient account
transfo rmation al leaders hip on follower
Other processes that may mediate the effects of
Transfo rmation al leaders hip is highly
performance have been identified in research on the theory.
Transfo rmation al behavio rs such as in-
correlated with trust in the leader (Dirks & Ferrin, 2002).
ualized conside ration (e.g., coachin g)
spirational motivation (e.g., optimistic visioning) and individ
l-Kenn edy & Anders on, 2002) and
may increase the self-efficacy ofindividual subordinates(McCol
tion may increase the creativ-
the collective efficacy ofteams(see Chapter 10). Intellectual stimula
ity ofindividual followers(Howell & Avolio, 1993; Keller, 1992; Sosik, Kahai,& Avolio, 1998).
The influence process called cascading has been offered as a way to explain how a CEO
can indirectly influence the motivation of lower-level employ ees in an organization (Waldman
by subordi nates, and role modeling is
& Yammarino, 1999). The behavior of a CEO is imitated
very limited evidence for cascad-
repeated by managers at each lower level. As yet, there is only
is no evidenc e that key CEO
ing ofleader behaviors (Bass et al., 1987; Chun et al., 2009). There
evel member s of an organization
behaviors will be imitated by low-level managers, or that lower-l
changes in progra ms,reward
will embrace the CEO's vision without a credible strategy and major
systems, and cultural values.
Facilitating Conditions
red effective in any
According to Bass (1996, 1997), transformational leadership is conside
under which authentic transfor-
situation or culture. The theory does not specify any conditions
n, the positive relation-
mational leadership is irrelevant or ineffective. In support of this positio
replicat for many leaders
ed
ship between transformational leadership and effectiveness has been
and in several different countries
at different levels ofauthority,in different types oforganizations,
a variety of different types of
(Bass, 1997). The criterion ofleadership effectiveness has included
s,some aspects of
measures. The evidence supports the conclusion that in most if not all situation
mean that trans-
transformational leadership are relevant. However, universal relevance does not
formational leadership is equally effective in all situations or equally likely to occur.
mational
A number of situational variables may increase the likelihood that transfor
may enhance the effect of such leadersh ip on followers (Bass, 1985,
f leadership will occur or
, 1988;
1996; Hinkin & Tracey, 1999; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Pawar & Eastman, 1997; Pettigrew
n et al., 2001). The change-o riented compone nts of trans-
t Purvanova & Bono, 2009; Waldma
to be more importa nt in a dynamic , unstable environ ment
formational leadership are likely
and such leadershi p is more likely when leaders are encour-
that increases the need for change,
tion with an
aged and empowered to be flexible and innovative (e.g., a decentralized organiza
cross-cul tural research on perceive d importan ce of transforma-
entrepreneurial culture). The
may be used more often in some cultures than in others (see
tional leadership suggests that it
evidence that the traits and values of followers may deter-
Chapter 14). Finally, there is growing
transfor mational or charisma tic behavior s (e.g., de Vries,
mine how they respond to a leader's
Roe,& Taillieu, 2002; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001).
Research on Charismatic and

ip are
Many studies have investigated how charismatic and transformational leadersh
on, motivati on, and
related to measures of leadership effectiveness, such as subordinate satisfacti
field experime nts,
performance. The research methods include survey studies, laboratory and
leaders, and
comparative studies with analysis of biographical information for several famous
whether the leaders
intensive case studies of an individual leader. In some studies, it is not clear
ofan inspiring vision
should be regarded as transformational or charismatic, but communication
is a common feature in most ofthe studies.
Survey Studies
research on
Field survey studies have been used more often than any other method for
t question naires have been developed
transformational and charismatic leadership. Differen
, 1994; Shamir, Zakay, & Popper, 1998)
to measure charismatic leadership (Conger & Kanungo
Avolio, 1990a; Podsakof f, MacKenz ie,
and transformational leadership (Bass, 1985; Bass &
Leadersh ip Question naire (MLQ) or a
Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). However, the Multifactor
in a majority of the studies on trans-
modified version ofit(Bass & Avolio, 1990a)has been used
p.
formational leadership and even for some studies on charismatic leadershi
For the MLQ,subordinates rate how often their leader uses each type of behavior described
assess the construc t validity ofthe MLQ
in the items. Several studies that used factor analysis to
and transacti onal leadershi p, but
found support for the distinction between transformational
study to study (Antonak is, Avolio, &
results for the component behaviors were not consistentfrom
& Allen, 1995; Carless, 1998;
Sivasubramaniam,2003; Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999; Bycio, Hackett,
2001; Tepper & Percy,
Den Hartog, Van Muijen, & Koopman, 1997; Tejeda, Scandura, & Pillai,
the compone nt behaviors for trans-
1994; Yammarino,Spangler,& Dubinsky, 1998). In addition,
use only a composite score
formational leadership are so highly intercorrelated that most studies
for transformational leadership.
not rep-
Successive revisions of the MLQ have added types of transformational behavior
Transfor mational Leader Index
resented in the initial version. Other questionnaires such as the
(Podsakoff et al., 1990) have a different mix of component behaviors, thereby creating additional
confusion about the definition of transformational leadership. A few studies using question-
d
naires with a wider range of behaviors found that transformational leadership was confounde
ent and recognitio n
with other behaviors not included in the definition, including empowerm
(Hinkin & Tracey, 1999; Rafferty & Griffin, 2004; Yuld, 1999a).
Most of the survey studies correlated transformational or charismatic leadership with
measures of outcome variables, such as individual or group motivation or performance. A small
number of survey studies examined the relationship of charismatic and transformational leader-
ship to measures of organizational performance (see Chapter 11). Meta-analyses of the survey
studies found a significant relationship between composite ratings of charismatic or transforma-
tional leadership and measures ofleadership effectiveness(DeGroot, Kilter, & Cross, 2000; Judge
& Piccolo, 2004; Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Wang, Oh, Courtright, & Colbert,
2011). The relationship was stronger for subordinate satisfaction and self-rated effort than for an
independent criterion of leadership effectiveness (e.g., ratings of the leader by superiors, objec-
tive performance of the leader's team or work unit). Only a small number ofstudies have exam-
ined effects of transformational leadership by CEOs on company financial performance, and the
results were inconsistent(see Chapter 11).
The number of survey studies on antecedents of charismatic and transformational leader-
the
ship is much smaller than the number of studies on outcomes, but they generally support
relevance of traits such as leader power motivation, self-confidence, extraversion, and positive
emotions(see review by Walter & Bruch,2009). However,results have not been consistent in the
research on several traits and skills proposed to predict charismatic or transformational leader-
ship, which may be due to the large variety of measures and types ofsamples used in the research.
The interpretation of results in the survey research on transformational and charismatic
leadership is complicated by confounding with unmeasured behaviors and rater biases such as
subordinate attributions and affect towards theleader(Brown & Keeping,2005). The interpreta-
tion of results is also complicated by ambiguity about whether the respondent is describing only
dyadic leader behavior (with the respondent) or the leader's behavior with everyone in the work
unit(Kark & Shamir, 2002; Schriesheim, Wu,& Scandura, 2009; Wang & Howell, 2010). Given
,
the serious limitations of the survey research on transformational and charismatic leadership
include a wider variety of leadership behaviors and alternative ways of
future research should
measuring them, such as coding of observations, incident diaries, and interviews with leaders
and followers (Yuld, 1999a).
Laboratory and Field Experiments

Several laboratory experiments on charismatic leadership were conducted with univer-
sity students (e.g., Awamleh & Gardner, 1999; Choi & Mai-Dalton, 1999; Halverson et al., 2004;
k
Howell & Frost, 1989; Hunt et al., 1999; Jaussi & Dionne,2003; Jung & Avolio, 1999; Kirkpatric &
Locke, 1996; Shea & Howell, 1999; van Knippenberg & van Knippenbe rg, 2005; Yorges et al.,
1999). In a few ofthese experiments,the leader was an actor who displayed charismati c or trans-
the
formational behaviors. Other experiments used scenarios that described leader behavior and
situation, and participants indicated how they would likely respond as subordina tes in that situa-
tion. In two field experiments, the behavior of managers was manipulated with a training inter-
&
vention to assess the effects on the performance of the organizational unit (e.g., Barling, Weber,
Kelloway, 1996; Dvir, Eden, Avolio, & Shamir, 2002). Most of the laborator y and field experi-
tional
ments provide support for the proposition that some types of charismatic or transforma
behavior can have positive effects on followers in some situations. However, all of these studies
mal have limitations that make interpretation of results difficult. More experiments are needed to
on- assess the independent and joint effects of the leader behaviors described in the theories. One
ded promising method is the use of laboratory experiments with realistic, multisession simulations
ion that are meaningful for participants.
rith Comparative Analyses of Leader Descriptions

sall Another method used to study charismatic leadership involves analyses of leader descrip-
ler- tions. A variety ofsources have been used for this type of research, including biographies about
vey the leader, speeches and writings by the leader, critical incidents about the leader. In some stud-
na- ies the researchers look for common attributes for a sample of leaders widely perceived to be
Ige charismatic or successful. Other studies compare leaders widely viewed as charismatic to lead-
ers not considered charismatic. A content analysis is usually conducted to identify characteris-
an tic behaviors, traits, influence processes that may be relevant for understanding how the leader
ec- influenced followers and the organization.
m- The large variation in predictors, criteria, and situations in the descriptive studies makes
:he it difficult to find consistent results (e.g., Bligh & Robinson, 2010; Bryman,Stephens,& Campo,
1996; Conger, 1989; Deluga, 1998; House et al., 1991; Howell & Higgins, 1990; Jacobsen & House,
er- 2001; Levinson & Rosenthal, 1984; Mio et al., 2005; O'Connor et al., 1995; Seyranian & Bligh,
he 2008; Strange & Mumford, 2002; Tichy & Devanna, 1986; Van Fleet & Yukl, 1986a; Westley &
lve Mintzberg, 1989; Willner, 1984; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1982). Nevertheless, the results suggest that
he some of the specific traits and behaviors in the theories are related to effective leadership.
;r-
:h. Example of a Comparative Biographical Study
tic
as An example of this type of research is provided by House et al. (1991), who conducted a
a- study on charismatic leadership by U.S. presidents. The first step was to ask several historians
ly to classify as charismatic or noncharismatic each of 31 former presidents who were elected to
rk office and served at least two years of their first term. Then the motive pattern of each presi-
dent was measured by content analysis of his first inaugural address. The biographies of two
or more cabinet members were content analyzed to measure a president's use of charismatic
p,
of behaviors. Leadership effectiveness was measured in several ways including ratings of presiden-
rs tial greatness made by a sample of historians and analysis of biographical information about the
outcomes of each president's decisions and actions during the first term of office. The results
were mostly consistent with the theory. Presidents with a socialized power orientation exhibited
more ofthe charismatic leadership behaviors and were more likely to be viewed as charismatic by
others. Moreover, the charismatic presidents used more direct action to deal with problems and
were rated higher in performance.
Intensive Case Studies

Intensive case studies are another type of method used for research on charismatic leader-
ship (e.g., Cha & Edmondson,2006; Trice & Beyer, 1986; Weed, 1993). Information about leader
behaviors, decisions,and consequences are usually gathered by interviews with leaders and mem-
bers, and the study may involve observation of key processes, analysis of records, reports, and
correspondence, and other sources of information. Some studies are focused on a single leader,
but other studies compare successful versus unsuccessful leaders, or charismatic leaders versus
non-charismatic leaders. A small number of case studies have examined leaders who transi-
tioned from one position to another (e.g., Roberts, 1985; Roberts & Bradley, 1988) or who expe-
riericed initial success followed by eventual failure (e.g., Finkelstein, 2003). These studies tend to
onal Leadership
318 Chapter 12 . Theories of Charismatic and Transformati
depend greatly on the situation and can vary for
show that the effects of charismatic leadership
the same leader as the situation changes.
Example of an Intensive Case Study

) of the same leader in two successive posi-
A good example is the study by Roberts (1985
superintendent of a public school district. Data
tions. The study began when the leader was the
of newspaper articles, participant observation of
were collected by archival searches, analysis
with the superintendent, other administrators,
formal and informal meetings, and interviews
students. The leader was deemed to be effective,
board members, staff, teachers, parents, and
ted budget cuts in a way that satisfied diverse
because she was able to implement large, manda
menting desirable educational innovations. Her
stakeholders and still allowed progress on imple
l board after only a brief discussion. The teach-
budget was approved unanimously by the schoo
even though the plan required program cuts and
ers gave her a standing ovation for her efforts,
onary" who had almost a "cultlike following" in
elimination ofjobs. She was described as a "visi
the district.
successful outcome were the following:
The actions taken by the leader to achieve this
referred to frequently during the change process;
(1) a mission statement was formulated and
series of meetings and workshops involving district
(2) a strategic vision was developed during a
were replaced with more competent, dynamic
personnel;(3) several personnel in key positions
rmance objectives and action plans were devel-
people to support the change effort; (4) perfo
principals), progress was monitored by reports
oped for immediate subordinates (the school
dinates was encouraged during this process;
and meetings, and extensive participation by subor
ve all stakeholders in recommending where to
(5) temporary task forces were created to invol
budget and educational issues; and (6) staff
make the budget cuts and how to deal with other
public meetings in which task forces made pres-
members were trained in how to run structured
cuts.
entations and solicited suggestions about budget
Roberts chara cteri zed the proce ss as more a matter of creating and managing energy than
r was energetic, created enthusiasm,channeled
ofshaping culture or managing meaning. The leade
nized people into action. The leader helped
emotions aroused by the budget crisis, and galva
ence by working together toward common objec-
people recognize that they could make a differ
le (Roberts, 1985, p. 1035):
tives. The following episode provides an examp
t staff, teachers besieged the stage to ask
After a scheduled 40-minute presentation to distric
the district was pursuing. Their requests
for more ofher time to discuss the various initiatives
, in which the superintendent shared her
turned into a four-hour dialogue with 800 people
ointme nts. Many people were moved to tears, includ-
hopes, her dreams, her past, her disapp
nge came in answer to a question of
ing the superintendent. A critical point in the excha
School Board promised would indeed
how people could be certain that what she and the
guess you just have to trust us. I trust
occur. The superintendent's response was, "Well I
in their breath s and held them for a moment or
you." Dead silence followed as people drew
e responded that the superintendent
two. Upon being asked what this silence meant, peopl
the honesty were all about. She had
had proven her point. That was what the dialogue and
and they in turn would trust her. Mutual
trusted them with her thoughts, hopes,and feelings,
ntende nt and her audience.
trust had created a bond between the superi
position,she was not initially perceived as a
When the superintendent was appointed to her
after she had been in the position for two years
charismatic leader; this attribution occurred only
Roberts concluded that charisma was attributed to
and the change process was well under way.
budget crisis, and not as an inevitable result ofthe
the leader because ofthe way she resolved the
tional Leadership 319
Chapter 12 • Theories of Charismatic and Transforma
stent with the findings of a follow-up study
leader's personal qualities. This conclusion is consi
or commissioner of education for the state in
made after the same individual was appointed the
1983(Roberts & Bradley, 1988).
a variety of sources. Interviews were
Data for the follow-up study were obtained from
four years from 1983 to 1987, and interviews
conducted with the new commissioner during the
sentatives from the governor's office, the board of
3i- were also conducted with state legislators, repre
commissioner was observed during speaking
Lta education,school boards, and teacher unions. The
rences, formal and informal presentations to
of engagements, meetings with her staff, press confe
with members of the state department of
rs, teachers and superintendents, and informal meetings
analysis of official documents,newspaper
education. Additional information was obtained from
s.
'se articles, and reports made by special interest group
imple menti ng change at the state level was similar to
Ier The new commissioner's approach for
a mission statement and vision for change,
:h- the one she used as superintendent. She formulated
commissioners with people from outside the
nd and she moved quickly to replace several assistant
ams. Enthusiasm and support were generated
in education department who would support her progr
cts in the state. A survey was conducted to
by conducting visits to nearly all of the school distri
ngs were held with community groups through-
Ig: assess public opinion on school issues, and meeti
for the schools.
!ss; out the state to identify public concerns and hopes
ssion er was evaluated as an effective adminis-
•ict At the end of her four-year term, the commi
another term. People usually described her
nic trator by the governor, and she was reappointed for
and subordinates were critical rather than sup-
tl- as innovative and committed, but some peers
positive benefits, but they did not generate any
rts portive. The commissioner's initiatives had some
tion system. Overall, there was no evidence
:ss; widespread support for major change in the educa
smatic in her new position.
to that she was perceived as extraordinary or chari
reasons why the same person was seen as
:aff Roberts and Bradley (1988) suggested several
. First, at the district level, a serious crisis jus-
•es- charismatic in one position and not in the other
as at the state level there was no crisis to focus
tified the need for innovative solutions, where
e. Second, as a district superintendent she had
Ian attention and provide a rationale for radical chang
commissioner. The latter position was more polit-
led much more autonomy and authority than as a
ofstakeholder relationships that served to con-
)ed ical and involved a larger and more complex web
the governor, the legislature, members of the
ec- strain her actions and make change difficult (e.g., of
unions,school officials). Third,the large size
education department,interest groups,teachers'
commissioner made it essential to delegate more
the state agency and the complexity ofthe job as
bureaucratic resistance undermined her efforts
responsibility, but strong political opposition and
build a cooperative team of executives to help im-
to restructure the education department and
intendent she was able to inspire strong trust
plement new initiatives effectively. Finally, as super
whereas as commissioner a close relationship with
and affection in meetings with constituents,
audiences with intrusive television coverage, her
constituents did not develop. Speaking to large
onal language in her earlier speeches as superin-
speeches lacked the enthusiasm and vivid, emoti
ers, principals, and parents.
tendent to smaller, more informal groups ofteach
Comparison of Charismatic and

scholars is the extent to which transfor-
One of the most important issues for leadership
as a are similar and compatible. Some theorists treat
mational leadership and charismatic leadership ct
ears alent, whereas other theorists view them as distin
d to the two types ofleadership as essentially equiv rship as distin ct
who view the two types ofleade
.E the but overlapping processes. Even among theorists
ismatic and Tran sformational Leadership
320 Chapter 12 • Theories of Char
h transformational
ain s dis agr eem ent abo ut whether it is possible to be bot
processes, there rem
time.
and charismatic at the same ist ent definitions make it difficult to
compare transfor-
ity and inc ons
Conceptual amb igu e general type. In
ic lea der shi p, or eve n to compare theories of the sam
mational and charis mat ear to move them
ris mat ic the ori es hav e been revised in ways that app
recent years, the maj or cha have been revised
ati ona l theo ries . The maj or transformational theories
closer to the transf orm nsformational has
l for ms of effe ctiv e lea dership behavior. The term tra
to incorporate additi ona dership, regard-
man y writ ers to inc lud e almost any type of effective lea
been broadly defined by ation of indi-
inf lue nce pro ces ses . The label may refer to the transform
less of the underlying ions.
nsformation of entire organizat
vidual followers or to the tra in the two typ es of theories is the emphasis on attr
ibuted
are nt diff eren ces ved as extraor-
One source ofapp ence of charisma is being percei
tifi cati on. The ess
charisma and person al iden ion.. Attributed
are dep end ent on the lea der for guidance and inspirat
dinary by followers who and Kanungo
iden tifi cati on are mor e cen tral for the theory by Conger
charisma and personal es-
proposed that charisma is a nec
8)tha n for the the ory by Shamir et al.(1993). Bass(1985) der can be cha ris mat ic
(199 shi p, but he also noted that a lea
orm ati ona l lea der be inspiring,
sary component oftransf of tra nsf orm ational leadership appears to
l. The ess enc e sions of
but not transformationa ring is not explicit in most ver
vel opi ng, and emp owe rin g followers (although empowe der rat her tha n inc rease
de to the lea
ory ). The se effe cts may reduce attribution of charisma p may not be enti rely
the the onal leadershi
Thu s, the esse ntia l inf lue nce processes for transformati p, whi ch inv olv es per -
it. matic leadershi
pat ibl e wit h the esse ntia l influence process for charis lead er. Som e sup por t
com ence on the
al iden tifi cati on wit h an ext raordinary leader and depend tha t per son al iden tifi -
son ; they found
this dist inct ion is pro vid ed in a study by Kark et al.(2003) iden tifi cati on med iat es
for e and social
the leader on follower dependenc
cation mediates the effect of coll ecti ve efficacy.
lower self-efficacy and
the effect ofthe leader on fol es of cha ris matic and transformationalleader
-
ors in the theori
Many ofthe leadership behavi dent as well . Tra nsf orm ati ona l
ear to be the sam e, but som e important differences are evi less dep end ent on
ship app and make the m
ngs that will empower followers
leaders probably do more thi to ind ivi dua ls or teams, developing follow
er
, suc h as del ega tin g sign ificant authority min ati ng unn ece s-
the lea der e information, eli
viding direct access to sensitiv
skills and self-confidence, pro t emp owe rment. Charismatic leaders pro
b-
ls, and bui ldi ng a str ong culture to suppor der and inc rea se
sary con tro ence for the lea
mor e thi ngs tha t fost er an image ofextraordinary compet rict ion, unc onv en-
ably do information rest
h as impression management,
subordinate dependence, suc
risk taking.
tional behavior, and personal rismatic leadership involves
dif fer enc e bet ween transformational and cha
Ano the r like ly ditions for it. According to
lea der shi p occurs and the facilitating con
how oft en eac h typ e of at any level, and this type of
lea der s can be found in any organization
Bass, tra nsf orm ati ona l 6, 1997). In contrast, char-
ly rel eva nt for all types ofsituations (Bass, 199
leadership is uni ver sal endent on unusual condi-
, and thei r eme rgence appears to be more dep
ismatic lea der s are rare most likely to be visionary
199 9; Sha mir & Howell, 1999). They are
tions (Ba ss, 198 5; Bey er, emerge in an established
blis h a new organization, or reformers who
entrepren eur s who esta crisis and traditional values
ion whe n for mal aut hor ity has failed to deal with a severe
organizat
and beliefs are questioned. The reactions to charis-
ce inv olv es the way people react to the leaders.
Anot her diff eren ormational leaders (Bass,
e ext rem e and diverse than reactions to transf
matics are usu all y mor zes people into opposing
rea cti on aro use d by charismatics often polari
1985). The affe ctiv e ve reaction by some people
al sup por ter s and host ile opponents. The intense negati
camps ofloy
fi
Leadership 321
Chapter 12 • Theories of Charismatic and Transformational
for assassination or politi-

tal to charismatic leaders helps explain why these leaders are often targets
get a less intense reaction from
cal tactics to remove them from office. Transformational leaders
leaders are viewed as competent
1r- followers and are unlikely to have this polarizing effect. These
onal.
and professional but are not usually considered exciting and excepti
hip was not designed
The empirical research on transformational and charismatic leaders
nt theorie s. Few studies
ed to examine issues of comparability and compatibility among differe
and often ambigu ous data
.as examine underlying influence processes or go beyond the superficial
bility cannot be resolved
d- provided by behavior description questionnaires. The issue of compara
in the survey researc h on
li- merely by comparing responses on questionnaires commonly used s
y differe nce in the theorie
each type of leadership (e.g., Rowold & Heinitz, 2007). The primar
capture d by these ques-
ed involves aspects ofthe relationships and influence processes that are not
s additional research
>r- tionnaires. Resolution of this interesting and important question require
ed with more intensive methods.
go
:s- Evaluation of the Theories
tic
major theories ofchar-
ig, The available evidence supports many ofthe key propositions ofthe
s appear to make an impor-
of ismatic and transformational leadership. Collectively, the theorie
g of leaders hip process es. They provide an explanation
tse tant contribution to our understandin
level of influence not adequately
2ly for the exceptional influence some leaders have on followers, a
onal leadership. The new theo-
er- explained by earlier theories ofinstrumental leadership or situati
leaders, whereas the earlier
art ries emphasize the importance ofemotional reactions by followers to
r interactions. The new theo-
.fi- theories emphasized rational-cognitive aspects of leader—followe
ries also acknowledge the importance of symbol ic behavi or and the role of the leader in mak-
tes
leaders hip theorie s did not recognize that symbolic
ing events meaningful for followers. Earlier
ment of things. Finally, the
er- processes and management of meaning are as important as manage
behaviors, mediating processes,
lal new theories include a more diverse set of variables (e.g., traits,
tions of effectiv e leaders hip.
on situation) and integrate them better in explana
theorie s also have some conceptual weaknesses
,Ter Despite their positive features, the new
es include ambigu ous constructs, insufficient
es- (Beyer, 1999; Bryman, 1993; Yukl, 1999b). Exampl
focus on dyadic process es, omission ofsome rel-
>b- description of explanatory processes, a narrow
onal variabl es, and a bias toward heroic con-
ise evant behaviors, insufficient specification of situati
will be explain ed in more detail.
~n- ceptions ofleadership. Some of these limitations
✓es
Relevance of Antecedents
to
of behavior and influ-
of Some theories specify leader traits and skills that predict the types
leader, while other theories are
ar- ence processes described for a charismatic or transformational
atic and transformational
di- vague about these antecedents. Research on antecedents of charism
of traits such as power motiva-
rry leadership (see Walter & Bruch, 2009) supports the relevance
not consistent for some other
ted tion, self-confidence, and extraversion. However, the results are
ess, conceptual skills). The
.tes traits and slcills (e.g., emotional maturity, narcissism, conscientiousn
and types ofsamples used in the
inconsistent results may be due to the large variety of measures
ure reviews usually disregard
-is- research. Another explanation is that the studies and the literat
atics, and between charismatic
tss, the important differences between positive and negative charism
to be more relevant for pre-
ing and transformational leadership. Some leader traits and skills seem
who will be viewed as charism atic.
ple dicting these differences than for predicting
al Leadership
322 Chapter 12 . Theories of Charismatic and Transformation
Explanation of Mediating Processes

ship lack sufficient specification
Most theories of transformational and charismatic leader
of charismatic leadership provides
of underlying influence processes. The self-concept theory
ers, but even this theory needs more
the most detailed explanation of leader influence on follow
ses interact, their relative importance,
clarification of how the various types of influence proces
theories are still leader-centered, and
and whether they are mutually compatible. Most of the
More attention needs to be focused
they emphasize the influence of the leader on followers.
mutual influence among the followers
on reciprocal influence processes, shared leadership, and
themselves.
better explanation of how leaders
The theories would be strengthened by including a
ive identification, collective effi-
enhance mutual trust and cooperation, empowerment, collect
to includ e more explanation of task-oriented
cacy, and collective learning. The theories need
ve perfor mance of a team, and strategic func-
functions ofleaders that are essential for the effecti
of organi zation s. Most of the theories fail
tions that are essential for the financial performance
ring the envir onmen t to identify threats
to explain the leader's external roles, such as monito
can provid e inform ation and assistance,
and opportunities, building networks of contacts who with outsiders,
, negoti ating agreem ents
serving as a spokesperson for the team or organization skills (see
new membe rs with approp riate
and helping to obtain resources, political support, and
Chapters 2, 10, and 11).
ses. The charismatic and trans-
Most ofthe theories focus too narrowly on dyadic proces
nce the motiva tion and loyalty of subor-
formational theories describe how a leader can influe
leader ship. Howev er, these theories are
dinates, which is relevant for understanding effective
more is neede d to explain how leaders
primarily extensions of motivation theory, and much
rmanc e and surviv al of an organization
build exceptional teams or influence the financial perfo
influe nce follow ers to be more moti-
(Beyer, 1999; Yukl & Lepsinger, 2004). A leader may
are motiva ted to do and how appro-
vated, creative, and cooperative, but what the followers
g highly motiva ted and loyal followers
priate it is for the situation are also important. Havin strategies
istic object ives or misgu ided
will not prevent disaster if the leader pursues unreal
(see Finkelstein, 2003).
Implications for Change and Effectiveness

are'related to change,the nec-
The theories do not clearly specify how leadership processes
major change, or how initial change will
essary facilitating conditions for the leader to influence
one developed primarily by the leader or
affect future leadership processes. The vision may be
articul ated by higher level leaders or a previous
merely a minor adaptation of a vision already
tive change s, or it may involve a return to tradi-
leader. The vision may involve a call for innova
inants of strateg ic decisions for the organization
tional values that are no longer dominant determ
e, a charis matic leader may emerge as a
but remain important for many members. For exampl
of major change s that are inconsistent with
rebel who successfully resists the implementation
traditional values (Levay, 2010).
ations for transformational or
The theories also lack clarity about the longer-term implic
charis ma follow ing initial success in innova-
charismatic leadership. A leader who is attributed
charis ma if success is only temporary or
tive responses to threats or opportunities, may lose this
. A transf ormational leader may lack
new initiatives result in serious losses for the organization
singly compl ex and difficult challenges
the cognitive skills needed to successfully deal with increa
a higher level positi on.
as the situation changes or the person is promoted to
mational Leadership 323
and Transfor
Chapter 12 • Theories of Charismatic
Variables
Identification of Situational
s that determine
e explanation of situational variable
tion A final limitation is the need for mor ctive it will be (Beyer,
tic leadership will occur and how effe
ides whether transformational or charisma ing some relevant situ-
Progress has been made in identify
vore 1999; Bryman, 1992; Yukl, 1999b). & Kanungo, 1998; De
Atwater, 2002; Bass, 1996; Conger
;ice, ational variables (e.g., Antonakis & House, 1995; Lapidot,
al., 2005 ; Hou se et al., 1991 ; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Klein &
and Hoo gh et Meindl, 1998; Podsakoff,
Sham ir, 2007 ; Paw ar & Eas tman, 1997; Pillai, 1996; Pillai &
used Kar k, & & Howell, 1999; Tosi et
ie, Ahea rne, & Bom mer , 1995 ; Roberts & Bradley, 1988; Shamir
wers Mac Kenz h, 2010). However, the
; Tric e & Beye r, 1986 , Wal dman et al., 2001, 2004; Walter & Bruc
al., 2004 leadership behavior, and
amo ng stud ies in the type ofleaders sampled, the measures of
ders variat ion tent and difficult to
situ atio nal vari able s that were incl uded, yielded results that are inconsis
effi- the
nted interpret.
unc-
der ship
s fail
ulid Hines for Inspirati©nl0 Lea
reats ip and related
ned about transformational leadersh
nice, Although much remains to be lear ests some tentative
from different types of research sugg
ders, theories, the convergence in findings r self-confidence and com-
inspire followers and increase thei
(see guidelines for leaders who seek to ) are based on the theories
elines (see summary in Table 12-3
mitment to the mission. The guid
chapter.
rans- and research findings reviewed in this
ibor-
g vision.
u are • Articulate a clear and appealin
mitment to a new
aders en the existing vision or build com
Transformational leaders strength ome help s people under-
ation organization could accomplish or bec
vision. A clear vision of what the give s the work meaning,
noti- priorities of the organization. It
stand the purpose, objectives, and purp ose. Fina lly, the vision
)pro- and fosters a sense of common
serves as a source of self-esteem, tion , whic h is especially
wers sions of each member of the organiza
helps guide the actions and deci my and disc retion in their
:egies ps are allowed considerable autono
important when individuals or grou loping a visi on with appeal-
Raelin, 1989). Suggestions for deve
work decisions(Hackman, 1986;
4.
ing content are described in Chapter people (Awamleh &
The success of a visi on depe nds on how well it is communicated to
communicated at every
, 1993, 1994). The vision should be
Gardner, 1999; Holladay & Coombs explain the vision and
nec- . Meeting with people directly to
opportunity and in a variety of ways ive forms of communica-
;e will ably more effective than less interact
answer questions about it is prob vised news conferences,
Ier or to followers, newsletter articles, tele
tion (e.g., letters or e-mail messages used to present the vision,
!vious eractive form of communication is
tradi- videotaped speeches). If a non-int
mtion
'e as a
nsformational Leadership
t with TABLE 12-3 Guidelines for Tra
vision.
• Articulate a clear and appealing
nal or how the visio n can be atta ined.
• Expl ain
nova- .
• Act confident and optimistic
ary or • Express confidence in followers.
emphasize key values.
.y lack • Use dramatic, symbolic actions to
lenges • Lead by example.
afterward (e.g., use
then it is helpful to provide opportunities for followers to ask questions
e-mail, a hotline, open meetings,or visits by the leader to departm ent meetings ).
The ideological aspects of a vision can be communi cated more clearly and persuasively
vivid imagery , metapho rs, anecdote s, stories,
with colorful, emotional language that includes
are especial ly effective when they excite the
symbols, and slogans. Metaphors and analogies
sense out of them. Anecdot es and stories
imagination and engage the listener in trying to make
legendary heroes,
are more effective if they invoke symbols with deep cultural roots, such as
s. A dramati c, expressi ve style of speak-
sacred figures, and historical ordeals and triumph
an emotion al appeal (see guidelines for
ing augments the use of colorful language in making
y of feeling are communi cated by a
inspirational appeals in Chapter 8). Conviction and intensit
ons, gestures , and body movemen t. The
speaker's voice (tone, inflection, pauses), facial expressi
key words or phrases can make a vision
appropriate use of rhyme, rhythm, and repetition of
more colorful and compelling.
• Explain how the vision can be attained.

e followers
It is not enough to articulate an appealing vision; the leader must also convinc
vision and a credible
that the vision is feasible. It is important to make a clear link between the
link is easier to establis h if the strategy has a few clear themes
strategy for attaining it. This
of organiza tion member s (Nadler , 1988). Themes provide
that are relevant to shared values
and issues and problem s. The number of themes should be large
labels to help people underst
key issues, but not so large as to cause confusi on and,dissipate
enough to focus attention on
steps. The
energy. It is seldom necessary to present an elaborate plan with detailed action
all the answers about how to achieve the vision, but instead
leader should not pretend to know
will have a vital role in discover ing what specific actions are
should inform followers that they
necessary.
is unconven-
The strategy for attaining the vision is most likely to be persuasive when it
c or conventi onal, the strategy will not elicit confidence
tional yet straightforward. Ifit is simplisti
crisis. Conside r the example of a compan y that was losing
in the leader,especially when there is a
market share in the face ofintense competit ion.
g prod-
The CEO proposed to make the company's product the best in the world by improvin
uct design and quality (the old strategy was to keep price low by cutting costs). The product
test-
would be designed to be reliable (few moving parts, durable materials, extensive product
every worker) as well as "user friendly" (simple operating procedure s,
ing, quality control by
successful turna-
easy-to-read displays, clear instructions). This strategy contributed to the
round ofthe company.
• Act confident and optimistic.

self-
Followers are not going to have faith in a vision unless the leader demonstrates
of
likely success the
confidence and conviction. It is important to remain optimistic about the
setbacks. A lead-
group in attaining its vision, especially in the face oftemporary roadblocks and
ze what has been
er's confidence and optimism can be highly contagious. It is best to emphasi
is to emphasize the
accomplished so far rather than how much more is yet to be done. It best
ahead. Confidence is
positive aspects ofthe vision rather than the obstacles and dangers that lie
tentative, faltering
expressed in both words and actions. Lack of self-confidence is reflected in
'"hopeful ly") and some nonverb al cues (e.g., frowns, lack ofeye
language (e.g.,"I guess;'"maybe;
contact, nervous gestures, weak posture).
g., use • Express confidence in followers.

The motivating effect of a vision also depends on the extent to which subordinates are
asively
confident about their ability to achieve it. Research on the Pygmalion effect found that people
tories,
perform better when a leader has high expectations for them and shows confidence in them
ite the
(Eden, 1984, 1990; Eden & Shani, 1982; Field, 1989; McNatt & Judge, 2004; Sutton & Woodman,
stories
1989). It is especially important to foster confidence and optimism when the task is difficult
zeroes,
or dangerous, or when team members lack confidence in themselves. If appropriate, the leader
;peak-
should remind followers how they overcame obstacles to achieve an earlier triumph. Ifthey have
tes for
never been successful before,the leader maybe able to make an analogy between the present situ-
d by a
ation and success by a similar team or organizational unit. Review the specific strengths, assets,
:. The
and resources that they can draw on to carry out the strategy. List the advantages they have rela-
vision
tive to opponents or competitors. Explain why they are as good as or better than an earlier team
that was successful in performing the same type of activity.
• Use dramatic,symbolic actions to emphasize key values.

owers
edible A vision is reinforced by leadership behavior that is consistent with it. Concern for a value
remes or objective is demonstrated by the way a manager spends time, by resource allocation decisions
•ovide made when trade-offs are necessary between objectives, by the questions the manager asks, and
large by what actions the manager rewards. Dramatic,highly visible actions can be used to emphasize
sipate key values, as in the following example:
. The
istead The division manager had a vision that included relationships in which people were open,cre-
ative, cooperative, and oriented toward learning. Past meetings of the management team had
ns are
been overly formal, with detailed agendas,elaborate presentations, and excessive criticism. He
began a three-day meeting to communicate his vision for the division by inviting people to a
nven- beachfront ceremony where they burned a pile of agendas,handouts,and evaluation forms.
dence
losing Symbolic actions to achieve an important objective or defend an important value are likely
to be more influential when the manager risks substantial personal loss, makes self-sacrifices,
or does things that are unconventional. The effect of symbolic actions is increased when they
become the subject of stories and myths that circulate among members of the organization and
are retold time and again over the years to new employees. In one example recounted by Peters
and Austin (1985), the CEO personally destroyed some low-quality versions of the company's
product that had been sold previously as "seconds:' This widely publicized action demonstrated
his commitment to the new policy that, henceforth,the company would make and sell only prod-
ucts ofthe highest quality.
• Lead by example.
self-
af the According to an old saying, actions speak louder than words. One way a leader can influ-
lead- ence subordinate commitment is by setting an example of exemplary behavior in day-to-day
been interactions with subordinates. Leading by example is sometimes called role modeling. It is
:e the especially important for actions that are unpleasant, dangerous, unconventional, or controver-
ice is sial. A manager who asks subordinates to observe a particular standard should also observe
ering the same standard. A manager who asks subordinates to make special sacrifices should set an
ofeye example by doing the same. Some ofthe most inspirational military leaders have been ones who
led their troops into battle and shared the dangers and hardships rather than staying behind in
ip
326 Chapter 12 • Theories of Charismatic and Transformational Leadersh
example is provided by the
relative safety and comfort (Van Fleet & Yuld, 1986b). A negative
difficul ties. After asking employ-
executives in a large company that was experiencing financial
themsel ves large bonuses. This
ees to defer their expected pay increases, the executives awarded
ee loyalty to the organiza-
action created resentment among employees and undermined employ
h would be to set an example by
tion and commitment to its mission. A more effective approac
employe es.
cutting bonuses for top executives before asking for sacrifices from other
daily behavio r, and it must be
The values espoused by a leader should be demonstrated in
are always in the spotlight, and
done consistently, not just when convenient. Top-level leaders
meanin gs that may not be
their actions are carefully examined by followers in a search for hidden
and innocen t actions may be
intended by the leader. Ambiguous remarks may be misinterpreted
nt to conside r in advanc e how
misrepresented. To avoid sending the wrong message,it is importa
one's comments and actions are likely to be interpreted by others.
Summary
n leader, followers,
Attributions of charisma are the result of an interactive process betwee
ment in followers by artic-
and the situation. Charismatic leaders arouse enthusiasm and commit
achieving it. Attribution
ulating a compelling vision and increasing follower confidence about
attaining it are innovative,
of charisma to the leader is more likely if the vision and strategy for
to be succeeding. Other
the leader takes personal risks to promote it, and the strategy appears
at across the different theo-
relevant behaviors have also been identified, but they vary somewh
convictions, poise, speaking
ries. Some leader traits and skills such as self-confidence, strong
a, but also important is a
ability, and a dramatic flair increase the likelihood of attributed charism
needs.
context that makes the leader's vision especially relevant to follower
a tremen dous influen ce on an organiz ation, but the conse-
Charismatic leaders can have
Some entrepr eneurs who establis h a prosper ous company
quences are not always beneficial.
tion. These leaders are insensi-
are narcissistic charismatics with a personalized power orienta
ve, and defensi ve. They consider follower devotion
tive, manipulative, domineering, impulsi
arrogance and excessive self
more important than commitment to an ideological vision. Their
l of their company. Positive
confidence encourage risky decisions that can cause the downfal
ideolog ical goals and are more likely to have a bene-
charismatics seek to instill devotion to
r, the achiev ement culture fostered by positive
ficial influence on the organization. Howeve
able consequ ences if the needs ofindividual follow-
charismatics may also produce some undesir
to discove r whethe r it is possibl e to achieve the positive
ers are ignored. More research is needed
the negativ e consequ ences.
outcomes of charismatic leadership without
ance and value of the
Transformational leaders make followers more aware of the import
erest for the sake of the organiz ation. The leaders
work and induce followers to transcend self-int
them to assume more responsi bility and have
develop follower skills and confidence to prepare
and encour agemen t when necessa ry to maintain
more influence. The leaders provide support
ties, and fatigue. As a result, followers trust
enthusiasm and effort in the face ofobstacles, difficul
original ly expecte d to do.
the leader and are motivated to do more than they
al leadership has gen-
The empirical research relevant for the theories of transformation
examin ed the underly ing influence processes
erally been supportive, but few studies have
betwee n leader behavio r and follower perfor-
that account for the positive relationship found
conditi ons in which differen t types of trans-
mance. More research is needed to determine the
ing influen ce process es that explain why
formational behavior are most relevant and the underly
the behaviors are relevant.
l
by the The theories of transformational and charismatic leadership emphasize that emotiona
processes , and symbolic actions are as importan t as instru-
employ- processes are as important as rational
or failure
s. This mental behavior. These theories provide new insights into the reasons for the success
processes in these theories do not provide a sufficient
ganiza- ofleaders, but the underlying explanatory
nce and sur-
nple by basis for understanding how leaders can influence the long-term financial performa
leaders influence organizat ional processes and out-
vival of an organization. To understand how
managem ent that are not explicitly described
nust be comes,it is necessary to include aspects ofstrategic
;ht, and in most charismatic and transformational theories (see Chapter 11).
not be
maybe
we how Review and Discussion Questions
1. Briefly describe the attribution theory ofcharismatic leadership.
2. Briefly describe the self-concept theory ofcharismatic leadership.
3. What problems are charismatic leaders likely to create for an organization?
4. In what type ofsituation is a charismatic leader most likely to be beneficial?
lowers, 5. Briefly describe the theory oftransformational leadership proposed by Bass.
leadership?
y artic- 6. What are similarities and differences between charismatic and transformational
and charismati c leadership?
ibution 7. What new insights are provided by theories oftransformational
8. What can leaders do to become more transforma tional?
Dvative,
Other
tt theo-
)eaking Key Terms
ant is a self-concept transactional leadership
charisma
charismatic leadership self-efficacy transformational leadership
conse- self-identity vision
emotional contagion
mpany social identification
personal identification
nsensi- symbolic action
role modeling
:votion
ive self
'ositive
t bene-
Iositive
follow-
)ositive
of the
leaders
td have
aintain
rs trust
as gen-
)cesses
perfor-
F trans-
in why

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Chapter 12

'_theories of Charismatic and

Attribution Theory ®f Charismatic Leadership

Unconventional Behavior. Charisma is more likely to be attributed to leaders who act in

Other Conceptions of Charisma

for the proposition

Positive and Negative Charismatics

Effects of Positive Charismatics

The Dark Side of Charisma

TABLE 12-1 Some Negative Consequences of Charismatic Leaders

Research on Charismatic and

Laboratory and Field Experiments

rith Comparative Analyses of Leader Descriptions

Intensive Case Studies

Example of an Intensive Case Study

Comparison of Charismatic and

for assassination or politi-

Explanation of Mediating Processes

Implications for Change and Effectiveness

• Explain how the vision can be attained.

• Act confident and optimistic.

g., use • Express confidence in followers.

• Use dramatic,symbolic actions to emphasize key values.

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