Data and Information

 Data is a set of numbers, text, pictures, videos etc. that have no set meaning or context
 information is data that have been given meaning and context after it has been processed by
a computer or user.

Direct and indirect Data

 Direct-Data
o that has been collected from the source for a specific purpose and used for only that
purpose
 Indirect
o Data that has been collected from third party sources instead of the original sources
and isn’t used for the purpose that it was originally collected for

Direct sources
 Questionnaires-Questionaries are set of arranged questions that can be distributed to
people to get answers from them, they are easy to distribute, complete and collect as they
are user friendly.
 interview-is a one-to-one meeting between the interviewee and the interviewer, in which
the interviewer would ask questions, to get direct opinions/facts from the interviewer, these
can be open ended and close ended questions, questions can be expanded on by the
interviewer and more answers can be gotten.
 Observation- a method of gathering data by collectors by watching what happens in a given
situation
 Data logging- using sensors and computers to collect data, which is analysed, saved and
output in graphs, charts, etc., most commonly used in scientific experiments, where human
intervention is not suitable.

Indirect sources
 Electoral registers- Registers that hold record of citizens that are eligible to vote in an
election, they have citizen details such as name, address, age etc. which have some details
removed from the open version of the register
 Third Party- a method of collecting data is from third party sources, there are companies
that collect an individual’s personal information and sell it to each other and to advertisers.
Business’s often ask customers if personal data could be shared with other organisations
after the customer use/buy their product

Pros and cons of direct

 Pros
 source of data is known so data can be trusted
 All data gathered is gathered only for your purpose
 Likely to be up to date
 Data can be presented in the format required
 Data can be sold later as indirect after using it for the particular purpose
 Cons
 Time taking and costs a lot
 Data logging Equipment can be expensive
 Large samples can be difficult to collect

Pros and cons of Indirect

 Pros
 Readily available
 Costs less than getting direct data as it takes less time
 Mostly available in large samples
 Cons
 Less reliable as source is unknown
 Would contain information that is not required
 Might be out of date
 Might be difficult to extract data as it would be in the wrong format

Quality of Information
 Accuracy
 If the data collected is inaccurate, the information after processing would be inaccurate,
therefore data should always be accurate so that it can be considered of good quality
 Relevance
 Data must be relevant to its purpose, the user must find data that is not required and
remove it, so that after processing only data required would be present
 Age
 Information must be up to date, as old information might be irrelevant as information tends
to change as time goes on. If data is not up to data it can lead to inaccuracy
 Level of detail
 Information should have the right amount of detail, it is possible for it to have to much detail
making it hard to extract information, if there is less information than required it can lead to
an inconvenience when using it.
 Completeness
 Information must be complete and have all required information to be of good quality, if not
it cannot be used properly for a particular purpose.
 Encryption
 Symmetric
 A method of encryption that requires the use of the same private key to encrypt and decrypt
files. Both the Encryptor and recipient needs to have the key, therefore the key must be sent
with the file/or separately.
 Asymmetric
 A method of encryption that uses a public key to encrypt files and a private key to decrypt
files. The Encryptor encrypts using a public key that is available to everyone and sends the
files to the recipient who decrypts using a private key known only to him/her.

Encryption protocols
 Purpose of SSL/TLS
 Enable Encryption in order to protect data
 Make Sure the exchanging of data is from legit individuals who they say they are
 Ensure data is not altered or corrupted while being exchanged
 Use of SSL/TLS
 Used in Web server to client communication, to establish a secure connection between both
parties, by helping both parties to agree on rules of communication by carrying through a
handshake protocol.

Uses of Encryption
 Hard Disks
 When a file is created/written on a disk, it is automatically encrypted, when it is read, it is
automatically decrypted while leaving other files encrypted.
 The whole disk is encrypted so that data is protected if the disk is stolen or left unattended
 Keys need to be secured in a well available location as data can’t be recovered without the
key
 Data can be permanently lost if the encrypted disk crashes or the OS gets corrupted.
 Email
 Email Encryption uses Asymmetric encryption, both the sender and Recipient exchange
messages between each other to add each other’s digital certificates, these are used to
encrypted files specific to each other to be decrypted.
 Encrypting an email would encrypt any attachments
 Emails are very susceptible to being intercepted by hackers, therefore encrypting all emails
are a good practice.
 HTTPS
 Hypertext transfer protocol is shown by a URL having HTTPS://, or a Padlock
 A session key is encrypted using a public key which is sent to the webserver by a web
browser, then is decrypted using the servers private key, after which all exchange of
information is conducted using encryption using the session key.
 HTTPS uses Asymmetric encryption initially to establish a secure session, then uses
symmetric encryption after that point forward.
 After the session has ended, the symmetric key is disposed of.
 Slower than HTTP, needs to be kept up to date by the host, but is more secure in data
transfer and Sites with HTTPS is Ranked Higher/Given more priority by Search engines.
 Validation and Verification
 Validation
 A process in which data entered is reasonable and follows defined rules, if data
doesn’t conform to the rules, data is rejected and an error message is presented.
 Verification
 A process in which data entered is verified to be accurate and match the original
source.

Types of Validation and Verification

 Validation
 Presence Check
 checks if data is present and entered
 Range Check
 Checks if the data entered is between a given range
 Format Check
 Checks if the data conforms to a given format such as date in dd/mm/yyyy
 Type Check
 Checks if the data type of data entered conforms to a specific type, e.g.,
Name should only contain Text and no numerals
 Length Check
 Checks if data entered conforms to a specific length, e.g., Student ID should
be 6 Characters long
 Lookup Check
 Checks if data entered is within a given list
 Consistency Check
 Checks if Data Entered is Consistent with other fields e.g., Mr and Mister
should be entered if gender is male
 Check Digit
 uses an algorithm to create a digit or Letter from an ID number, and adds
this digit in the end, so that after data is entered, the algorithm can be
redone and compared to the check digit, to see if the ID number is entered
properly
 Limit Check
 Checks if data enters is withing a single boundary
 Verification
 Visual Checking
 a method of Verification where data is entered into the computer, then
checked by comparing both the original and entered data visually to check
for any errors during entry
 Double Data Entry
 a method of entering data twice into the computer, then compared together
to see if any errors are present, if an error is present one of them is
incorrect, if they match, then they are verified.
 Parity Check
 A Byte has 8 bits, 7 bits are used to transfer data, while 1 bit is used as a
parity bit, there is either even Parity or Odd parity, if the 7 bits have even
number of on bits, the parity would be set to off (Even Parity), if the 7 bits
have odd number of on bits, the parity would be set to on to make the
number of on bits even (odd parity)
 Checksum
 an algorithm such as a hash function is used to calculate a check sum for a
particular file and is transmitted at the end of the file, the receiving device
recalculates the check sum and then compares it to the one it received, to
make sure they are identical.
 Hash total
 a hash total is calculated by adding together values from a field for all the
records that need to be input. The hash total is calculated before
transferring the data, and sent with the data, then recalculated and
compared to the original hash total, if they are same, the data has been
transmitted correctly
 Control total
 is calculated like Hash total by adding together values from a field for all
records, but only carried out on numeric fields, the value produced is
meaningful as alphanumeric fields are not used. The control total is
transmitted with the data, and then recalculated after transmittance, and
compared, if its same the transfer of data was successful, if not it wasn’t
transmitted properly.
 Data Processing
Batch Processing
 Batch Processing- It is an effective method of processing large amounts of data in batches,
the data is processed altogether in one batch by the computer. Data is collected together
and then processed at a later date. Data is searched using Sequential Access

Master and Transaction Files

 Master File holds records of data that does not change regularly and is sorted in order of the
key field
 Transaction File Holds Records holds records of data that needs to be changes and should be
Checked for errors and should be sorted in the same order as the master file.

How a master file gets updated using a transaction file

1. Data is sorted in Transaction and validated
2. First Record of transaction file and Master File is Read
3. Both Are Compared
I If same, the transaction is carried out on given terms and added to the new master
file, then next record of Transaction and master file is Read.
II If different, the record from the master file is moved to the new master file directly,
then next record of master file is read.
4. This is repeated until the end of the old master file
5. Any Remaining Records of the Transaction file are written to the master file.

Uses of Batch Processing in Pay Roll and Customer order

 Read the Textbook for this, Requires better understanding and Diagrams

Online Processing
 Online Processing- processing is done in a computer that has direct communication with a
user. Data is processed almost immediately with a short delay, but isn’t that long for a user.
Each transaction is processed before taking the next transaction. Data is searched using
direct access.

Uses of Online Processing

 Electronic Fund Transfer
 Process of transferring money from one bank account to another account without
the requirement of Bank staff and only using computer software.
 Process of EFT
1 Account to send money is selected
2 Account to send the money too is selected
3 The amount of money and type of currency it needs to be sent to is selected
4 Computer checks if there is enough Balance
5 funds are available, transaction is authorised to proceed, the bank’s of both
parties contact each other, and searches for both records, the amount is
 deducted from the first account and added to the second account. and
transaction is completed
6 If funds are not available, transaction is rejected and Process is ended and
has to be restarted.
 EFTPOS is when a customer goes to checkout at a point-of-sale e.g., checkout in a
supermarket using a bank card.
 Process of EFTPOS
1 Card chip is read by the computer, and checks if the card is valid (not stolen,
not expired etc.),
2 If not valid, the transaction is rejected and terminated.
3 If valid, the customer is asked to enter the PIN Number,
4 The pin number stored on the chip is read,
5 Both Pins are Compared
6 If both pins are not the same, an error message is given, with a numbered
number of attempts given to give the correct pin.
I If the valid pin is not given the transaction is rejected and an error
message is given
II If the pin is valid after the 2nd or 3rd try, the transaction is authorised
7 If both pins are same, the transaction is authorised
8 The customer’s bank and Supermarket’s computer is contacted
9 Customer’s bank retrieves Customer Bank Record
10 Checks if funds are available
I If funds are not available the transaction is rejected
II If funds are available the transaction is authorised
11 The amount of the bill is deducted from customer’s account and is credited
to the supermarket
[For Contactless (where pin is not needed to be input by customer) Transactions 3-
7 is not needed]
 Automatic Stock Control
 it is an automated system that controls the stock by using a computer with no
human intervention, by deducting the stock, reordering stock when below a level,
etc.
 Process of Automatic Stock Control
1 When a product is bought, its barcode is read
2 The Record of the Product is found using its barcode
3 The stock number of the product is reduced by one
4 The stock level is compared with Reorder level
5 If the stock is greater, the process is ended till the product Is bought
again.
6 If the stock level is below or equal to reorder value, then it is checked
if the product is already put for re-order
7 If the product is put for re-order, the process is ended till the product
is bought again
8 If the product is not put for re-order, an automatic order is sent to the
supplier with the required re-order quantity and address for the
supplier to send the products.
 Electronic Data Exchange
 Method of Exchanging Data and documents without using paper, the documents can
take any form, with the electronic exchange between computers using a standard
format.
 Process of EDI
1 A Company Decides to buy some goods, and creates and Order
2 EDI Software creates an electronic version of the order and sends it
automatically to the supplier
3 Supplier’s Computer system receives the order and updates its system
4 The Supplier’s computer system automatically sends a message back
confirming receipt of the order.
 B2B
 Refers to Buying and selling between two businesses
 A B2B market place is difference to B2C ( business to individual customer) as bulk
orders can be placed and orders can be edited online.
 Buyers can compare products from many different sellers, and receive discounts for
large orders.
 Sellers can save time and money that would have been used to setup a large
website, on marketing the product and they can test products by putting them up
for sale and checking if they sell well
 The quantity being higher, results in more complicated shipping requirements
 Online Stores
 Online stores are websites where customers can order a product online by selecting
it, adding it to the cart, and checking it out online
 Process of Checkout Online
1 Asks the user if the user wants to sign In or register a new account
2 if the user selects to register a new account
I asks the user to enter a username
II asks the user to enter a password twice
III Ask for Contact details like phone no. and email
IV Asks for Shipping address Details
V Asks for Billing address
3 If the user selects sign in
I Asks the user to log on by using username and password
4 Confirms the product details with the user
5 Confirms the shipping address with the user
6 Asks the user the shipping type ( priority, economy, etc.) and shows the
prices
7 Shows the user total price
8 Asks the user if the user wants to use an old stored credit/debit card( if the
details are stored) or asks to user to enter a new credit/debit card
9 User enters Credit card details
10 The order is confirmed and Transaction is done.
 Customers can look at a wide range of shops around the world and compare prices
 Customers don’t need to spend time and money travelling around different shops,
which is cheaper and faster. They can shop at anytime
 Items are usually cheaper online as warehouse and staff costs are lower. Other pros
check textbook
Real Time Processing
 Real Time Processing- Processing is don in a way that inputs go directly to the CPU of the
computer, with no delay. Processing is continuous so the process is never ending unless the
user switches the system off.

Uses of Real Time Processing

Too lazy to complete , Use Control systems to understand it well

 Hardware and Software
Mainframe computers and Super computers
 Mainframe computers
 large computers used by large organisation, they are designed with hundreds of
cores and can process large number of tasks at the same time
 They are designed so that many different people can work on it at the same time
 Supercomputers
 Large computers with high processing capacity to complete complex tasks quickly
 It focuses on executing instructions as quickly as possible

Characteristics of Mainframe computers and supercomputers

 Longevity
 Mainframes
 Made to exist for decades and still work well, as shutting them and disposing
them is very expensive
 Super Computers
 Typically have a lifespan of about 5 years or till faster ways to process data is
introduced into the market
 RAS
 Reliability
 Reliable as they are able to check themselves for errors and recover itself
without effect to the operation of the mainframe
 Software is tested and updated thoroughly to overcome and errors
 Availability
 they should be available 24/7 and should be taken down for only short
periods of time for maintenances
 Spare Components are available so that it can automatically switch to it
when a failure occurs
 Serviceability
 they should be easily serviceable with ways in which parts can be replaced
while it is running
 Security
 They have multi-level security, to identify users, their security level and access
control
 They have different levels of access; each have different levels of permissions to
access different levels of resources
 Performance Metrics
 MIPS
 Millions of Instructions per Seconds is a method of evaluating a mainframes
Performance by measuring how many instructions it can perform every
second, different instructions have different complexities that can lead to a
misinterpretation of performance.
  Cost of a mainframe is calculated by how much a mainframe costs per one
million instructions per second.
 FLOPS
 Floating point operations per second is a metric, used to measure the
performance of super computers using scientific calculations
 Volume of Input, Output and throughput
 Mainframes have very high input and output as they crunch on billions of
transactions everyday that lead to high volumes of input and output.
 Throughput is the number of extremely large volumes of input and output in a given
period of time.
 Fault Tolerance
 A Computer with fault tolerance means that it can continue to operate even if its
components has failed
 If a component fails in mainframe or supercomputer, they are designed to switch to
spare components that are readily available for them to use.
 A failure is more likely to occur in super computers as they have thousands
of processors.
 Two different software so that if one fails or produces errors, the other version is
automatically run
 OS
 Mainframes
 Run Many different Operating systems
 Each Have different sub tasks which is assigned to one processor core, all
subtasks are recombined to provide a reasonable output, (parallel
processing)
 Supercomputers
 Run one Operating systems
 Each Processor has one Operating system which leads to parallel processing.
 Type of Processor
 Mainframes
 Have CPU Complexes that have cores measured in hundreds
 Supercomputers
 Have Hundreds of thousands of processor cores
 Modern supercomputers use numerous GPUs
 Heat maintenances
 due to mainframes and supercomputers having numerous hardware running at a
time, they would produce a lot of heat, that must be cooled, down,
 Methods to cool: -
 air can be passed through large mainframes, so that heat can be picked up
and dissipated so that the mainframes can be cooled down.
 Water cooling can be used which is more efficient to air cooling, and can
keep the temperatures down
 most new data centres are now being built in colder regions, so that natural
cold air can be circulated and costs can be kept down for cooling, and less
power wasted
Uses of Mainframe
 Census
 It is a survey that is carried out every ten years by the government to evaluate the
households of its country, as the population increases volume of data needed to be
processed increases which makes mainframes a vital component
 Industry statistics
 Businesses use mainframes to process vast amounts of data that help them identify
their competitors, market share, products which are profitable etc.
 Some Organisations process these data and keep them readily available for other
businesses, using mainframes
 Consumer statistics
 Organisations would use mainframes to assess markets in different locations, by
processing data regarding, the demand of the product, incomes and employment of
consumers in a particular area, products and pricing of competitors etc.
 Transaction processing
 A type of processing like online processing, where many different operations are
used to do a single transaction in which if an error occurs, the transaction is
removed, and the system continues as if the transaction didn’t occur
 Mainframes can do many transactions at a time, and are available 24/7 as they can
deal with hardware and software issues without shutting down or loosing data.

Uses of Supercomputers
 Drug research
 Modern drug research uses complex models to see how changing the structure of
drugs effect the body
 Numerous models have to be run to predict any side effects, which require high
computational power
 Genetic Analysis
 Finding genes that make humans susceptible to disease has always been complex,
supercomputers reduced the time taken to perform calculations with genes from
months to minutes
 Quantum mechanics
 Quantum mechanics is the study of matter and light in an atomic and subatomic
level, they require high computational power to process large number of
calculations with great accuracy
 Weather forecasting
 Data from sensors are weather stations and around the world are used to collect
numerous variables such as Humidity, temperature, rainfall etc. using past weather
data, the computer performs complex calculations that are large in number to
compare and predict the weather.
 Climate research
 Data collected for many decades which have trends of different variables such as
Pollutions, Ph, Temperature, Water level etc. are put in different complex
 mathematical equations and collected to model and mimic the process of climate
change using supercomputers.

Advantages and disadvantages

 Mainframes
 Pros
 They are very reliable
 New Versions are getting faster and powerful every year
 Can deal with large amounts of data
 Have stronger security with complex encryption and protocols
 Cons
 Very expensive to buy
 Software to run a mainframe is very expensive
 Maintenance costs are high
 Cooling systems need to be advance which are costly
 Supercomputers
 Pros
 Fastest data processing computers
 Use massive parallel processing which makes them more powerful
 Cons
 Expensive to buy and install
 Less likely to recover from failure compared to mainframes (less fault
tolerant)
 Have one Operation system
 System Software
 System Software refers to the programs that run and control a computer’s hardware and
application software

Compilers
 A Program that translates high level language source code into an executable file called
object code
 It produces a lot of error messages after it has translated the whole program
 The compiled program will only run on the OS it has been originally compiled on

Interpreters
 A Program that translates high level language source code into an intermediate form, line by
line which it executes after each line.
 It stops translating when an error is encountered, and will not start till that error is fixed
 The interpreted program can be transferred between operating systems because it is in the
form of source code, but it needs to be translated in each computer it is moved too.

Interpreter vs Compiler
 Interpreters detect errors line by line, making debugging easier compared to compilers
which require the whole program to be translated to debug
 Programmers can correct errors as they are found, while programmers can’t do anything
while a program is being compiled
 Compiling uses more memory than interpreting as the whole program must be loaded for
translation while interpreters only take some lines saving memory
 Compiled programs need to be recompiled in different operating systems which take a huge
time and chunks of memory while interpreted programs can be used on any OS with a
suitable interpreter as they are in its original source code.
 The execution of an interpreted program is much slower as each statement has to be
translated before execution, where are compiled programs can be executed after being
compiled.
 Source code must be available in interpreted programs while in compiled programs source
code is not present which can lead to software copyright infringements in interpreted
software.

Linkers
 A linker is Used to combine different modules of object code into one executable code
program.
 The programs modules can be written separately by different programmers than combined
saving time.
 Linkers can be used to save Ram by compiling separately, but Variables might be different
between different modules leading to errors and documentations needs to be written and
read after completion which can be time taking
Device Drivers
 A Device Driver is a small program that enables the OS and Software installed to
communicate with a hardware device.
 Any Instructions sent by a software is understood by the device driver and then it tells the
hardware what it needs to do
 If the appropriate driver is not installed, the computer is unable to send/get data from
hardware, and features might be lost as they might only be on that driver.
 Drivers from one OS do not work with Other OS’s

Operating systems
 An OS interacts with software, device drivers and hardware to manage a computer’s
resources
 The OS Acts as an interface between the user and the computer as well as supplying
important utilities for managing the computer
 Major Functions
1 allocates RAM for each program and make sure data doesn’t spread from
program to the other program’s memory allocation
2 manages data from input and output by communicating with the device
driver.
3 manages the storing and retrieving of files from storage devices
4 display error messages to the user if it requires human intervention
5 must handle the security of the system, by managing access rights for each
user and must verify all users when they are logging in.
6 it has to shut down the computer safely when it needs to be closed.
 Utility software
 is a type of system software that is needs to help maintain a computer system by
managing files and their associated storage devices.

Types of Utility Software

Disk Defragmentation
 When a file of Data is stored on a disk, it may consist of several blocks (blocks contain
number of sectors) where not enough empty sectors next to each other might be present
next to each other means they have to spread across the disk. When data is deleted from a
disk, this leaves empty sector. Which would complicate the process of splitting between
sectors more
 Disk Defragmentation is used to organise the data on the disk by moving data blocks around
to bring all files together which would increase read and write speeds as the heads don’t
need to move between different sectors to retrieve one file, this would free space and
increase storage capacity

Data Compression
 Modifying data so that it occupies less storage on a disk.
 Types of Compression
 Lossless Compression – a type of file compression without the loss of a single bit of
data, due to the compression software removing repeated bits and replacing with an
indicator showing what is repeated and how many times. Mostly done in
documents, spreadsheets
 Lossy Compression- a type of file compression where data bits are permanently
deleted that are unnecessary as they might be repeated again and again. Mostly
don’t in Pictures and videos where data might be same for many frames.

Formatting
 Formatting is the process of erasing files that are present on new or existing storage devices
for another purpose.
 Types of Formatting
 Low level formatting
 Usually done by manufacturers, it prepares the structure of the disk by
dividing the disk into cylinders and then dividing the tracks into sectors.
 Data is erased permanently
 If done repeatedly it would shorten the lifespan of the disk
 High Level formatting
 It deletes the Pointers that are in the file allocation table which are used to
tell the OS where to look for files.
 The files are retrievable
 It can help remove viruses
Backup
 Backup software is a program that allows files to be copied and kept in a safe location so
that if data is lost due to crashing/corruption, the data can be replaced back
 Types of Backups
 Full Backup
 Back-ups the whole drive.
 Incremental Backup
 Backups are done incrementally, where only files after a specific date and
time Is backed up.
 Differential backup
 Backups only data that has been changed since the full back-up

File-Copying
 File Copying is creating a duplicate of an existing file, the copy will have the same content as
the original
 File Copying software allows users to have more control over which files they are copied

Deleting
 Delete utility software deletes the pointers that tell the OS where to find the files.
 They can delete files permanently
 Some files can’t be deleted normally as they are locked by the operating system, this can be
overcome using deleting utilities.

Antivirus software
 A software that detects and removes malware
 It will either remove the malware or will quarantine and then ask the user what they want to
do with it.
 Methods of detection
 Signature Based
 The Virus signatures (sequence of bytes) are kept in a database, the
software checks all files for these sequences and when discovered the file is
deleted or quarantined
 Only Capable of dealing with viruses that are known
 Heuristic-based
 Compares source code to that of known viruses and flags threats if a specific
percentage match
 Can generate false positives
 Behavioural based
 Looks for abnormal Behaviour in files
 Can generate false positives
 Custom vs off the shelf Software
 Custom software-Software that is specifically written for a particular client to meet the
organisations
 Off the shelf software is software that is readily available in the market and it made for a
general purpose

Advantages and disadvantages

 Custom Software
 Pros
 No unnecessary features are present
 Devs will make the software compatible with other software used by
the client
 Client has 24/7 access to support from the company that made the
software
 Cons
 Expensive as the software as the whole development cost is
undertaken by the client
 Time taking, it is not readily available and would take time to get all
the features the client needs
 Most likely to have bugs as the software hasn’t been used before
 Off the shelf
 Pros
 Cheap as development cost is spread between numerous clients
 It is readily available
 Bugs would have already been identified and fixed while other clients
use the software, in which patches will be released as bugs are found
 Cons
 Unnecessary features would be present
 Software might not be compatible with hardware and software used
by the client
 User Interfaces
 User Interface is the interface a user uses to interact with a system
 A good user interface allows a user to perform communication with a computer without any
problems

Types of Interfaces
 Command Line Interface
 users communicate with the computer by typing commands into the interface
 Graphical User Interface
 Uses windows, icons, menus, and pointers (WIMP) to carry out command
 Dialogue Interface
 Users communicate with the device using their voice, speech recognition software is
used to convert spoken words that are recognised from a database of commands.
 Gesture Based Interface
 The system interprets human gestures and coverts them into commands by
searching through gestures stored in a database.

Advantages and disadvantages of different UI’s

 CLI
 Pros
 Uses less processing power
 Uses less storage and memory
 More comfortable for Developers and Advanced users
 Tends to not change compared to others
 Cons
 CLI requires the user to learn a lot of commands
 Not user friendly compared to others
 Syntax needs to be learnt properly with not errors
 GUI
 Pros
 User friendly
 Not need to learn syntax or commands
 Uses buttons that have pre-set commands
 Cons
 Uses more processing power
 Uses more storage and memory
 Need to learn GUIs more as they tend to change
 Dialogue Interface
 Pros
 Good to use in cases where hands are not available.
 Easier to learn compared to CLI
 Cons
 Use more processing power, storage and memory
  Noise can be an issue which can lead to commands not being recognised
 Expensive as software needs to be developed to recognize commands
 Gesture based Interface
 Pros
 Good to use in cases where typing and selecting data from a screen is not
available
 Gestures are easier to learn
 More user friendly
 Cons
 Tend to be more expensive as recognition software is required
 More processing, storage and memory is required
 Gestures can be inappropriate in some cultures
 Gestures can be misunderstood by the computer
 Monitoring and control
 Monitoring systems
 Observes and Collects data of different variables from sensors and stores it for
future analysis
 Control systems
 A system that Processes and takes decisions based on data obtained and preset
rules, to maintain and manage a system.

Sensors
 Light
 Used to measure the amount of Light
 send a reading signal in the form of electrical energy
 Ultraviolet
 Used to measure the amount of ultraviolet
 send a reading signal in the form of electrical energy
 Temperature
 Used to measure temperature
 send a reading signal in the form of electrical energy
 Pressure
 Used to measure pressure/force on a given area
 send a reading signal in the form of electrical energy
 Sound
 Used to measure sound in an area
 send a reading signal in the form of electrical energy
 Humidity/Moisture
 Used to measure the humidity content of the air or moisture content of the soil
 send a reading signal in the form of electrical energy
 Infrared
 Used to measure the infrared radiation from a heat source
 send a reading signal in the form of electrical energy
 Oxygen
 Used to measure the level of oxygen
 Carbon dioxide
 Used to measure the level of Co2
 Ph
 Used to measure the level of acidity
 Turbidity
 Used to measure the cloudiness of water
 Reed switch
 Not a sensor but is used to measure rainfall
 Electromagnetic field /induction loop
 Used to measure the change in the earth’s magnetic field due to the presence of
ferromagnetic materials
  Ultrasonic
 Used to measure the distance of an object by sending out a sound wave, then
receiving it back due to reflection from the object.
 Proximity
 Used to detect the presence of an object by sending out sound waves, infrared or
magnetic fields and getting back its reflective wave
 Touch
 Used in detection devices to measure fluid levels between two conductors one of
which is liquid, separated by an insulator

Calibration
 It is the process of testing and changing the device to make sure that readings taken are
accurate and correct

Importance of calibration
 The accuracy of a sensor decreases due to constant use and exposure to the environment,
regular Calibration helps maintain accuracy

Types of Calibration
 One Point Calibration
 A Calibration done on sensors that give readings that have a constant offset from
the ideal values when measuring values. The sensor can be calibrated based on a
single reading to bring it to the ideal reference
 Process of calibration
1 Take a reading with the sensor
2 Compare the reading with a device which is said to have the ideal reading
3 Subtract the readings to get the offset value
4 Add the offset value to every reading to get the calibrated value
 Two Point Calibration
 A calibration done on sensors that give readings that don’t have a constant offset
due to it suffering from an offset and difference in sensitivity. It uses two points in a
curve to calibrate
 Process of calibration
1 Take two different readings with your sensors
2 Compare the readings with an ideal sensor
3 Calculate the range value of the sensor reading
4 Calculate the range value of ideal sensor
5 Use formula to calculate correct value
( Correct Value= ((CSv-SLv)*IRv)/SRv)+ILv)
 Multipoint Calibration
 A calibration similar to other calibration methods but is performed using many
different readings, at least 3.
 Monitoring technologies
Uses of Monitoring Technologies
 Weather Stations
 Sensors used
 Temperature Sensor to measure Ambient Temperature
 Pressure sensor to measure air pressure
 Humidity sensor to measure air humidity
 Light sensor to measure the hours of sunlight
 Reed switch to measure the rainfall by sending a signal each time a bucket is
tipped due to rainwater filling it
 Readings/data from the sensor are fed into the computer and then stored in the
form of tables, spreadsheets etc. so that it can be later processed with calculations
to show information.
 The readings from the sensors are converted from analogue to digital signals using
an ADC ( analogue to digital converter) so that the readings can be understood by
the computer
 Monitoring water Pollution
 Sensors used
 Temperature sensor to measure the temperature of the water
 PH sensor to measure the acidity of the water
 O2 sensor to measure the amount of Oxygen in the water
 CO2 sensor to measure the amount of carbon dioxide in the water
 Turbidity sensor to measure the cloudiness of the water
 Two Way of Comparing
 Comparing readings to check if water is at expected levels
o Normal Readings would be deeper in a water body, so one sensor is
kept deeper than the other sensor
o Readings are compared to see if Water is at normal readings or not
 Comparing readings affected by pollution (farms and industrial pollution)
o One sensor is kept upstream while the other is downstream after
the site that is said to cause pollution
o Both readings are compared to see if pollution is caused by the site
 Both input data into the computer after passing through an ADC and this data is
stored, and also compared to bring in a conclusion.
 Environmental Monitoring
 How it is done.
 Sound sensors to measure the sound pollution in a city
 Monitory soil quality using PH sensors to measure acidity, moisture to
measure soil moisture content, temperature sensor to measure
temperature of soil
 Temperature sensors can be used to measure temperature and warn people
about hight outside temperatures
 Ultra violet sensors can be used to measure ultra violet levels and warn
governments to warn people to wear skin protection if in excessive amounts
Advantages and disadvantages of monitoring technologies
 Pros
 Readings taken tend to be more accurate
 Can take readings anytime of the day or night
 Readings are taken at regular intervals
 Can Take multiple readings at a time
 Graphs can be automatically drawn with great accuracy
 Cons
 Computers and sensors can be expensive to buy and maintain
 Sensors need to calibrated as they loose accuracy after some periods of time
 Computers can’t explain results while humans can
 Control Technologies
Actuators
 A device used in control systems to give an output to another device that can regulate a
variable.

Use of control Systems

 Greenhouse/Glasshouse
 Sensors used
 Temperature sensor to measure the temperature of the greenhouse
 Moisture sensor to measure the water content of the soil
 Light sensor to measure the light level of the greenhouse
 Maintaining Temperature
1 Temperature is read from the sensor
2 Temperature is compared with preset
3 If greater, a signal is sent to a motor(actuator) to open a
window/leave it open, and off the heater/leave it off
4 If lower, a signal is sent to a mater to close window/leave it closed,
and switch on the heater/leave it on
5 Processed is repeated till the system is switched off
 Maintaining Moisture
1 Moisture content is read from the sensor
2 Moisture is compared with preset
3 If greater, a signal is sent to close the sprinkler/ leave it closed
4 If lower, a signal is sent to open the sprinkler/leave it open
5 Process is repeated till the system is switched off
 Maintaining light
1 Light is inputted from the sensor
2 Light is compared with preset day value
3 If greater than preset, a signal is sent to switch the light off or keep it
off
4 If lower than preset, the light level is compared with night preset
value.
5 If greater than night preset, a signal is sent to switch the light on or
keep it on
6 If lower than night preset, a signal is sent to switch the light off or
keep it off
7 Process is repeated till system is switched off
 Central heating systems
 Sensors used
 Temperature sensor to measure room temperature
 Maintaining temperature in heating systems
1 User enters temperature
2 Temperature entered is stored as preset is stored in the microprocessor
3 Microprocessor receives room temperature from the Sensor
4 Room temperature is compared to the preset.
5 If Lower than preset value sends a signal to an actuator to open the gas
valve and on the pump
6 If greater than preset value sends a signal to an actuator to close the gas
valve and switch of the pump
7 The process is repeated until the system is switched off
 Air conditioning systems
 Sensors used
 Temperature sensor to measure room temperature
 Maintaining temperature in A/C
1 User enters temperature
2 Temperature entered is stored as preset is stored in the microprocessor
3 Microprocessor receives room temperature from the Sensor
4 Room temperature is compared to the preset.
5 If Lower than preset value sends a signal to an actuator to turn of the fans
6 If greater than preset value sends a signal to an actuator to Turn on the fans
7 The process is repeated until the system is switched off
 Burglar alarms
 Sensors used
 Infrared sensors to detect Human bodies
 Sounds sensors to detect the level of sound in a house
 Pressure sensors are placed in locations where robbers would walk on
 Maintaining Security systems
1 User Turns on the system
2 While the system is on
3 Readings from Infrared, sound and pressure sensors are taken from all
sensors
4 If one of the sensors, send a value above the accepted preseted levels, a
signal is sent to the police to alert them, and an alarm is sound
5 If the sensors are below, accepted values, nothing is done
6 The process is repeated automatically till the user switches of the system
 Control of traffic/pedestrian flow
 Sensors used
 Electromagnetic sensors/induction loops to detect traffic above
 Radar signals to detect the speed of vehicles in the motorway
 How flow is maintained
 Speed limit is decreased in roads prior to the congest area to reduce
crashes
 Some highways have shoulder lanes that are kept for emergencies
such as traffic congestion and can be automatically opened by
computers
 Car park barriers
 Sensors used
 Induction loop/electromagnetic sensors to detect if a car is present above a
sensor
 Secondary sensor, such as ultrasonic sensors to detect if the car as moved
 How the barrier is operated
1 The system is turned on and the induction loop is set at pre-set value
2 When the Car passes on top of an induction loop, it sends a signal to the
processer
3 The processor compares the signal to a pre-set value
4 If there is a change it sends a signal to actuator to open the barrier
5 If same the barrier is left closed and process is restarted
6 A secondary sensor such as an ultrasonic sensor is used to detect the car
passing through, if the secondary sensor returns a signal to the processor
7 The signal is compared to the preset which tells the system if the car is
present or not
8 If the car is not present the barrier is closed back again, and the system is
restarted till it is turned off
 Traffic lights
 Sensors used
 Induction loop/electromagnetic sensors to detect if cars are present above
the sensor
 How the traffic light is operated
1 After the system is made, it is turned on and kept on till maintenance of the
traffic system
2 Induction loops are used to detect if cars are present in lanes
3 The data is sent to a computer
4 Count of cars in one direction is calculated
5 Counts are then compared with pre-set values
6 If car count is higher than preset, that lane is given priority in the next
sequence
7 If the car count is lower than preset, that lane is given less priority
8 Pedestrian locations are taken into account (if a pedestrian clicks the button
at the side )
 9 Signals are calculated after taking every factor into account
10 Signals are sent to timing sequences to show appropriate lights for
pedestrians and cars
11 Process is repeated which results in Sequence timings changing after each
sequence.

 Wireless sensor and actuator(actor) networks

 A network group of sensors and actuators that communicate wirelessly
 Actuators that are grouped to perform a task is called an actor
 Actors work as if it has a microprocessor included and is capable of making a
decision
 Smart homes
 A smart home is a home with devices and appliances connected together so that
they can communicate with each other, they are connected through the network
and router.
 These allow the user to control such devices remotely even if they are far from their
home
 However smart homes are vulnerable to hackers, who could access the network and
switch off alert systems making break ins easier or mess around with the user’s
appliances causing a nuisance.

Advantages and disadvantages of Control technologies

 Pros
 Burglar systems can give People greater sense of security
 Smart homes can help save costs like in electricity costs, as users can set them to be
power efficient
 Computer controlled systems can makes decisions quickly
 Traffic jams are less common with controlled traffic lights
 More leisure time is available to the user
 Cons
 Smart home systems cost a lot to setup
 Systems wont function if there is a problem with the computer or if there is a lack of
power, unless backup power options are present
 People get lazy if they rely more on microprocessors devices
 E-Security
Personal data
 Any data that can be used to identify someone is personal data

Keeping personal Data confidential

 Companies
 Keeping Personal data confidential is an organisations responsibilities
 Encryption is used, so that if personal information is intercepted, it can’t be
understood
 Make sure least amount of data regarding an individual is passed on.
 Information must be anonymised or aggregated [not detailed in syllabus]
 Anonymised information
o is by not mentioning a person’s name
o Although other information can be used to identify the person
which needs to be removed too
 Aggregated information
o Personal details of many individuals can be combined together so
that a person can’t be individually identified
o Although, a person might have details that are unique to his or her,
with no other individual having the same details
 Individuals
 Individuals should not put too much personal data on social media
 They should remove geotags information from photos so that location data can’t be
discovered
 Good to use Nicknames instead of real names on websites such as social or gaming
sites
 Only provide data to trusted websites
 Report Suspicious users
 Agree with Friends/Family to not share personal data online through and only
physically

Keeping personal Data Secure

 Firewall
 Personal data is stored on computers that are connected to the internet which are
susceptible to being accessed by unauthorised users
 Firewalls can prevent data coming into the network preventing hackers
 hackers can physically steal a computer
 Software can be used to change the IP to one acceptable to the firewall
  Penetration testing
 A penetration test is when companies employ a person to deliberately attack their
network to identify weaknesses in their system’s security
 It can help the company evaluate their measures taken to protect data and
implement more secure methods
 Authentication techniques
 Users in the network should use a User ID and Password to log in
 Smart cards can be used
 Biometric data can be used
 Although expensive, biometric authentication is more effective as all the data is
unique to the user and doesn’t change easily
 Levels of access
 Users in the network can be given different levels of access depending on what they
are required to know
 Users with higher access can see more than others
 Network Policies
 Are set of rules that allow companies to choose who is allowed to access their
networks
 When a worker joins, they are required to sign an agreement which specifies all the
policies
 Although it doesn’t prevent hackers to limits what employees can do with personal
data
 Software updates
 updates eliminate bugs and make software easier to use, one of the key functions is
to eliminate specific security weaknesses
 it is important for users to install updates as soon as possible, as hackers find
exploits and weaknesses quickly
 Other Methods
 Encryption can be used to make data stolen be not understandable
 Data on mobile devices can be deleted remotely if the device is lost or stolen by
sending a command to it. Although, all data not backed up in the cloud gets deleted.

Preventing misuse of personal data

 Pharming
 A method to obtain personal details by making the user download malicious
software or installing it on the user’s device without the users knowledge
 They also hack the DNS server and redirect users to fake websites
 Methods to prevent
 Use up to date antivirus software to prevent downloading malicious
software
 Grammatical and spelling errors should alert users about fake web-sites
 Check if the site that is asking for personal data have the HTTPS and the
green padlock icon
 Phishing
 A method to obtain personal details by sending emails to users with links to sites
that pose to be legit companies so that users can be deceived into giving personal
data.
 Methods to prevent
 Use browsers and computers with anti-phishing software
 Look for grammatical errors in emails as legit companies would have these
removed to keep live up to their reputation
 Delete emails from suspicious sources and never trust people you don’t
recognise
 Emails with Generic Names like ‘Dear Customer’ rather than the user’s name
should be treated with caution
 If the email contains messages where the user will benefit financially it is
likely to be a fake
 Smishing
 Smishing is a variation of phishing where the difference is that it is conducted
through SMS rather than emails
 The User gets messaged from fraudsters with a link asking the user to do something,
the user does it but would lead to the user giving personal data.
 Methods to prevent
 Spelling and Grammatical errors are present in smishing SMS’s
 Never give personal info through SMS
 Do not click on any links sent from people you don’t recognise
 Compare the senders number against the phone number of the company or
ask the company about the phone number
 Vishing
 vishing is a Variation of phishing where the difference is that it is conducted through
voice calls rather than emails
 it involves Hackers contacting the user, and posing to be a legit company to steal
details from the user
 Methods to prevent
 Use another phone to call the bank and verify if the said information is true
 Users should never give out details through the phones as legit companies
won’t ask through the phone
 Customers should ignore, and block numbers that they don’t recognise
 Malware
Types of Malware
 Virus
 A type of malware that is designed to spread from one computer to another by
replicating themselves
 They delete, corrupt and change data on a disk
 They enter the computer by themselves or by attaching to other computer
programmes and lie dormant till its code is executed
 Signs of Virus
 Pop up windows start appearing frequently
 The user is not able to log on
 Computer crashes and its performance is slow
 How to minimise
 Use up to date anti-virus software and scan your computer
 Use a firewall that can monitor incoming and outgoing data for malicious code.
 Always scan and USB or Disks entering the system for viruses
 Trojan Horse
 Users are deceived by posing as legit software, they don’t run until the user runs
them
 They are used to gain access to a computer so that personal data can be discovered,
and contain other malware. They do not infect files or replicate themselves
 How to minimise
 Run software from trusted sources only
 If you don’t trust a software do not run it
 Worm
 They exploit security holes in networks, operating systems and software of a
computer
 They aim to fill up the bandwidth of a network and also space in a computer to slow
it down
 Signs of Worms
 Performance is reduced on computers
 Free space is noticeably reduced
 How to minimise
 Regularly update software
 Use anti malware software to detect worms when downloading software
from attachments
 Disconnecting Computers from networks when network facilities are not
needed can prevent worms from spreading
 Spyware
 To collect information of a user’s activities without their knowledge
 A keylogger is often used to record the users keystrokes
 How to minimise
 If there is a reduction in processing power and bandwidth, when everything
is closed, it might be a sign spyware being used
 Do not download any software from unknown sources
 Always read the fine print of software from companies, as they might make
you agree to using spyware
 Use anti-malware software to look for any spyware software
 Adware
 It is normally downloaded with free software and automatically generates
advertisements
 It is more of annoyance than being dangerous
 How to minimise
 Always check what you are downloading, and look at the list of components
being downloaded uncheck anything that might be adware
 Use ant-malware software to scan for adware and remove it, although this
might take a long time while as they are difficult to remove
 Rootkit
 A program that enables a user to gain administrative privileges of a user’s computer
without the user knowing
 It is downloaded by clicking on links from emails or by hackers leaving USB sticks and
waiting for a curious user to plug it in. it can also be installed by hackers who have
cracked the user’s security measures like passwords
 How to minimise
 Advisable to have a strong password that can be hard to crack, and to
change it regularly
 USB sticks that are not yours, should not be plugged into your system
 Anti-Malware might detect rootkits
 Malicious Bots
 Software that can be used to perform repetitive tasks that are usually done by
Humans
 Malicious bots can replicate themselves and take control of a network of infected
computers
 They are capable of gathering personal data by pretending to be humans in social
media sites
 How to Minimise
 Bots in social media try to make you give out information, so it is best not to
give out personal information to anyone in social media sites
 Anti-malware software can detect and remove bots
 A firewall can be used but if the bot is advanced it can go undetected by the
firewall
  Ransomware
 It is a type of malware that restricts the user from accessing files unless a ransom is
paid
 They do this by encrypting files and send a message to the user demanding for a
payment to decrypt
 How to minimise
 Make sure to have a backup of all your data
 Don’t run software that you don’t recognise/ don’t trust
 Fileless Malware
 is a type of malware that does not rely on files and leaves no evidence once it has
been executed
 Scareware
 is a type of malware that tricks users into thinking their computer is affected with
malware, and makes the user pay for an anti-virus.
 When the user discovers that it is a scam it would be to late

How malware is Used

 Fraud
 It involves the use of computer to illegally benefit financially
 Once fraudsters gain personal and financial data, they can either sell the information
to other criminals or impersonate the user to gain financially
 Industrial Espionage
 It is spying rival manufacturers or another industrial company to discover their
secrets
 Malware is used to steal computer secrets by gaining access to an employee’s
computer and use the information held on it
 It is done to hack networks of companies and steal large amounts of data
 Some data is hacked and sold to the highest bidder in the dark web
 Sabotage
 Attacks intended to cause networks and computers to stop working properly
 Often carried out by Former employees, to make a company loose money due to
personal reasons like how they were fired
 It involves stopping users from accessing the network or allowing hackers to access
it

Consequences for companies and individuals

 Organisations
 It can ruin the companies security system for networks and systems
 Personal information can be stolen in a massive scale
 It can cause the organisation to lose a lot of time and money due to it.
 Each computer has to be disconnected and cleaned if a virus has entered the
system, which costs in time and money
 Extra personnel might be required to do this job which further adds cost
  Individuals
 Enables hackers to gain valuable information and commit identity fraud
 They can slow down the devices of users
 Some may hack just to wreak havoc

Prevention of malware
 Software
 A firewall
 to filter traffic and prevent malware from entering the system and the
network
 Anti-Virus
 To scan for Malicious code and remove the file and program
 Anti-malware
 It can guard against the entry of malware and can also remove malware that
has managed to get in
 Physical
 Develop anti-malware policies in companies
 All employees should be educated about malware and its risks
 Operating systems and software should be kept up to date, and unused software
and old versions should be removed
 Strong passwords should be used
 Users should always log off from their computers after using it
 Emails should be read with suspicions and no attachments should be downloaded
without verifying the source of the email
 Digital Divide
 Digital divide is the gap between people who have access to Technology and can use ICT
skills, and people who have no access or have access but can’t use due to lack of ICT skills.
 Inability of certain groups to access software and hardware

Causes and Effects of Digital Divide

 Geography
 Areas with wealthier People generally have more access to IT technologies than
regions with lower class regions.
 Companies see densely populated areas easier to supply and more profitable.
 Fear Of IT
 The lack of IT skills and knowledge of IT, has made some individuals fear the use of
IT, mostly higher age groups which see technology as a harm for society then a good,
As Technology becomes sophisticated, they tend to become more harder to use
which further increases this.
 Economics
 Development of new technology tends to be costly for companies, so companies
increase the price to recover these costs.
 People with higher incomes tend to be able to afford newer technologies, while
people with lower income are only able to Offord basic technology that is outdated.
 Disability
 People with disabilities do not access the internet as much, as the group of people
aren’t taken into mind while creating a product, resulting in devices easier for them
to use being scarce.

Groups Effected by digital Divide

 Urban and Rural Areas
 There are 3 main Factors affecting Rural areas
 Population of rural areas
o In Urban Areas Thousands of Customers are present while in
rural areas only a few are there.
 Challenging Geographical Features
o Geographical features such as Mountains, rivers, forests etc.
can make it difficult to install necessary infrastructure.
 Limited profitability for Companies
o The costs for maintaining and improving infrastructure can be
high for companies, in urban Areas these costs can be
recovered easily due to its high customer number, while in
rural it cannot due to its limited no. of customers
  More and Less industrialised Nations
 Economically developed countries tend to have access to latest technologies then
less developed countries
 Countries with thriving economies have largely been associated with IT compared to
less thriving economies that haven’t invested in such technologies
 Countries with access to internet tends to trade easily with other countries
 The educated and Uneducated
 Educated earn more money leading to a higher quality of life, while uneducated
earn less money making them less likely to invest in IT
 Inequalities occur between adults and children who have had the chance to learn
with IT equipment through schooling, and others who did not have.
 Convincing people to take IT courses is a real challenge as most people would be not
interested and say its not a need
 Old and Young
 Older generations tend to lack confidence in IT, leading to a ‘fear’ being developed
making them less likely to adapt to new technology compared to younger
generations
 New technologies are aims at younger audiences with few modifications for the ease
of use required for older audiences
 As people get older, they are more likely to concentrate to spending time with
others than with machines
 Elder adults tend to use technologies after seeing the benefits for themselves and
are less inclined to adapt to new technology
 Economic Class
 Latest technologies tend to be more expensive and affordable to rich people than
poor people who tend to afford cheaper products that are less advanced
 Higher income people tend to gain skills and use internet effectively while lower
income lack basic digital skills and do not get the opportunity to increase them
 People in poverty do not tend to invest in technology, as they try to survive daily
with little they earn
 Disabilities
 People with disabilities have specific needs that needs to be met for them to easily
use technology and devices
 Majority of Companies spend development to help the general public and do not
tend to the needs of disable people, making it hard for them to use devices
 As Countries switch closer to online platforms and devices, disabled people get left
behind causing a bigger digital divide

Reducing the digital Divide

 Rural Areas
 Cyber Cafes can be setup to help people get access to internet in rural areas
 Governments can provide money to companies in the private sector to invest in
broadband and other communication infrastructure
 Economic class
 Internet can be made faster and cheaper
 Technology can be made affordable by companies, by not investing heavily on
features that do not affect its use.
 Disabilities
 Governments can give initiatives in order to help people with disabilities gain access
to the internet
 Devices can be made more user friendly for disabled people
 Old and Young
 Teaching programmes can be implements to teach older people how to use
technology
 Educated and Uneducated
 PC’s and laptops should be made cheaper for families with children
 Governments should take the initiative to supply school with computers
 Schools should have spare computers for students
 Expert System
 Expert systems are software that seeks to mimic the knowledge of an expert, it is designed
to give reasonable answers.

Parts of an Expert System

 Knowledge engineer
 The engineer responsible for collecting, interviewing experts to create a knowledge
base, designs, also responsible to create the rule bases which has all the rules.
 Knowledge base editor
 It is the software that allows the engineer to edit the rules and facts in the
knowledge base to keep them up to date.
 User Interface
 It allows the user to interact with the computer to input data into the expert
systems as questions are asked.
 Knowledge base
 it holds the facts and knowledge of the expert systems; it also contains the rules
Base.
 Rule Base
 It holds all the rules such as IF…THEN statements which help decisions by the
inference engine be reasonable.
 Inference Engine
 It is the reasoning system of the expert system, that uses different chaining methods
such as backward, forward or both to find a solution, it conforms to the rules in the
rule base
 Explanation system
 Explains to the user all possible solutions, how a particular conclusion was reached,
explain the reasoning and justify recommendations to the user
 Scenarios where Expert Systems are used
Different Scenarios
 Mineral Prospecting
 the expert system’s knowledge base will store models of successful drilling sites and
their minerals with a rule base
 the geologists would enter data about the types of rocks as well as mineral’s found
while constructing
 the inference engine compares this data with the models using IF…THEN rules in the
rules base
 the System would ask further questions and give a percentage of probabilities of
finding minerals.
 Investment analysis
 the user interface would ask questions depending on factors such as
 The amount the client wishes to invest
 What level of risk the investor is willing to take
 The desired rate of return
 How long the investor is willing to invest
 The database would consist of all the information gathers over the years by banks
about the performance and stability of companies
 The inference engine would search through the database using chaining methods
and IF…THEN rules from the rules base
 It will then give a list of companies with share prices for purchasing stocks, together
with the reason of why they were selected.
 Financial Planning
 Expert systems can be used to create financial plans for individuals who want to
manage their debts, create retirement plan etc.
 Involve the client completing a details questionnaire regarding their persona and
financial situation
 The results are entered using the UI and extra questions are asked if needed
 The Inference Engine analyses this information using the database of facts and a
very large number of rules in the system
 The report would be produced by the financial advisors as to the clients
recommended financial plan
 The report would serve as a financial checklist for the client to achieve their plans
 Insurance planning
 Insurance experts are interviewed and all the policies that the underwriter currently
offers would be examined and the results would be used to create a knowledge base
with rules based on those used by the experts when deciding.
 If the lifespan of a particular person is shorter, they would have to pay a premium
that is more expensive
 Insurance expert system’s user interface will ask questions of the client
 The Inference engine would take these responses and compare these with the facts
in the knowledge base using the rules in the rules base
  It will produce a recommendation for the cost of the premium or if it should be
rejected
 Many underwriters would use insurance consultants who would use expert systems
to come to a decision
 Car engine Diagnosis
 A knowledge engineer interviews and questions many mechanics for faults in motor
vehicles to gather existing faults and create a rules base for the expert system
 The User interface asks the Mechanic regarding the problems with the car, and the
he/she types it in. it would then supply possible faults and the mechanic picks the
most likely fault
 Second types of Fault diagnosis are a device that is plugged straight to the engine’s
computer and questions it, possible faults are given to the mechanics who decide on
which problem it is
 New expert systems supply the mechanic with detail about what could have caused
the problem which was not done in old systems.
 Medical Diagnosis
 A Knowledge engineer interviews number of expert doctors and then puts it in the
knowledge based which contain existing illnesses as well as the rules from the rules
base
 The User interface allows the patient or doctor to enter symptoms
 The inference engine searches the knowledge base for similar symptoms using
different changing solutions like forward and backward chaining, within IF…THEN
rules stored in the rule base.
 The End Suggestions are given to the doctor/patient using an explanation system
that clarifies how the expert system found the diagnosis
 Route Scheduling for Delivery vehicles
 Delivery Schedules should be efficient as possible at prevent vehicles from travelling
further than necessary which can be helped using an expert system
 The Expert system would examine the orders for the day, total weights, etc. which
the inference engine would match against available vehicles. It would suggest a lost
which is in reverse order, so that the first order is loaded last. The Company’s
Scheduler would take these suggestions and decide on the no. of vehicles needed
and total time taken.
 Plant And Animal Identifications
 Great deal of knowledge is needed to identify plants and animals which is very
helpful using an expert system
 The inference engine would use a series of IF… THEN Rules, by dividing information
of the plants into different categories, e.g., does the plant have flowers, or no
flowers? Eventually all possibilities found would be output to the user interface
 The database should be filled with as many species of plants and animals as possible.
 Chaining
 Chaining is the reasoning system of the Inference engine
 There are two types of Chaining
 Backward Chaining
 Forward Chaining

Backward Chaining
 A Chaining System where the system tries to find a solution by repeatedly splitting the goal
into sub-goals
 It explores the system to find a rule where the THEN part of the rule matches a required
goal, if the IF part is known to be true, then it is added to the lost if goals.
 It is known as goal-driven
 It starts with us having a goal to achieve or to prove it

Forward Chaining
 A Chaining system where the system tries to find a solution by taking all data entered into
the system to determine which rules are selected and used.
 It explored the system to find rules where the IF part of the rule is true, the THEN part of
that rule is used to add new facts, this is done until a solution is found.
 It is known as data driven
 It starts with us having data entered by the user, with no definitive goal.

Application Of forward and Backward Chaining

 Diagnosis
 Backward Chaining
 likely to be a better solution if a clear hypothesis of the diagnosis is given or
known by the doctor
 Forward Chaining
 Likely to be a better solution if the hypothesis is not clean and the doctor
wants to see what can be concluded with Symptoms
 Majority of Diagnostics
 Tend to use a mixture of forward and backward chaining
 Most suited for backward chaining as there are few possible conclusions
 Gaming
 Backward Chaining
 Used in Games where there are fixed number of moves to win
 Used in Games that have fewer rules
 Forward
 Used in games where data is input to the system or present in the level and
uses rules to determine a goal
 IF Statements are executed that sort through the data to THEN find a goal
 Artificial Intelligence
 Forward Chaining
 can be used to solve logic problems using rules and previous learning to find
solutions
 it is used in AI as it works through the logic of a problem from beginning to
the end with only data from previous experiences and data present.
 It is used when a defined goal, such as moving from one spot to another,
although the variables of obstacles may be numerous, manoeuvres must be
taken from previous experiences.
 Modelling
 Modelling is a way in which a real-world process can be reproduced in a simulation to see
what would happen in different circumstances.

Characteristics of Modelling software

 Features
 They must let variables we changed easily
 Must have Formulas and Equations to form the model
 Must let the User define rules for the Model
 Automatic Recalculation should be done when a variable is changed
 Graphs and charts should be available to present trends

Need for Computer models

 Cost
 Mistakes in Real life Models can be quite expensive, these costs can be alleviated if a
computer model is used
 Testing
 Testing some designs in real life might require the design to be tested in Locations
that are not accessible, a computer model can run the designs in different
environments.
 Prediction
 Models can be used to predict models such as weather, population growth, climate
change etc.
 Time
 Models can run through simultaneous tests while real life models need to be
changed every time
 Models can also be sped up
 Planning
 Can be used to plan for events that are rare or unexpected and for the after effects,
such as natural disasters.
 Safety
 Some real-life models can be hazardous which can be done using computer models
to alleviate risks.

Uses of computer models

 Financial Forecasting
 Companies
 Different strategies can be predicted
 Graphs can be made to project these results and make a comparison
between strategies.
 Compare the profits of different products
 They take into account different economic climates.
  Government
 Used to predict a nation’s economy
 Different Tax Rates can be tested using different models
 Population growth
 Population models try to predict the population of organism, by assuming it
reproduces on set rules.
 Different variables can be changes like Food, water, death rates and Predators to
reproduce different scenarios
 Helps understand how population changes overtime
 Can be used to model spread of disease
 Weather Systems
 Observations from weather stations are fed into the models that combine it and
produce 3-d models of weather
 Supercomputers are used as each model includes numerous mathematical
equations to produce a forecast
 Atmospheric models can be used to compare current conditions with previous days
 Climate Change
 Climate data from previous years are input a computer model
 A collection of equations is used to represent parts of the climate
 The Variables can be changed to see different scenarios and see different trends
 It is tested by comparing a prediction of a previous year by the climate of that year,
it is refined further to make it more accurate
 It is very hard to create a model as many assumptions have to made which can lead
to a decrease in the accuracy of the models making people sceptical about it.
 Queue Management [this note might be inaccurate as it’s based on my understanding]
 Business loose money and customer loyalty if they are made to wait too long
 A Model of a queue is made using complex mathematical formula’s to cover all
possibilities
 Sensors can count people and send the data back to the model, which can predict
how many checkouts and lines are needed, which can alert management teams
before waiting takes too long
 Traffic Flow
 A Road network should flow smoothly with no/ few holds ups
 Sensors can count traffic flow, mostly at peak hours and identify places with
congestions.
 Different Traffic models are developed that use complex algorithms, and they can
forecast traffic by taking account data from sensors.
 Traffic Flow, density, speed of traffic etc. can be modelled also.
 Construction
 Used by Architects and engineers to create precise drawings and illustrations of
buildings and structures
 3D views and different viewing angles can be produced
 End Designs can be produced using 3D printers and blueprints using plotters
 Cad Software is used to design structures [Not in syllabus]
 Pros
o Faster than traditional Drawing
o Easier to make Changes and fix errors
o Accurate if done properly
o Files can be easily saved and used again
 Cons
o Files can be lost if the computer breaks down
o Full Fledged CAD software are expensive
o Workers need to be trained to use CAD software
o Software needs to be updated regularly
 Simulations
 A computer simulation is when a computer is used to reproduce a scenario that happens in
the real world
 It is created using a mathematical model

Advantages and Disadvantages

 Pros
 Do not have to worry about the cost of repairing vehicles
 Simulators can provide safe environments to train in with no/less risk compared to
the real-life event
 Can see how a system works before it is created so that few mistakes are present in
the final result
 Extreme Weather conditions can be recreated easily
 Cons
 Can be very expensive to buy and maintain the system
 Need to retrain personnel such as driving instructors to use the systems
 May not cover all scenarios
 Formula and functions used may not be accurate
 Pilots and Drivers might be overconfident when the real deal comes

Simulation Scenarios
 Pilot Training
 Military and Civilian aircrafts are very expensive to build, maintain and run for each
take off and landing, on top of this, crashing in real life can pose a risk to society and
the pilot
 Simulations can help pilots get used to flying a plane by using a simulator
 It has to recreate the sensation of flying and must be life like, with ways such as
components of the cockpit are made life like, movement of the plane is made using
hydraulics, etc.
 Learning to drive a car
 They replicate the driving experiences of a car
 Safer for drivers to learn without causing damage to the car or other drivers
 Can be used to monitor behaviour, performance and attention span of a driver
 Disaster Planning
 Simulations are carried out to plan for Natural disasters
 Town planners can build structures to withstand disasters
 Emergency services can also coordinate efficient responses
 They can anticipate likelihoods and severity of natural disasters
 Mathematicians have made equations for each disaster, these equations can be
input into models and simulated
 Nuclear Science Research
 Operators of Nuclear reactors can be trained using simulators which are made to
recreate a reactor control room
 Computer simulations can run each scenario and prepare personnel and safety
measures for future reactors
 Rearranging control rods and flow of coolant can be costly and pose safety risks so
simulations are done by research scientists using supercomputers
 Database
Database Types
 Flat-File
 This Type of Databases store all the data in one Table with Redundant Data present
in it
 Relational
 This Type of Database stores data in separate linked tables so that data redundancy
is reduced
 It has tables with Primary keys and foreign keys to link them together
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Relational
 Pros
o Saves Storage Spaces are duplicated data is not present
o When Data in one field changes, related linked fields automatically
change
o Editing Data is easy as less data must be entered
 Cons
o Designing a relational Database takes time
o Setting up relationships would be much harder as the number of
Tables increase
o Setting up complex queries can be difficult
 Flat-File
 Pros
o Doesn’t need Planning as data isn’t organised
o Relationships aren’t required as one Table has all the data
o No Expertise is required when setting up a flat-file database
 Cons
o Uses a lot of storage as data is duplicated
o Each Record has to be edited when one piece of data is changed
o Data is harder to edit as there are many fields needed to be gone
through
 Relationships
 One to one
 A relationship where one record in one table is linked to only one record in another
table
 The linked fields must contain the same data
 One to Many
 A relationship where one record in one table is linked to many records on another
table
 The link uses a foreign key and Primary key, which uses referential integrity.
 Many to Many
 It is a conceptual relationship, where many fields from one table are linked with
many fields on another table
 Many Database Software do many to many relationships using two one to many
relationships and a link table

Key Fields
 Primary Key
 Is a Field/Fields in a table that enables a record to be uniquely identified
 Used in databases as indexes
 Foreign key
 It is a Field in a table, that have the same data as the primary key in another table
 It is used to link the tables
 Compound key
 It is a primary key, that uses two or more fields to help a field be uniquely identified.

Referential Integrity
 Referential integrity forces relationships to be consistent and avoids redundancy by forcing the data
in the foreign key to always have data in the primary key
 Normalisation
 The process of structuring data in a database into a formal method that is structured
correctly with no or less redundant data.

Normal Forms
 Un-Normalised
 It is a single Table that contains redundant data with non-atomic data
 First Normalised
 Rules for 1NF
 Has Atomic Data
 Data in Fields are not repeating
 Has a unique key for each record, by primary or compound key
 Second Normalised
 non-key attributes are related to part of a compound key, those fields need to be
removed and put to a new table and linked back. [So, this normalisation only applied
to Tables with Compound keys]
 Third Normalised
 Non-key attributes that are related to another non-key attributes are removed and
linked back

Advantages and Disadvantages

 Pros
 File size is smaller
 Data is grouped logically using referential integrity
 Searching data is faster as less data to go through
 Changes made to one record is automatically changed in related records
 Making changes is easier as less data to alter
 Cons
 Takes more time and requires higher knowledge
 Difficult to setup complex queries
 Data processing can be slower
 Location of data might be difficult to know
 File and Data Management
File Formats
 Proprietary file formats
 Formats that belong to a specific program created and copyrighted by that company
 Licenses are required to use it
 Open-Source Formats
 Formats used for storing data by any software, due to the way data is stored
allowing it to be used by anybody
 Tend to be free and can transfer Files easily
 Generic File Formats
 Formats that allow you to save files so that they can be opened on any platform at
the expense of the formatting of the file.

Access Types
 Sequential Access
 An Access type where Records are found by going through all the records till the
record is found.
 Indexed Sequential Access
 An Access type where Records are indexed in a particular order, this index is used to
find the point on the disk to search for the Record, instead of going through from
the start.
 Direct Access (Random Access)
 Each Record has a unique Key, the computer uses this key to go to find the File in
the disk.

Hierarchical Database management system

 It is a tree like structure in which data is connected together in links
 Data access is made fast as a lot of data is bypassed as you go down the hierarchy.

Management Information System

 A tool that organises and evaluates data for an organisation
 Features of an MIS
 Easy to use
 Versatile to support different skills
 Generates better communication between managers
 Helps in analysis and Evaluation of Data
 How it Helps a Company
 Provide details of a companies Past Performance, how it is performant at the moment
and predict how it may do in the future
 Managers will use it to analyse information about various aspects like personnel, sales,
Revenue etc.
 Reports and Charts can be produced to compare performance in different aspects and
see trends
 Should be able to produce information in a meaningful format
 Video And Audio Editing
Video Editing
Video File Size
 File Compression
 A codec( short for Coder/decoder) is used to compress and decompress data for
data transmission when stored in a particular format.
 Types of Compression
 Lossy Compression
o A form of compression where data is lost permanently, by removing
data from the original file
 Lossless Compression
o A form of compression where data is not lost permanently by coding
repeated data
 File Resolution
 Higher the file resolution, higher the file size due to the increase in pixels
 Length of the video
 Shorter the video, Smaller the file size
 Frames per second
 Lower the FPS, results in a smaller file size, but makes the video less smooth
 Audio Editing
Audio File Sizes
 Sampling Rate and Resolutions
 Sampling Rate
 Digital audio is a series of bursts known as samples; sampling rate is the
number of samples in unit time.
 Higher sampling rates result in more accurate audio, but results in bigger file
sizes.
 Sampling Resolution
 It is the number of bits per second
 The higher the sample resolution, the more accurately the waveform is
converted from analogue to digital
 Higher sample resolution results in bigger file sizes
 Audio Compression
 Types of Compression
 Dynamic Compression
o It is a compression technique by reducing the audios dynamic
range
o It is done by boosting quieter audio and quietening larger
audio
 Lossy Compression
o It removes some of the audio file’s data, this data can never be
recovered back, this creates smaller file sizes but with lower audio
quality.
o Lossy compression removes data such as frequencies out of the
human hearing range
 Lossless Compression
o A form of compression where data is not lost permanently by coding
repeated data
o The audio file can be recreated back exactly to its original form as no
audio is lost