ANSI/AWS C6.1-89 An American National Standard Tt SSS Recommended Practices for Friction Welding Pa A RS eT ANSIAWS 26.1Keywords — Friction welding, direct drive ANSI/AWS C6.1-89 friction welding, Aywheel friction An American Natlonal Standard JWolding, friction fc iinet Approved by Américan National Standards Institute March'17, 1989 Recommended Practices For Friction Welding @ Prepared by AWS Committee on Friction Welding Under the Direction of AWS Technical Activities Committee Approved by AWS Board of Directors Abstract This recommended practice describes friction welding fundamentals and basic equipment requirements. Sug- gested procedure qualification, inspection methods, and joint designs are detailed. ‘Typical mechanical property data American Welding Society 550 North LeJeune Road, P.O. Box 351040, Miami, Florida 33135Statement on Use of AWS Standards All standards (codes, specifications, recommended practices, methods, classifications, and guides) of the American Welding Society are voluntary consensus standards that have been developed in accordance with the rules of the American National Standards Institute. When AWS standards are either incorporated in, or made part of, documents that are included in federal or state laws and regulations, or the regulations of other governmental bodies, their provisions carry the full legal authority of the statute. In such cases, any changes in those AWS standards must be approved by the governmental body having statutory jurisdiction before they can become a part of those laws and regulations, In all cases, these standards carry the full Jegal authority of the contract or other document that invokes AWS standards, Where this contractual relationship exists, changes in or deviations feom requirements of an AWS, standard must be by agreement between the contracting parties, International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-309-8 American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, P.O. Box 351040, Miami, Florida 33135 © 1989 by American Welding Society. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Note: The primary purpose of AWS is to serve and benefit its members. To this end, AWS provides a forum for the ‘exchange, consideration, and discussion of ideas and proposals that are relevant to the welding industry and the consensus of which forms the basis for these standards. By providing such a forum, AWS does not assume any duties to ‘which a user of these standards may be required to adhere. By publishing this standard, the American Welding Society does not insure anyone using the information it contains against any lability arising from that use. Publication of a standard by the American Welding Society doesnot carry with it any right to make, use, or sell any patented tems, Users of the information in this standard should make an independent investigation of the validity of that information for their particular use and the patent status of any item referred to herein. ‘This standard is subject to revision at any time by the AWS Friction Welding Comittee. It must bereviewed every five years and if not revised, it must be either reapproved or withdrawn. Comments (recommendations, additions, of eletions) and any pertinent data that may be of usein improviog this standard are requested and should be addressed to AWS Headquarters. Such comments will receive careful considerations by the AWS Friction Welding Committee, and the author of the comments willbe informed of the committee’s response to the comments. Guests are invited to attend all meetings of the AWS Friction Welding Committee to express their comments verbally. Procedures for appeal of an adverse decision concerning all such comments are provided in the Rules of Operation of the Technical Activities ‘Committee. A copy of these Rules can be obtained from the American Welding Society, 550N.W. LeJeune Road, P.0. Box 351040, Miami, Florida 33135,Personnel AWS Committee on Friction Welding D.E Spindler, Chairman Manufacturing Technology Incorporated RB. Leachy, Ist Vice Chairman Coatings, Incorporated C.A, Johnson, 2nd Viee chairman Naval Weapons Center W.A. Dierschow, Secretary American Welding Society C.B. Albright — Ohio State University J.0. Bodine (Deceased) Caterpillar Tractor Company 4B, Bolton DRILCO Division, Smith International, Incorporated S.B. Carlson New Britian Machine Division, Litton Industries JT. Colla Evinrude Motors, OMC 4.0. Cowens Dana Corporation FB. Grinsell NEI Thompson Welding Systems LR. Kelley General Electric Company D.L. Kurwzar Manufacturing Technology, Incorporated JD. Matyazic Terex Corporation JAP. Thorne Newcor, Incorporated W.C. Wright Freight Master Division, Halliburton Company HS. Blair Clark Equipment Company G. Duchon* University of Wisconsin JE, Justice* Productivity Systems, Incorporated M.T. Pacak* — Grant Corporation R.N. Vecchiarelli* Cindex Induxtries, Incorporated FJ. Wallace Pratt & Whitney Aireraft KK. Wang* Cornell University RP. Wilson* Chance Collar Company, HOMCO, W.R. Grace, Incorporated Advisor Dedication Statement to J.0. Bodine | This Recommended Practice is dedicated posthumously to Mr. J.O. Bodine, who, during his technical } career, has made a significant contribution to the understanding and usc of the friction welding process in ; production, iiForeword (This Foreword is not a part of ANSI/AWS C6189, Recorded! Prictig®'for Friction Welding, but is included for information purposed only.) z ee : ° ‘The Committce on Friction Welding was formed,in 1977 with representatives ftom governmental agencies, industry, and research organizations. The initial objective of the committee was the exchange of friction welding technical information. “As the process gained wider acceptance, jt became increasingly apparent that there was a ‘growing need for a set of guidelines to the varlations and application of the process. This recommended practice represents the culmination: of committee activity to assemble a summary of friction welding technology into a single source, ‘This document is intended to serve as a guide for use of the process. Specific applications may require the consideration of other factors outside the scope of this document. ‘Comments and suggests for improvement of this standard are welcome. They should be addressed to the Technical Director, American: Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, P.O. Box 351040, Miami, Florida 33135.Table of Contents Page No. Personne! iti Foreword ..... iv List of Tables teres Vil List of Figures ose. .ceeceesee ae vil De. S00pe ess esesee 1 2. Definitions... 1 3. Measurement eer: sae 4, Process Fundamentals 1 4.1 Process Description .. 1 4.2 Process Variations . 3 4.3 History ........ 3 4.4 Process Advantages .. 3 4.5. Process Limitations 3 5. Equipment .....00.0. saeersestiee eee eecee S.L General Machine Characteristics ........ 8 5.2. Direct Drive Friction Welding Machines. ... 8 5.3 Inertia Friction Welding Machines.........2....6s00cesee n 5.4. Workpiece Restraint prrcrcoacos oti ut 5.5. Parameter Input Methods ..... u 3.6 Weld Parameter Monitoring ......... u 5.7 Flash Removal. : 2 5.8 Automated Material Handi 2 5.9 Angular Orientation 2 6. Joint Design .. Serine fusteteiecesessieate tacts neal 6.1 Joint Types . ee 12 6.2 Geometry Considerations... 2 6.3 Other Joint Configurations a 4 4 14 fo 16 7.3, Material Quality Requirements..........scccseeeseesees sete 16 74 Thermal Treatment of Friction Weldments . 16 8. Process Requirements and Applications . 7 8.1 General Requirements ........c0e000 a8.2. Direct Drive Friction Welding Machines. 8.3 Inertia Friction Welding Machines........ 8.4 Applications.........+.+ 9. Process Qualification ......+++++++ 9.1 Welding Procedure Qualification . 9.2 Welding Machine Qualification 10, Inspection of Test Methods ... 10.1 General..e.ss.eeeeeses 10.2 Nondestructive Tests. 10.3 Destructive Tests... 11, Safe Practices 1.1 General. 11.2. Noise and Hearing Protection 113 Smoke... 11.4 Sparks and Loose Particles 11.5 Mechanical... 12, Mechanical Properties of Friction Weldments .. Appendices ‘A—Nomenclature and Metric Conversion B—References ..s.eseeeseeeeee (C—Friction Welding Defects (DVS Part 4) s2 List of Tables Table 1 ~ Nondestructive Examination Techniques and Defect Applicability . 2. — Destructive Examination Techniques and Defect Applicability .... List of Figures Figure Page No. 1 — Basic Steps in Friction Welding ......4... 2 — Direct Drive Friction Welding Parameter Characteristics. 3 — Inertia Friction Welding Parameter Characteristics ...... 4 — Modifications of Friction Welding . Friction Surfacing ...... Friction Welding Machine Construction Basic Joint Types for Friction Welding ....... Friction Weldment Geometry Considerations .. Material Combinations Weldable by Friction Welding 1Recommended Practices for Friction Welding Scope ‘These recommenced practices for friction welding. are intended to serve as a basic guide for those inter- ested in using any of the variations of this process as a method of joining two or more pieces. Contained in this document are process fundamen- tals and requirements, equipment descriptions, joint design basics and material compati qualification procedures and in; along with a review of present ay cal mechanical property data are included. Consider- ation of these suggested measures will aid in the efi- ion of friction welding in a wide range of 2. Definitions All welding terms used herein are in accordance with the latest edition of ANSI/AWS A3.0, Welding Terms and Defintitions.\ 3. Measurement ‘The U.S. customary units are primary in this publi- cation and are to be regarded as the standard. The approximate metric (SI) equivalents are in accord- 1.AWS standards may be obtained from the American Welding Society, $50 N.W. LeJeune Road, P.0. Box 351040, Miami, Florida 33135. ance with the latest edition of ANSI/AWS A1.1, Metric Practice Guide for the Welding Industry, and appear throughout the text, ‘When mechanical testing is desired, such testing shall be in accordance with the latest edition of ANSI/AWS B4.0, Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of Welds. Appendix A contains an explanation of friction welding nomenclature and associated metric conver- sion factors. 4. Process Fundamentals 4.1 Process Description, Friction welding is a solid state joint process that produces coalescence of mate- rials under compressive force contact of workpieces rotating or moving relative to one another to produce heat and plastically displace material from the faying surfaces. Under normal conditions, the faying sur- faces do not melt. Filler metal, flux, and shielding {as are not required with this process. Friction welding in production is an automatic weld process essentially for circular components. The basic steps in friction welding are illustrated in Figure «1. First, one workpiece is rotated and the other is held stationary, as shown in Figure 1(A). The two workpieces are brought together as an axial compres- sive force (friction welding force) is applied and shown in Figure 1(B). ‘Rubbing of the faying surfaces heats the workpiece locally and upsetting (change in length) begins, Fig- ure 1(C). The process is complete when rotation of the one workpiece stops and upsetting ceases, Figureie) Figure 1—Basic Steps in Friction WeldingD0 se ved proce i anereind by te absence of a fusion zone, the narrow heat-affected zone, and the presence of plastically deformed mate- rial around the weld (flash). Weld quality is depen- dent upon the proper selection of the material, joint design, welding variables, and postweld processes, Acceptable welds can be made in many materials using wide range of weld parameters; i.e., speed, force, and time, 4.2 Process Variations. There are two basic varla- tions of friction welding in common use today. These are direct drive friction welding and inertia friction welding, In the direct drive variation of friction welding, fone of the workpieces is attached to a motor driven uni, while the other is restrained from rotation. The ‘motor driven workpiece is rotated at a predetermined constant speed. The workpieces to be welded are moved together, and then a friction welding force is applied. Heat is generated as the faying surfaces (weld interface) rub together. This continues for a predetermined time, or until a preset amount of upset takes place. The rotational driving force is discontin- ued, and the rotating workpiece is stopped by the application of a braking force. The friction welding force is maintained or increased for a predetermined time after rotation ceases (forge force), The relation- ship of dizect drive friction welding parameter char- acteristics is shown in Figure 2. In the inertia friction welding variation, one of the workpieces is connected to a flywheel, and the other is restrained from rotating. The flywheel is acceler- ated to a predetermined rotational speed, storing the required energy. The drive motor is disengaged and the workpieces are forced together by a friction weld- ing force. This causes the faying surfaces to rub together under pressure. The kinetic energy stored in the rotating flywheel is dissipated as heat, through friction at the weld interface, as the flywheel speed decreases. An increase in friction welding force may be applied (forge force) before rotation stops. The forge foree is maintained for a predetermined time after rotation ceases. The relationship of inertia ftic- tion welding parameter characteristies appears in Fig~ ure 3. Further modifications of friction welding include radial, orbital, angular reciprocating, linear recipro- cating, friction welding, and friction surfacing. They are shown in Figures 4 and 5, Radial friction welding can be used to join tubular sections where itis unde- sirable to rotate either of the tubes, or collars t0 shafts and tubes. Orbital motion may be used to weld 3 ‘non-circular parts. In this application, neither piece rotates about its central axis, The orbital motion pro- vides uniform tangential velocity over the total inte face area. When motion ceases, the workpieces are aligned rapidly. 4.3 History. The origins of friction welding date back to 1891, when the first patent on the process Was issued in the USA. Covered by the patent was the utilization of frictional heat for joining the ends of cable wire, ‘The next work occurred in Germany during the 1920s, culminating in a German patent in 1929, ‘These efforts were followed by research in the United Kingdom, which resulted in a series of patents issued between 1941 and 1944, In 1956, a patent for friction welding was issued in the USSR. Subsequent to these early efforts, a multi- tude of research and production utilization has occurred in industrially developed countries includ- ing Czechosolovakia, Japan, the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany, the USSR, and the USA. Within the USA, original research led to the devel- ‘opment of the inertia friction welding technique. This development was different than the direct drive method which was universally explored in Europe, Japan and USSR. Both variations are widely accepted throughout the world. 4.4 Process Advantages. Because friction welding is a solid-state welding process, it generally is free from defects resulting from solidification (gas porosity, segregation, etc,). Filler metals, fluxes, and shielding gases are not required. The process parameters are easily controlled, monitored, and automated for mass production. Friction welding can be used to Join dissimilar metals which are difficult to join by ‘other welding processes. ‘The process is rapid and highly repeatable, yielding Weldments with dimensional tolerances compatible with those of the unwelded parts. The strength of friction welds is frequently comparable to that of the materials to be welded, although postweld thermal treatment may be employed to optimize weldment mechanical properties. Precise axial alignment is pos- sible, and welding distortion is minimal. Control of angular orientation about the axis of rotation is possible. 4.5 Process Limitations, Although friction welding isa viable welding process, its application has limita- tions. Normally, one of the workpieces to be joined‘sPezD = Force vupser FRICTION WELDING FORCE ‘Ax OF ROTATION 0) 0 WELDING STARTS ‘COMPLETED WELD FORGE FORCE ASS ey FORGE UPSET DISTANCE. FRICTION WELDING FORCE s FRICTION UPSET DISTANCE . coMPLETION WE > Figure 2—Direct Drive Friction Welding Parameter Characteristicsee pwiaam 40 NoUsaWw03 | Ea aoNvISIC 13sun [o20ma510 13san Nous {~~ ~~ subi oda nous 30u0s BuO! ram aamgwoo 0) Q nouvis Soak 30405 oNIe™BM Nowa 3 Figure 3— Inertia Friction Welding Parameter Characteristics(A) RADIAL FRICTION WELDING (8) ORBITAL FRICTION WELDING Figure 4—Modifications of Friction Welding(©) ANGULAR RECIPROCATING FRICTION WELDING F F (0) UNEAR RECIPROCATING FRICTION WELDING Figure 4 (continued) — Modifications of Friction WeldingFe Figure 5—Frietion Surfacing must possess an axis of symmetry and be rotated about that axis. Capital equipment costs are rela- tively high, but often are justified by increased productivity. Certain material considerations must be observed in friction welding. Asin most welding processes, itis difficult to obtain high joint efficiencies in free machining steels, High hardenability alloys may require preheat or immediate postweld thermal treat- ‘ments to prevent cracking. Mill defects; i., lamina- tions, inclusions, porosity, ete., can cause defects in friction welds. As in any other welding process, care must be exercised in selecting materials. ‘Surface preparation, including surface finish and cleaning prior to welding, is relatively unimportant for many materials; je., mild steel, but can be critical for others: .e., aluminum or copper to stainless steel. ‘Surface conditions, however, should be evaluated for each specific application. 5. Equipment 5.1 General Machine Characteristics. The majority of friction welding machines are single-spindle, hori- zontal machines consisting of the following ‘components: ) bed @) headstock with rotating spindle G) rotating workpiece holding device © tailstock with a non-rotating workpiece hold- ing device (8) an apparatus for moving the headstock or tail- stock relative to the other to apply the welding force between the parts to be welded (©) machine controller Frequently, machines are designed for special applications. Examples of the wide variety of ‘machine construction in industrial use are illustrated in Figure 6. Direct-drive friction welders and inertia friction welders are basically constructed the same way and show little difference in the general sche- matic construction, The machines illustrated can have either the headstock or the tailstock movable to transmit the axial force. In all instances, the machine ‘components and the workholding devices of head or tailstock must be equally strong since both will expe- rience the same axial force, as well as the same torque. Beds are required to be tisid, either cast or of welded construction, to minimize deflection when the torsional forces imposed during welding are applied. If the machine is of the C-frame design, the bed must also be rigid enough to minimize deflection when the axial welding forces and the resultant bend- ing moment are applied. In box type or balanced tie bar construction, the bed does not sustain any axial forces or bending moments. The welding torque, however, must be restrained, Headstock or tailstock slides are securely interlocked to the bed, such that the welding torque is contained mechanically. Spin- die bearings must be capable of withstanding high axial loads, as well as radial loads. Friction welders are essentially machine tools, and therefore, have similar requirements. A source of sufficient electrical power must be available to drive the electric motors. Hydraulics normally provide the weld forces. Usually, cooling water is used to main- tain the hydraulic ofl at a reasonable operating tem- perature during extended periods of use. Self con- tained cooling systems are available from the manufacturer if on-site cooling water is unavailable. Certain machines may require a supply of air, depending upon auxiliary equipment design, etc. Specific requirements for each machine should be obtained from the respective manufacturer. 5.2 Direct Drive Friction Welding Machines. Spe- cific requirements exist for direct drive machine clutches to be capable of repetitive cycling and carry- ing the maximum welding torque required for that machine capacity. Brakes of the disc type or commes- cially available clutch and brake packages are used. Main drive motors must be of sufficient capacity to overcome the welding torque. Electric drive is most commonly employed. Guidelines generally used(A) BASIC C FRAME MACHINE: HEADSTOCK WITH ‘SPINDLE MOVES RELATIVE TO FIXED TAILSTOCK. IN OTHER VERSIONS TAILSTOCK CAN MOVE RELA- “IVE TO FIXED HEADSTOCK (8) BOX OR TIEBAR FRAME MACHINE; HEADSTOCK OR TAILSTOCK CAN MOVE RELATIVE TO EACH ‘OTHER, (©) DUAL MACHINE; TWO TAILSTOCKS MOVE RE- LATIVE TO CENTER LOCATED SPINDLE. ONE WELD 1S MADE ON EACH SIDE OF SPINDLE, EITHER FOR HIGH PRODUCTION RATES OR FOR SPLICING LONG PIECES OF RODS TOGETHER. (0) TWIN MACHINE: TWO SPINDLES MOVE RELA. ‘TVE TO A NON-ROTATING CENTER FIXTURE. SPIN. DLES CAN BE SYNCHRONIZED TO EACH OTHER OR INDEPENDENT OF EACH OTHER Figure 6~Friction Welding Machine Construction10 (@) SHUTTLE MACHINE; TWO FIXED SPINDLES WORK IN SEQUENCE. THE MOVABLE FIXTURE (NONROTATING) SHUTTLES TO. ONE SIDE (LEFT ‘AND. WELDS WHILE THE OTHER SIDE (RIGHT) 1S UNLOADED AND LOADED. AFTER WELD COMPLE- ‘TON ON THE LEFT, THE FDCTURE SHUTTLES TO THE RIGHT COMPLETING A SECOND WELD WHILE THE EFT SIDE IS UNLOADED AND LOADED. (@) VERTICAL MACHINE; FOR FLAT SHEETS, STUD WELDING, CLOSING OF LIQUID-FILLED CONTAIN- ERS, AND OTHER SPECIAL APPLICATIONS. (f OPEN END MACHINES; MACHINES WHICH CAN HANDLE LONG WORKPIECES WITHOUT THE USE (OF AN ENDSTOP TO TRANSMIT THE WELD AND FORGE FORCE, THIS FORCE IS TRANSMITTED AND ‘CONTAINED THROUGH THE CLAMPING JAWS. Figure 6 (continued) —Friction Welding Machine Constructionare L-horsepower for each 1-ton of available forge force. Therefore, a 100-ton welder (890 kN) (200 000 1b of available axial forge force) is estimated to use a 100-horsepower (75 kW) electric main drive motor. 5.3 Inertia Friction Welding Machines. Characteris- tic requirements with inertia friction welding machines dictate that the spindle and bearings be designed to support the payee weight of the fly- speeds, alternating current, direct current, or hydrau- lic drive motors cam be used, Alternating current drive motors must be capable of withstanding the continuous overload cycle and are not suitable for heavy flywheel loads. Inertia friction welding machines generally use hydraulic drives. ‘Horsepower requirements are about the same for inertia friction welding machines as they are for direct drive machines up to 100-ton (890 kN) forge force. Larger inertia friction welding machines, 200- ton (1780 kW) and above may employ motors of 100 horsepower (75 kW), since the necessary weld energy is stored in the fiywheel prior to frictional contact. ‘Smaller motors will increase weld cycle time, 5.4 Workpiece Restraint. On all friction welding ‘machines, rotating workpiece holding devices must bbe balanced and of sufficient strength to withstand the high forces required during friction welding. The axial force is transmitted through a backup in the workpiece holding unit. ‘Nonrotating workpiece holding devices and chucks must also meet the same construction requirements as the rotating workpiece holding devices. Normally, 1 solid backup is placed behind the nonrotating fix- ture to resist the welding and forge forces. For long parts, a backup is often not practical. Nonrotating ‘workpiece holding devices are available which resist the torque and axial weld force without backups. Commonly, machines use hydraulic systems for tool- ing movement, application of welding and forge forces, and the actuation of workpiece holding devices. 5.8 Parameter Imput Methods. A variety of parame- ter input methods, manual to preprogrammed auto- ‘matic, exist for friction welding machines. Welding parameter settings generally are input manually on most machines and are dependent upon previously ‘established welding procedures. Friction welding parameters are as follows: u *See Figures 2 and 3 Electronic input techniques are available allowing the parameter changes to be input to the machine through digital devices. Servo units are employed for Ihydraulic pressure control, and electrode linear- position indicators or transducers set the working distance between headstock and tailstock, dependent ‘upon part length. These devices are coupled to a pro- grammable controller. 5.6 Weld Parameter Monitoring. The monitoring of weld parameters can serve as a useful indication of weld quality. Weld monitors range from simple dis placement devices which indicate the upset distance, to total process monitors which measure and com- pare all machine functions and parameters to prede- termined tolerances. Often, machine interlocks are provided which can actuate a warning device if moni- tored variables are outside of predetermined toler- ance limits. Such monitors provide a record of machine functions, implying indirectly the quality of the weld. ‘Depending upon the friction welding process under consideration, the following may be monitored: () Preweld time @) Preweld force or hydraulic pressure @) Weld or heat time (4) Loss of length during weld or heat time () Weld force or hydraulic pressure (© Forge time () Forge force or hydraulic pressure (®) Forge loss of length ©) Total loss of length (10) Rotational speed (¢.p.m.) (11) Run-down time (time from de-clutch to “O” speed) (2) Total cycle time (3) Torque Since actual weld quality is dependent on factors other than proper machine function, parameter mon- itoring necessarily must be integrated with a compre- hhensive nondestructive or destructive sampling technique.2 8.7 Flash Removal. There are times when flash removal on the friction welding machine would elimi second operation. This can be accomplished easily and rapidly when the flash is at elevated tem- perature directly after welding. Most manufacturers will offer flash-turning or flash-shearing devices. ‘Flash removal operations may be performed at an additional station on the friction welding machine or by separate machines. The decision on which method to use is dependent upon the configuration of the part and metallurgical considerations. Part applica- tion will dictate whether or not flash removal is, necesary. 5.8 Automated Material Handling, Any friction welding machine is capable of being automated with a parts handling system which transfers the work- pieces into position and removes the weldment from the machine. Most machines are designed and built to Individual specifications with regard to integrated workpiece load and unload units. 5.9 Angular Orientation. Although not used widely, relative angular orientation of workpieces about the axis of rotation can be achieved through special con- trol features and machine construction. One form of workpiece orientation can be achieved with a twin machine, such as that used in the manufacture of drive shafts. Such a machine appears in Figure 5(D). Both rotating spindles are mechanically synchronized and will weld two parts to a shaft without loss of relative angular orientation between the two. To ori= ent two pieces, one relative to the other, existing methods include: (1) Complete the normal friction weld eycle, then while still under forge pressure, rotate the spindle by the means of a cam, flywheel, or drive motor, to an ‘oriented solid stop. @) As the weld oycle (heat cycle) is nearly com- plete, slow the spindle, With the aid of en encoder, a servo drive, and a mechanical stop or brake, stop the spindle at a predetermined position. G) Asthe weld cycle is nearing completion, release the tailstock or open the spindle clamping mechanism at the time when both pieces are orlented axially, Brake the system to a stop with both parts free to rotate together as as completed weldment. While these methods are capable of orienting ‘workpieces relative to one another, it should be noted that these techniques introduce additional variables into the weld cycle. 6. Joint Design 6.1 Joint Types. While various types of relative motion have been investigated and found to have application in specific cases, simple rotation of one of the workpieces while holding the other stationary, remains the most widely used method. Therefore, in most friction welding applications, the cross section of one of the workpieces must be essentially circular, Hexagonal and even rectangular parts have been Joined successfully to larger cross sections. In these ‘cases, however, there is the possibility of an incom~ plete weld at the comers due to intermittent heating, cooling, and oxidation. It is these applications where orbital friction welding can be applied. ‘The need for one component to be circular or very nearly s0, gives rise to the following basic weld joint designs used in friction welding: (1) Tube-to-Tube—Tubular, equal outside diam- ter, equal inside diameter (2) Tubeto-Bar—Tubular, equal outside diam- ter, unequal inside diameter 8) Tube-to-Disc—Tubular, unequal outside diam- ter, equal inside diameter (4) Tube-to-Plate—Tubular, unequal outside éiameter,unequal inside diameter (8) Bar-to-Bar—Solid, equal diameters © Bar-to-Plate~Solia, unequal diameters Figure 7 illustrates the differences between the var- ious joint types. These basic joint designs can accom- modate a wide variety of applications. Bar-to-bar and tube-to-tube joints are used where material sequirements change along a components length. Alternately, they can be used to extend a stub shaft on a casting or forging with lower cost material. 6.2. Geometry Considerations. In most cases, the use of balanced geometry welds (bar-to-bar, tube-to- tube) is recommended. This maintains balance in heat flow, eases flash removal where required, and decreases the notch effect of the flash on parts where removal is not required. While the notch effect char- acteristically is small in parts subjected to bending or rotary bending loads, it can cause premature fatigue failure, Although @ notch occurs between the flash tolls, this notch is normally at a larger diameter than the outside diameter of the parts welded. The notch ‘effect present at the radius of the flash meeting the part is usually of greater concern in service, The rela- tive position of these areas appear in Figure 8. ‘With some material combinations, it is desirable to use an unbalanced geometry. This situation normally ‘occurs when joining materials of significantly difter-B a (A) TUBE-TO-TUBE (0) TUBE-TO-PLATE f (8) TUBE-TO.BAR (© BAR-TO-BAR & (c) TuBe-T0.01sc (F) BAR-TO-PLATE Figure 7—Basic Joint Types for Friction Welding14 FLASH ROLL NOTCH BETWEEN FLASH ROLLS (USUALLY [AT A DIAMETER LARGER THAN THAT OF ‘WORKPIECE IN PLANE OF WELD} NOTCH AT POINT OF TANGENCY BETWEEN FLASH ROLL. AND, ‘WORKPIECE OUTSIDE DIAMETER Figure 8—Friction Weldment Geometry Considerations cnt strengths at welding temperature, ie, aluminum ‘or copper to steel. In these cases, itis often helpful to use a larger cross section in the weaker of the two materials. This assists in maintaining a balanced relationship. Since the amount of energy end weld force required to produce a specific friction weld is depen- dent upon the joint geometry, material combination and component size, component dimensions are required in order to determine the appropriate size of the friction welding machine. The following are dimensions of interest for friction welding: (1) Bar—The diameter of each component at the faying surfaces must be known. If the diameters are unequal, then the smaller diameter at the interface defines the weld size. (2) Tube—The outside diameter (OD) and inside iameter (ID) of each component at the weld are important in this case. If the outside diameter (OD) and inside diameter (1D) are not equat between the ‘two pieces, the weld is defined by the smaller outside diameter (OD) and the larger inside diameter (ID). Using the weld outside diameter (WOD) and inside diameter (WID), the weld wall thickness and weld area can be calculated, Weld Wall Thickness = NOD = WID Waid Area = {VOD = (WED) A check of the welded length of the assembly ver- sus the maximum welded length capacity of the welder also is necessary. This consideration is impor- tant to prevent the loading and welding of two pieces, such that, when joined, produce a single piece which is too long fo remove from the machine. 6.3 Other Joint Configurations. Innovative joint design is possible with friction welding. Weidments which have several concentric components have been made. The welding of parts with angular or radial orientations, one to another, is commonly done. Usually these joint designs are specialized and require friction welding machines of specialized ‘construction, 7. Materials 7.1 Material Compattbitities, Figure 9 graphically lists the majority of material combinations which have been joined using the various friction welding processes. Some combinations not marked may also be weldable, but no data presently exists on these combinations.1s THIS UST WAS COMPILED. ‘PROM AVAILABLE FRICTION ‘WELDING LITERATURE. EACH [MANUFACTURER OF FRICTION WELDING EQUIPMENT HAS DIFFERENT KNOW-HOW AND EXPERIENCE tt WELDING ‘SOME OF THESE MATERIALS. esr BAL EOLUMENE ope EOPPEA TE ‘i > Mace AGNES Kz a RicKEL ATL MONG uM & raven AML IME FULL STRENGTH METALLURGICAL BOND. I SOME (CASES IT MAY BE NECESSARY 70 PERFORM AN ‘APPROPRIATE POST WELD HEAT TREATIMENT TO REALIZE THE FULL WELD STRENGTH) ‘CAN BE FRICTION WELDED, BUT WILL. NOT PRO- DBUCE A FULL STRENGTH BOND. YALVE MATERIAL a ‘ALLOYS Figure 9—Material Combinations Weldable by Friction Welding16 7.2 Welding Parameters, Friction welding parame- ters are defined in the terms of low-carbon steel equivalents for both the energy and weld force required. Increases in the high temperature yield strength of the material being welded requires increases in energy, weld force, and forge force. Hardenable steels may require increased energy inputs, preheat, or postheat treatments to control transformation products and prevent cracking. Other thermal manipulation may be required to control the microstructure in precipitation-hardening alloys. 7.3 Matertal Quality Requirements. Materials con- sidered difficult or unsuitable for friction welding are those which are good dry-bearing materials, notably ‘cast iron, free-machining steels possessing high con- centration of sulphur, lead or tellurium, or materials with highly directional properties; e.g., beryllium. Incoming material quality is of utmost impor- tance. Mill or casting defects present in the starting ‘material can result in weld defects as a result of the friction weld forging action. Laminations and inclu sions oriented longitudinally can be re-oriented in the transverse direction as a result of friction welding with correspondingly detrimental results to product quality. Enforcement of starting material quality standards for friction welded products is strongly encouraged to maximize freedom from defects in weldments produced by friction welding. 7.4 Thermal Treatment of Friction Weldments. Fric- tion welding causes localized heating. The friction weld heat-affected zone is subjected to rapid cooling rates, termed mass quench effect, due to rapid con- ductive heat transfer with the cold base metal. The need for postweld thermal treatment is affected by several variables which include: material hardenabil- ity, joint geometry, and weld parameters. Residual heat from the welding operation normally is consid- ceed beneficial to lessen the mass quench effect on hardenable steels, however, too much retained heat may reduce hardness in high strength areas adjacent to the weld; e.g., previously hardened bearing sur- faces next to the weld zone, For a large class of ferrous materials including car- bon, alloy, tool steels, and some of the AISI Series stainless steels, quenching develops hardness. Rapid cooling of this family of steels forms martensite. Stress relieving or tempering may be required to relieve residual stresses or to reduce hardness levels in the weld and heat-affected zone, or both. This is nor- mally done to create desired mechanical properties of the weld zone which includes strength, toughness, fatigue properties, and ductility. When such materi- als of this class are friction welded, hardness of the weld heat-affected zone will be affected by carbon and alloying elements, geometry of the weld inter- face, adjacent surfaces, and weld parameters. As a general guideline, stress relieving or temper- ing may be necessary for materials with hardenability greater than that of AISI 1035. For example, the weld ina 1.75 in. (44.4 mm) diameter or larger bar of AISI 1035 steel might have a cooling rate slow enough to minimize the need for a postweld heat treatment. Welds of tubular geometry cool faster than solid bars. As wall thickness decreases, the rate of cooling increases especially for tube-to-bar surface geometry joints. As a general guide, any weld utiliz~ ing tubular components with hardenability equal to or greater than that of AISI 1035 steel will usually need stress relieving. If the weld joint geometry is considerably unbalanced, postweld heat treatment ‘may be necessary to produce the desired mechanical Properties, such as a thin-wall tube to a thick plate. Materials with a very high hardenability, usually require tempering immediately after welding. As an example, AISI 4140, AISI 8645, and tool steels should be considered as probable candidates for this requirement, In general terms, most alloy and tool steels will be hheat treated after welding to attain desired mechani- cal properties. Desired mechanical properties may include tensile strength, fatigue strength, toughness, and ductility. ‘Age hardening materials form another important class, These are in a soft condition as welded. Nor- mal heat treatment to produce high strength with use- ful ductility starts with solution heat treating (which includes quenching in air or liquid). A subsequent aging process develops strength and hardness. Included in this class are alloys of the following: () Precipitation hardening stainless steels. @) Maraging steels @) Aluminum alloys @) Nickel alloys G) Alpha-beta titanium alloys (©) Magnesium alloys Certain alloys of these materials may be friction welded before or after heat treatment, but in either case, after welding, portion of the weld heat- affected zone will be in the soft solution-treated con- dition, To develop high strength, postweld aging is required. Still another class of materials are those which are strengthened by cold working. Grain structure of these ‘materials is deformed without formation of new grains,resulting in an increase in strength, The significant increase in hardness and strength can be related directly to the amount of cold working. Copper and copper alloys, cobalt-based alloys, and austenitic stainless steels are included in this class. Prior cold working in the weld zone is eliminated by ftiction welding similar to any other welding process. This is accompanied by ‘corresponding decrease in strength. ‘When dissimilar materials are welded, joint geome- try, chemical composition, and heat conductivity of all ccoraponents must be considered to determine whether postweld treatment is needed. When welding with dis- similar metal combinations that can form intermetallic ‘compounds, both the friction welding thermal cycle and any postweld heat treatment can contribute to the formation of these compounds, Therefore, the time of ‘weld interface exposure to the temperature of interme- tallie formation must be very short. ‘Thermal treatment of friction-welded joints is not always limited to postweld heat treatment. Compo- nent part(s) are sometimes preheated before welding, usually for the purpose of slowing the cooling rate, to help reduce the mass quench effect after welding. ‘This method can be used when component parts are of unequal mass to the extent that weld induced heat {s insufficient to slow the cooling rate to an accept- able level. For purposes of general illustration, con- sider a friction weld of 0.625 in, (15.9 mm) diameter AISI 1045 shaft to a 3.00 in, (76.2 mm) cube AISI 1018. With the differences in mass, a controlled low preheat of the cube can be very useful in slowing the postweld cooling rate, resulting in a lower hardness level of the heat-affected zone in the weldment. 8. Process Requirements and Applications 8.1 General Requirements. To generate frictional heat, relative motion and a normal force must exist between the faces to be welded, In nearly all friction welding machines, the motion is rotary and the force is applied axially, or perpendicular, to the rotational plane. Oscillating, orbital, counter-rotation, and radial friction welding machines shall not be dis- cussed here, since these are of limited application and comprise probably less than one percent of all exist- ing friction welding machines. ‘The rotational speed and weld force must be large enough to generate a sufficiently high temperature and upset to create a weld. The specific parameters depend on composition, size and geometry of the parts to be welded. a 8.2 Direct Drive Friction Welding Machines. Direct drive friction welding machines generally utilize both a welding force as well as a higher forging force. Typical workpiece outside diameter surface velocity, welding force and forging force requirements for direct drive friction welding of carbon steel are as follows: Surface Velocity 250-800 ft/min (1.27-4.06 m/s) Welding Force (6000-12, 000 TbF per in? of weld area (41.4-83 N per mm? of weld area) Forging Force 12 000-24 000 Ibf per in.? of weld area (83-166 N per mm? of weld area) Direct drive friction welders historically have over- ‘come the initial contact torque peak by starting the weld cycle with a relatively low axial force. Then, the axial force is increased as the friction between the contact faces is decreased. Forge force is applied after de-clutching the drive motor from the work- Pieces. The relationship of the direct drive friction ‘welding parameters is illustrated in Figure 2. ‘Two examples of nominal requirements for direct drive friction welding of low carbon steel are as follows: Bar ‘ ‘Geometry: 1.00 in. (25.4 mm) diameter Weld Area: 0.785 in2 (0,506 mm?) 100 RPM 8000 Ibf (35.59 kN) 16 000 bf (71.47 KN) Upset Distance: 0.180 in, (4.37 mm) 1.50 in. G8.1 mm) inside diameter Weld Area: 1.37 in. (0.886 mm’) Forge Force: 22 000 Ibf (97.86 kN) Upset Distance: 0.125 in, (3.17 mm) The basic weld parameters of force per unit of weld area and rotational surface speed (length per unit time) remain approximately constant over a siven size range for a specific material of constantgeometry; €.g., mild steel bar-to-bar. Therefore, direct drive machines with lower tonnage capacities (for smaller diameter workpieces) have higher spindle speed ranges while higher tonnage machines (for larger workpieces) have generally lower spindle speed ranges. Weld parameter selection is based on both the rela- tive weld geometry and material composition. Forge force can vary widely for different materials, For example, mild steel bar could be welded at 20 000 Ibf per in of weld area (138 N per mm? of weld area) forge force, while stainless steel could require 40.000 If per in.? of weld area (276 N per mn? of weld area), and a superalloy might require 60 000 Ibf per In, of weld area (414 N per mm? of weld area) forge force. Higher surface velocities, ft/min (m/s) are generally used on tubular configurations than on solids. As an example, a mild steel bar could be welded on 300 ft/min (1.52 m/s), while a mild steel tube might be welded at a higher value of 500 ft/min (2.54 m/s). The parameter changes required to weld differing materials, sizes, and weld geometries are made by varying the force, surface velocity, and upset values on the direct drive machine. 8.3 Inertia Friction Welding Machines. In inertia frigtion welding machines, the welding force gener- ally equals the forge force. Typical workpiece outside diameter surface velocity and welding force requite- ments for inertia friction welding of carbon steel appear below: Surface Velocity 300-2000 ft/min (1.52-10.16 m/s) Welding Force 14 000-30 060 IDF per in.? of weld area (96.5-207 N per mm: of weld area) ‘There are other aspects of the friction welding pro- cess which the designer must know. The resultant torque generated at the contact or weld faces is pro- portional to the axial load and inversely proportional to the surface speed. Furthermore, most welds have three torque phases, a proportionally high start-up torque at the beginning of the weld cycle (cold gall- ing), a relatively low torque during the heat generat- ing phase, and a high torque at the end of the weld cycle (hot working). The relationship of the inertia friction welding variables is illustrated in Figure 3. Generally, welds are made within a specific surface velocity range rather than within a specific speed range. Therefore, machines capable of welding small diameter parts have higher maximum spindle speeds. ‘The actual range depends upon the type of equip- ‘ment used, the material(s) being joined and the weld geometry. Velocity can range from as low as 100 ft/ min (0.508 m/s) toas high as 3000 ft/min (15.24 m/s) at the outside diameter of the weld. Forging forces range from 6000 Ibf per in.? of weld area (41.4 N per mnt of weld area) for titanium, to greater than 60 (000 bf per in.? of weld area (414 N per mm? of weld area) for superalloys and high strength steels. Forg- ing forces can range from 14 000 to 30 000 Ibf per in.? of weld area (96.5-207 N per mm: of weld area). ‘Two examples of nominal requirements for inertia friction welding of low carbon steel are as follows: Bar Geometry: 1.00 in. (25.4 mre) diameter Weld Area: 0.78 in2 (0,506 mm?) Total Moment of Inertia: 5.6 Ib ft (0.24 ke m') Speed: 5725 RPM Total Force: 15 500 Ibf (68.95 kN) Upset Distance: 0.15 in. (3.81 mm) 1.50 in, (38.1 mm) inside diameter Weld Area: 1.37 in. (0.886 mm) Total Moment of Inertia: 29.3 Ib f (1.24 kgm?) Speed: 2875 RPM Total Force: 20 600 Ibf (91.68 kN) Upset Distance: 0.20 in. (5.08 mm) 8.4 Applications. Friction welded parts in produc- tion applications span the aerospace, agricultural, aircraft, automotive, marine, and oil industries. Eve- rything from tong-holds on forging billets, to highly critical aircraft-engine components are friction welded on a production basis. ‘Automotive parts which are manufactured by frie- tion welding include gears, engine valves, axle tubes, drive-line components, strut rods, and shock absorb- ers. Hydraulic piston rods, track rollers, gears, bush- ings, axles, and similar parts commonly are welded by the manufacturers of agriculture equipment, Friction welded aluminum/copper joints are in ‘wide usage in the electrical industry. Stainless/carbon steels are friction welded in various sizes for use in ‘marine drive systems and water pumps for home and industrial use. Friction welded assemblies are often used to replace expensive castings and forgings. x9. Process Qualification 9.1 Welding Procedure Qualification. The establish- ment of a qualified procedure is recommended prior to production welding. The required welding param- eters should be determined by the use of published guidelines applicable to the materials to be friction ‘welded, Dependent on the particular friction welding. process employed, the following may appear in the welding procedure: (Q) Material to be welded; specification number ‘or composition @) Metallurgical condition of material @) Component dimensions and tolerances (@) Faying surfaces preparation procedure (8) Component held in rotating clamp and length of extension (overhang) (6) Component held in nonrotating clamp and overhang (1) Tolerance on axial alignment (8) Faying surface area (9) Preheat (30) Weld energy (11) Flywheels; total moment of inertia (G2) Friction speed (03) Friction welding force (04) Friction upset distance or time (U5) Upset rate (16) Brake setting or stopping time dimensions and tolerances (17) Forging speed (18) Forge force (19) Forge time 20) Forge length if limited upset is used 21) Upset distance 2) Upset removal ‘@3) Postweld heat treatment (@4) Nondestructive inspection requirements (@5) Protective atmosphere Using the selected parameters, a sufficient number ‘of welds should be made to permit visual, metallurgi- ‘eal, and physical testing. Inspection’ techniques should be established to adequately determine weld- ‘ment integrity and machine performance during pro- duction welding. The following methods may be used for this purpose: (1) Visual @) Dimensional G) Parameter monitoring @ Ultrasonic (S) Dye penetrant (6) Magnetic particle 19 () Eddy current () Acoustic emission () Radiographic (10) Hardness testing (1) Metallographic examination (12) Mechanical testing 9.2 Welding Machine Qualification, The friction ‘welding machine should be capable of joining materi- als of known weldability, with a resultant weld equal in cross section strength to the weakest parent mate- ral. The machine qualification should be made by demonstrating that the proposed welds can be made within the design parameters of the machine, and by demonstrating that all machine variables are control- Jable within the tolerances recommended by the manufacturer. 9.3 Operator of Automatic Welding Equipment Qualification. The operator should be considered qualified upon satisfactorily demonstrating control of the friction welding machine and the production of acceptable weldments according to drawings or specifications. Weldments should be produced to a qualified welding procedure as agreed upon by the producer and the user. 10. Inspection and Test Methods 10.1 General. As with other welding processes, qual- ity control of the friction welding process is essential to the production of hardware that meets the stan- dards required for the satisfactory service perform- ance. Agreement between the producer and user regarding the quality level and inspection methods normally is accomplished during the welding proce- dure qualification. Because friction welds exhibit certain characteristic features, the selection of inspection methods should receive special attention. The weld heat-affected zone exhibits properties and structure different from that of the base metal due to the mechanical deformation and temperature effects associated with the friction welding process. The nondestructive or destructive tests selected should be capable of defining the type of defect that may occur in the solid state friction weld. 10.2. Nondestructive Tests. Table 1 and Appendix C tabulate the nondestructive examination techniques commonly available. The type of defect capable of being revealed by a particular examin iTable 1 Nondestructive Examination Techniques and Defect Applicability ‘Detectable Friction Weld Defect or Characteristic Tacomplete| Tntermetallic] Overlapping ‘Weld & HAZ Inspection Technique Crack] Weld _| inclusion] Compound | (Appendix D)|Hardness| Position Ultrasonic x x x ‘Magnetic Particle x x x Radiography x x x Penetrant® x x x ‘Leak Test x x ‘Visual x x x x ‘Surface Etch* x x x x Proof Test (Pressure or Load) | X x ‘Acoustic Emission x x x Hardness x x Eddy Current x x x Dimensional x x “Surface only after upset removal Table 2 Destructive Examination Techniques and Defect Applicability Detectable Fricion Weld Defect or Characteristic incomplete intermet Weld & HAZ Inspection Technique |Crack| Weld [Inclusion] Compound Hardness} Position Bend x] x x x “Tension x] x x Impact x] x x x Metallography x] x x x x Fatigue x} x x x Hardness x x ‘Elemental Analysis x x Fractography x} x x x x ‘Torsion x} x x x ‘Shear x | x x x is indicated where appropriate. Several inspection processes are limited to surface conditions only and do not examine the weld interior. 10.3 Destruetive Tests. Table 2 and Appendix C tab- ulate the different destructive tests commonly used for friction weldment examination and evaluation. Dependent upon the severity of service, certain tests may be selected for procedure qualification and pro- duction monitoring. 11. Safe Practices 11.1 General, The general subject of safety and safe practices when welding is covered in the following. documents: (Q) ANSI 249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting (@) ANSI 249.2, Fire Prevention in Use of Weld- ing and CuttingProcesses Personnel engaged in welding should be familiar with the safe practices presented in these publications. Since friction welding machines are more appro- riately classed as machine tools, involving opera- tions similar to lathes and hydraulic presses, the fol- lowing publications are considered appropriate: () ANSI BII.1, Safety Requirements for the Construction, Care, and Use of Machine Tools and Mechanical Power Presses @) ANSI B1L4, Safety Requirements for the Construction, Care and Use of Shears @) ANSI BII.6, Safety Requirements for the Construction, Care and Use of Lathes (4) ANSI BI1.7, Safety Requirements for the Construction, Care and Use of Cold Headers and Cold Formers (3) ANSI BIS.1, Safety Standard for Mechanical Power Transmission Apparatus (©) Joint industrial Council (JIC) Standards (@) Electricat (b) Electronic (©) Hydraulic (d) Pneumatic () British Standards Institute (BSI) Standards— BSI 6223, Code of Practice for the Safeguarding of Machinery (® Occupational Safety and Health (OSHA) Standards (@) 1910.95, Occupational Noise Exposure (b) 1910.133, Eye and Face Protection (©) 1910.136, Foot Protection @) 1910.144, Safety Color Code (©) 1910.145, Specification for Accident Pre- vention ‘Signs and Tags (© 1910.212, Machine Guarding, General (@ 1920.217, Mechanical Power Presses (a) 1910.218, Forging Machines @) 1910.218, Mechanical Power Transmis- sion @ 1910.308, Electricat (k) 1910.309, National Electrical Code (9) Friction Welding Machine Operation (Manual) supplied by the machine manufacturer. ‘The organization from which the referenced publi- cations may be obtained appear below: American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 1430 Broadway New York, New York 10018 British Standards Institution (BSI) a No. 2 Park Street London, WIA2BS England [BSI publications also are av lable from ANSI] Joint Industrial Council (JIC) c/o National Machine Tool Builder's Association McCLean, Virginia 22102 Occupational Safety and Health (OSHA) OSHA Publication Distribution Givice U,S. Department of Labor, Room $1212 ‘Washington, DC 20210 Superintendant of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office ‘Washington, DC 20402 11.2 Nolse and Hearing Protection. Operating per- sonnel should be protected against exposure to noise generated by the friction welding equipment or the welding operation in accordance with applicable standards listed in 9.1, Noise abatement enclosures are normally available on friction welding machines when necessary. 11.3 Smoke. Smoke shielding or abatement nor ‘mally is not necessary unless the parts to be welded are heavily oiled or greased. The oil or grease adja- cent to the weld interface will burn off in such instances. If parts are clean before friction welding, then, no smoke will be produced. 11.4 Sparks and Loose Particles. Sparks and loose particles can result from friction welding. If such occur, the majority of particles are generated imme- Giately after workpiece contact at the beginning of the weld cycle. With most forgeable materials, few sparks are created. Loose material may be expelled from the plane of weld interface, perpendicular to the rotating axis of the machine, The operator should always wear safety glasses with side shields. The fric- tion welding machine should be equipped with spark shields or interlock safety guards. 11,5 Mechanical. Both the rotating and non-rotating, workpiece holding devices must be capable of securely restraining the parts to the welded. Fixturing, must be capable of safely transmitting the maximum axial load rating, as well as, the torsional and side loads generated during welding, Standard rotating or non-rotating workpiece holding devices designed for other machine tools, should never be used unless the equipment manufacturer has been informed of the2 expected loading and intended use on a friction welder. In such eases, the friction welding machine ‘manual shall be consulted for guidance. 12. Mechanical Properties of Friction Weldments ‘Mechanical properties of materials joined by fric- tion welding in the as-welded state often exhibit strength equivalent to that of the base metal. A num- ber of specialty materials require postweld heat treat- ‘ment to optimize the mechanical properties of the weldment References which detail mechanical properties of different material combinations in a variety of appli cations are included in Appendix B. These data are not included in this section due to the variety of spe- cific conditions under which the friction weldments were made and tested. It is suggested that the user consult references which may be of value in the intended application.fi i | f Appendix A Nomenclature and Metric Conversions (This Appendix is not a part of ANSI/AWS C6.1-89, Recommended Practices for Friction Welding, but is supplied for information purposes only.) Al. Speed (Friction Speed or Forging Speed) This parameter, which is actually angular veloc- ity, is commonly referred to in units of revolutions per minute (rpm) in U.S. customary units as well as in countries which employ metric (SI) units of mea- sure, In practice, the workpiece speed in rpm will vary with the diameter. For specific workpiece geometries, speed is indicated in rpm. When speak- ing of a class of materials irrespective of geometry, a linear velocity term called surface velocity is commonly used. The units are ft/min (m/s) and refer to the tangential velocity component at the outside diameter of the workpiece in the plane of the faying surfaces. ‘The relationship between workpiece speed (rpm) and surface velocity is expressed by the following equation: Surface Velocity (ft/min) = 20D). in. (com) sr To convert from ft/min to m/s, multiply by 5.08 x 10? A2. Force (Welding Force or Forge Force) ‘This parameter is the force applied to the work- piece during welding in units of pound-force (new- ton), Commonly, specific ranges of force exist for different classes of materials. Total force required for welding is therefore dependent upon the weld area. When reference is made to a specific geometry, total force is indicated in units of Ibf (N). When lasses of materials are referred to irrespective of ‘geometry, force is referred to as Ibf per in.2, of weld area (N per mm? of weld area). ‘To convert from Ibf to N, multiply by 4.448222 To convert from in* to mm?, multiply by 6.4516 x 18 A3. Flywheel, Total Moment of Inertia (Inertia Friction Welding) This parameter refers to the sum of the individual ‘moments of inertia of the respective rotating compo- nents of the inertia friction welding machine. The units are Tb ft? (kg m4). To convert from Ib ft? to ke m, multiply by 4.214011 x 107Appendix B References (This Appendix is not a part of ANSL/AWS C6.1-89, Recommended Practices for Friction Welding, but is supplied for information purposes only.) (1) American Society for Metals. Metals handbook, 9th ed., Vol. 6. Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals, 1983. pp. 719-728. (@) American Welding Society. Welding handbook, 7th ed., Vol. 3. Miami, FL: American Welding Society, 1980. pp. 240-261. (3) British Standards Institute. Specification for Friction welding of butt joints in metals for high duty applications, BS 6223, British Standards Institute, 1982. (4) Deutscher Verlag fur Schweib technik (DVS) Friction welding of metallic materials, DVS 2909, (@) Part 1., Principles and Procedures (b) Part 2., Selection and Suitability of Materi- als, March 1980. (©) Part 3., Design and Production, February 1981. @ Part 4., A Collection of Specific Features compiled from Practical Applica- tion of Friction Welding [Weld- ment defects causes and remedial actions] March 1983. () Duffin, F. D. and Bahrani, A. S, “Frictional behavior of mild steel in friction welding.” Wear. (26) 1973, pp. 53-74, (© Eberhard, B. J., Schaaf, Jn, B. W., and Wilson, A. D. “Friction weld ductility and ‘toughness as influenced by inclusion morphol- ogy.” Welding Journal. July 1983, pp. 171-5 178s. (7) Eberhart, T. M, and Queeney, R. A. “Inertia welding of P/M pasts. The International Jour- nal of Powder Metallurgy and Powder Technol- ‘ogy. 13(4): 1977, pp. 273-278. @) Holko, K, H, “Friction welding hastelloy X to carbon steel.” Welding Journal. March 1978, pp. 19-27. ippold, J. C, and Odegard, B. C. “Technical note: microstructural evolution during inertia friction welding of austenitic stainless steels.” Welding Journal. Janwary 1984, pp. 355-385. (0) Nessler, C. G., Rutz, D. A., Eng, R. D., and Vorzella, P. A. “Friction welding of titanium alloys.” Welding Journal. September 1971, pp. 3795-3855, (AD) Vill, V. 1. Friction welding of metals (tr. from Russian). Miami, Florida: American Welding Society, 1962. (12) Wang, K. K, and Nagappan, P, “Transient tem- erature distribution in inertia welding of steels.” Welding Journal. September 1970, pp. 4195-426. ©Appendix C DVS Part 4, Friction Welding Defects ‘(This Appendix is not a part of ANSI/AWS C6.1-89, Recommended Practices for Friction Welding, but is supplied for information purposes only.) -Teme elon a Tweranamraas | cree Tanase fanaa Sognae tena Raine compecent | gaeataie erates vei: smuttcerictes | saustcangne — | qayemcwed Seton | Sgr seas feceracy | Sti oor c See vais wang 1 atin Benng wt Banng | et tpn ie mecceeior: | wide praia: Bees | pane torma owe Freon sy Sameer Sriram | koe or wanjoat | noche nine estonia | aig cpinitant Nace! | Signore Sorwtcpomar | Gare, | Segre (Erelomervicn | ryrasutases | pantalla ote en fea macceater: | tng tiene: | dering irene | Saati rate oocie rng ‘eng tra: Ramee Seas | Frisey tenes | Stewie, ons — | serio tee, seginotoevaton | baresedhadne cree Seeger acon Inert yen ue Sate of en ropwtcerse | Cuonuntiobart Spratneaee! 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DVS 2909, Part 4, [ko the other parts previously published, i obtainable from: ‘Deutscher Verieg fir Schwoiftechnik (DVS) GmbH, Postlach 2725, Aachener SwraBie 172, 4000 Disseidort 1, Telefon (0211) 164040. (Part 4 was adapted and slighaly modtied from the German original to match both contents and terminalagy of DVS 2909, Part 3), ‘These charts wore prepared by an honorary team of exnerts and are recommended for careful consderation because they ara an ‘important souree of information. Users must, ofcourse, find out for themselves to what extent the contents may be aplicable to the ‘specific requirements, and whether the present issue sil ald 'Notegal responsiblity can be accaptad by Deutscher Verband fr SchweiBtechnik ‘thesa information sheets.wu