SNS 416 Astronautics 1

Lec 1: Intro

Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Assistant Professor of Aerospace Engineering
 Outline

 Definitions and Terminology

 Coordinate Systems and Mathematical Attitude Representations
 Rigid Body Dynamics
 Disturbance Torques in Space
 Opening Remarks

 Nearly all ADCS Design and Performance can be viewed in

terms of RIGID BODY dynamics
 Typically a Major spacecraft system
 For large, light-weight structures with low fundamental
frequencies the flexibility needs to be taken into account
 ADCS requirements often drive overall S/C design
 Components are cumbersome, massive and power-consuming
 Field-of-View requirements and specific orientation are key
 Design, analysis and testing are typically the most
challenging of all subsystems with the exception of payload
design
 Need a true “systems orientation” to be successful at
designing and implementing an ADCS
 Terminology

ATTITUDE :Orientation of a defined spacecraft body coordinate

system with respect to a defined external frame (GCI,HCI)

ATTITUDE DETERMINATION: Real-Time or Post-Facto knowledge,

within a given tolerance, of the spacecraft attitude

ATTITUDE CONTROL: Maintenance of a desired, specified attitude

within a given tolerance

ATTITUDE ERROR: “Low Frequency” spacecraft misalignment;

usually the intended topic of attitude control

ATTITUDE JITTER: “High Frequency” spacecraft misalignment;

usually ignored by ADCS; reduced by good design or fine
pointing/optical control.
 Pointing Control Definitions

target
target desired pointing direction
estimate true actual pointing direction (mean)
estimate estimate of true (instantaneous)
a pointing accuracy (long-term)
c a s stability (peak-peak motion)
k true k knowledge error
c control error
s

a = pointing accuracy = attitude error

s = stability = attitude jitter
Source:
G. Mosier
NASA GSFC
 Attitude Coordinate Systems
(North Celestial Pole)
^
GCI: Geocentric Inertial Coordinates Z

Cross product
^ ^ ^ Geometry: Celestial Sphere
Y=ZxX

n gth
le
dihedral
Arc
G
D
^
Y
VERNAL ^
X
EQUINOX

D: Right Ascension Inertial Coordinate

G : Declination System X and Y are
in the plane of the ecliptic
 Attitude Description Notations

{⋅} = Coordinate system

Ẑ A *
P = Vector
A* A*
Pz P P = Position vector w.r.t. { A}
Py
Ŷ A  Px 
Px A*  
P =  Py 
X̂ A P 
 z
1 0 0
[ ]
Unit vectors of { A} = Xˆ A YˆA Zˆ A = 0 1 0
 
0 0 1

Describe the orientation of a body:

(1) Attach a coordinate system to the body
(2) Describe a coordinate system relative to an
inertial reference frame
 Rotation Matrix

Ẑ A { A} = Reference coordinate system

Jefferson
Ẑ B Memorial Ŷ
B { B} = Body coordinate system

Rotation matrix from {B} to {A}

Ŷ A
X̂ A
X̂ B
A
B R =[A ˆ
X A ˆ Aˆ
B YB ZB ]
ẐA Special properties of rotation matrices:
Jefferson
Ẑ MemorialŶ
B B (1) Orthogonal:
θ RT R = I , RT = R −1
θ
ŶA (2) Orthonormal:
X̂ A X̂B R =1
1 0 0 
 (3) Not commutative
A
B R = 0 cos - sin 
 A B B A
0 sin cos  B R C R ≠ C R BR
 Euler Angles (1)
Euler angles describe a sequence of three rotations about different
axes in order to align one coord. system with a second coord. system.
Rotate about Ẑ A by α Rotate about ŶB by β Rotate about X̂ C by γ

Ẑ A Ẑ B Ẑ B ẐC
ẐC Ẑ D
ŶB β γ ŶD
ŶB γ
α
ŶA X̂ B
X̂ A
α β ŶC ŶC
X̂ B X̂ C X̂ C X̂ D

cosα - sinα 0 cosβ 0 sinβ  1 0 0 

 0  0   
B R = sinα cosα D R = 0 cosγ - sinγ 
A B C
 CR= 0 1

 0 0 1  - sinβ 0 cosβ  0 sinγ cosγ 

A A B C
D R= B R C R D R
 Euler Angles (2)
 Concept used in rotational θ about Yi Zi (parallel to r)
kinematics to describe body φ about X’
orientation w.r.t. inertial frame ψ about Zb Yaw
 Sequence of three angles and Roll
Body
prescription for rotating one Xi
(parallel CM
reference frame into another
to v)
 Can be defined as a transformation Pitch
matrix body/inertial as shown: TB/I (r x v direction)
Yi
 Euler angles are non-unique and r
exact sequence is critical nadir
Goal: Describe kinematics of body-fixed
TB−/1I = TI / B = TBT/ I
Note: frame with respect to rotating local vertical
(Pitch, Roll, Yaw) = (TI\) Euler Angles

Transformation  cosψ sinψ

0  1 0 0   cosθ 0 -sin θ 
from Body to T = -sinψ 0  ⋅ 0 cos
cosψ φ φ  ⋅  0
sin 1 0 
“Inertial” frame:
B/I 
 0 0 1  0 -sinφ cosφ   sinθ 0 cos
θ 

 
   
 
YAW ROLL PITCH
 Quaternions
*
q = A vector describes the
 Main problem computationally is q1 
the existence of a singularity q  q* axis of rotation.
 
Q =   =   q4 = A scalar describes the
2
 Problem can be avoided by an q3  q4 
application of Euler’s theorem:   amount of rotation.
 4
q
θ A ˆ
Ẑ A K
EULER’S THEOREM
Jefferson Memorial
Ẑ B ŶB
The Orientation of a body is uniquely
specified by a vector giving the direction
of a body axis and a scalar specifying a
Ŷ A
rotation angle about the axis. X̂ A
X̂ B
 Definition introduces a redundant θ 
A: Inertial q1 = k x sin  
fourth element, which eliminates B: Body  2
the singularity. θ 
q2 = k y sin  
 This is the “quaternion” concept k x   2
 Quaternions have no intuitively A   θ 
K̂ = k y  q3 = k z sin  
interpretable meaning to the human k   2
mind, but are computationally  z
θ 
convenient q4 = cos 
 2
Quaternion Demo (MATLAB)
 Comparison of Attitude Descriptions

Method Euler Direction Angular Quaternions

Angles Cosines Velocity Z

Pluses If given φ,ψ,θ Orientation Vector Computationally

then a unique defines a properties, robust
orientation is unique dir-cos commutes w.r.t Ideal for digital
defined matrix R addition control implement

Minuses Given orient 6 constraints Integration w.r.t Not Intuitive

then Euler must be met, time does not Need transforms
non-unique non-intuitive give orientation
Singularity Needs transform

Must store Best for

Best for initial condition digital control
analytical and implementation
ACS design work
 Rigid Body Kinematics
Z Body
Time Derivatives:
CM
(non-inertial)
U
r ^ ^j
k
^ Rotating
K
Z = Angular velocity ^i Body Frame
Inertial R
of Body Frame
Frame Y
J^
^
X I
Applied to
BASIC RULE: ρ INERTIAL = ρ BODY +ω ρ×
position vector r:
r = R+ρ Position Expressed in
r = R + ρ BODY + ω ×
ρ Rate
the Inertial Frame

r=R
  + ρ
BODY
+ 2ω × ρ

BODY
ω
+ ρ
× ω + ω ×ρ ( × ) Acceleration

Inertial relative accel angular

coriolis centripetal
accel of CM w.r.t. CM accel
 Angular Momentum (I)
.
rn mn
Angular Momentum Z .
ri
n rn mi
∑ r i × mi ri
System in
H total = motion relative ri
i =1 to Inertial Frame m1
r1 .
r1
Y
If we assume that
X Collection of point
(a) Origin of Rotating Frame in Body CM masses mi at ri
(b) Fixed Position Vectors ri in Body Frame
(Rigid Body)
Angular Momentum Decomposition
Then :
Note that Ui is
 n  n
∑
 mi  R × R ∑ mi ρ i × ρ i
measured in the
H total = + inertial frame
 
i =1  

 i =1 

 
ANGULAR MOMENTUM H BODY
OF TOTAL MASS W.R.T BODY ANGULAR
INERTIAL ORIGIN MOMENTUM ABOUT
CENTER OFMASS
 Angular Momentum (II)

For a RIGID BODY ρ i = ρ i ,BODY +ω ×

ρ ω= ρ ×
we can write: 
  i i
RELATIVE
MOTION IN BODY

And we are able to write: H = Iω RIIGID BODY, CM COORDINATES

H and Z are resolved in BODY FRAME

“The vector of angular momentum in the body frame is the product

of the 3x3 Inertia matrix and the 3x1 vector of angular velocities.”

Inertia Matrix Real Symmetric ; 3x3 Tensor ; coordinate dependent

Properties:
( )
n n
I11 = ∑ mi ρi22 + ρi23 I12 = I 21 = −∑ mi ρiρ2 i1
i =1 i =1
 I11 I12 I13 
( )
n n

I =  I 21 I 22 I 23  I 22 = ∑ mi ρi21 + ρi23 I13 = I 31 = −∑ mi ρρ

i1 i3
i =1 i =1
 I 31 I 32 I 33 
( )
n n
I 33 = ∑ mi ρi21 + ρi22 I 23 = I 32 = −∑ mi ρiρ2 i3
i =1 i =1
 Kinetic Energy and Euler Equations

1 n  2 1 n
Kinetic Etotal =  ∑ mi  R + ∑ mi ρ i2
Energy 2  i =1  2 i =1
 
  

E-TRANS E-ROT

For a RIGID BODY, CM Coordinates 1 1

with Z resolved in body axis frame EROT = ω ⋅ H = ω TωI
2 2

H = T − ω ×  I ω  Sum of external and internal torques

In a BODY-FIXED, PRINCIPAL AXES CM FRAME: Euler Equations

H 1 = I1ω1 = T1 + ( I 22 − I 33 )ωω2 3 No general solution exists.

H 2 = I 2ω 2 = T2 + ( I 33 − I11 )ω
Particular solutions exist for
ω3 1 simple torques. Computer
simulation usually required.
H = I ω = T + ( I − I )ω
3 3 3 3 11 22 1 2
 Torque Free Solutions of Euler’s Eq.
TORQUE-FREE An important special case is the torque-free motion of a (nearly)
CASE: symmetric body spinning primarily about its symmetry axis

By these assumptions: ω x , ω y <<

ω =Ω I xx ≅ I yy
z
The components of angular velocity And the Euler equations become:
then become:
ω x (t ) = ω xo cos
ω nt I zz − I yy
ω y (t ) = ω yo cos
ω ω x = − Ωω y
nt I xx


 
The Zn is defined as the “natural”
or “nutation” frequency of the body:
ω n2 = K x K y Ω 2 Kx

I zz − I xx
Z Z Z Q H ω y = Ωω y
H I yy
Z 
 
Ky

Q Space ω z = 0
e
Bo

Bod
on

Cone
dy

eC

y
Co

H and Z never align

ac

Con
Sp
ne

Q : nutation unless spun about

Iz > Ix = I y
e

Iz < Ix = I y angle a principal axis !

 Disturbance Torques
Assessment of expected disturbance torques is an essential part
of rigorous spacecraft attitude control design
Typical Disturbances
 Gravity Gradient: “Tidal” Force due to 1/r2 gravitational field variation
for long, extended bodies (e.g. Space Shuttle, Tethered vehicles)
 Aerodynamic Drag: “Weathervane” Effect due to an offset between the
CM and the drag center of Pressure (CP). Only a factor in LEO.
 Magnetic Torques: Induced by residual magnetic moment. Model the
spacecraft as a magnetic dipole. Only within magnetosphere.
 Solar Radiation: Torques induced by CM and solar CP offset. Can
compensate with differential reflectivity or reaction wheels.
 Mass Expulsion: Torques induced by leaks or jettisoned objects
 Internal: On-board Equipment (machinery, wheels, cryocoolers, pumps
etc…). No net effect, but internal momentum exchange affects attitude.
 Gravity Gradient
n = µ / a 3 = ORBITAL RATE
Gravity Gradient: 1) ⊥ Local vertical
2) 0 for symmetric spacecraft
3) proportional to ∝ 1/r3 Zb ^r

T = 3n 2 ⋅ rˆ ×  I rˆ 
Gravity Gradient
Torques

Small
angle T
In Body Frame approximation
Xb
- sin T
sin φ 1 − sinθ − sinφ  ≅θ[− φ 1]
T
rˆ =  − sin θ 2 2 T

Earth
Resulting torque in BODY FRAME:

( I zz − I yy )φ 
Typical Values:
I=1000 kgm2 Pitch Libration freq.:
n=0.001 s-1
∴ T ≅ 3n 2  ( I zz − I xx )θ  3 ( I xx − I zz )
T= 6.7 x 10-5 Nm/deg ωlib = n
 0  I yy
 Aerodynamic Torque

T = r × Fa r = Vector from body CM

to Aerodynamic CP

Fa = Aerodynamic Drag Vector

1
Fa = ρV 2 SCD
in Body coordinates
2
Aerodynamic 1 ≤ CD ≤ 2 Typically in this Range for
Free Molecular Flow
Drag Coefficient
S = Frontal projected Area

V = Orbital Velocity U = Atmospheric Density

2 x 10-9 kg/m3 (150 km)

Typical Values: Notes 3 x 10-10 kg/m3 (200 km)
Cd = 2.0 (1) r varies with Attitude 7 x 10-11 kg/m3 (250 km)
S = 5 m2 (2) U varies by factor of 5-10 at 4 x 10-12 kg/m3 (400 km)
r = 0.1 m a given altitude
r = 4 x 10-12 kg/m3 (3) CD is uncertain by 50 %
T = 1.2 x 10-4 Nm Exponential Density Model
 Magnetic Torque

T = M ×B B = Earth magnetic field vector in

M = Spacecraft residual dipole
in AMPERE-TURN-m2 (SI)
or POLE-CM (CGS)
M = is due to current loops and
residual magnetization, and will
be on the order of 100 POLE-CM
or more for small spacecraft.
spacecraft coordinates (BODY FRAME)
in TESLA (SI) or Gauss (CGS) units.
B varies as 1/r3, with its direction
along local magnetic field lines.
Conversions:
1 Atm2 = 1000 POLE-CM , 1 TESLA = 104 Gauss

Typical Values:
B= 3 x 10-5 TESLA B ~ 0.3 Gauss
M = 0.1 Atm2 at 200 km orbit
T = 3 x 10-6 Nm
 Solar Radiation Torque
r = Vector from Body CM
T = r×Fs to optical Center-of-Pressure (CP)

Fs = (1 + K ) Ps S
Fs = Solar Radiation pressure in
BODY FRAME coordinates

Ps = I s / c K = Reflectivity , 0 < K <1

S = Frontal Area
I s = 1400 W/m 2 @ 1 A.U.
Is = Solar constant, depends on
Notes:
heliocentric altitude
(a) Torque is always ⊥ to sun line
(b) Independent of position or
velocity as long as in sunlight SUN

Typical Values: Significant for

K = 0.5 spacecraft
S =5 m2 with large
r =0.1 m frontal area
T = 3.5 x 10-6 Nm (e.g. NGST)
 Mass Expulsion and Internal Torques

Mass Expulsion Torque: T = r×F

Notes:
(1) May be deliberate (Jets, Gas venting) or accidental (Leaks)

(2) Wide Range of r, F possible; torques can dominate others

(3) Also due to jettisoning of parts (covers, cannisters)

Internal Torque:
Notes:
(1) Momentum exchange between moving parts
has no effect on System H, but will affect
attitude control loops

(2) Typically due to antenna, solar array, scanner

motion or to deployable booms and appendages
 References

 James French: AIAA Short Course: “Spacecraft Systems Design and

Engineering”, Washington D.C.,1995
 Prof. Walter Hollister: 16.851 “Satellite Engineering” Course Notes,
Fall 1997
 James R. Wertz and Wiley J. Larson: “Space Mission Analysis and
Design”, Second Edition, Space Technology Series, Space Technology
Library, Microcosm Inc, Kluwer Academic Publishers