What Bode Plots Represent: The Frequency Domain

Overview Freq Domain Asymptotic plots Making Plot Examples Drawing Tool BodePlotGui Rules Table
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Contents
Why Sine Waves?
Determining system output given input and transfer function
Interactive Demo
Things to try
Key Concept: It is useful to study the response of a system to sinusoidal inputs
Key Concept: The frequency response is shown with two plots, one for magnitude and
one for phase.
An animation

Why Sine Waves?

One of the most commonly used test functions for a circuit or system is the sine (or cosine) wave. This is not
because sine waves are a particularly common signal. They are in fact quite rare - the transmission of electricity
(a 60 Hz sine wave in the U.S., 50 Hz in much of the rest of the world) is one example. The reason sine waves
are important is complex and involve a branch of Mathematics called Fourier Theory. Briefly put: any signal
going into a circuit can be represented by a sum of sinusoidal waves of varying frequency and amplitude (often
an infinite sum).

This is why sine waves are important. Not because they are common, but because we can represent
arbitrarily complex functions using only these very simple function.

Determining system output given input and transfer function

Given that sinusoidal waves are important, how can we analyze the response of a circuit or system to
sinusoidal inputs (after all transients have died out - the so-called sinusoidal steady state)? There are many
ways to do this, depending on your mathematical sophistication. Let's use a fairly basic explanation that uses
phasors. If you are unfamiliar with phasors, a brief introduction is here. A technique using Laplace Transforms is
given here.

For a system of the type we are studying (linear constant coefficient) if the input to a system is sinusoidal at a
particular frequency, then the output of the system is also a sinusoid at the same frequency, but typically with a
different amplitude or phase. Put another way, if the input to a system (described by the transfer function H(s)) is
A·cos(ω·t+φ) then the output is M·A·cos(ω·t+φ+θ). This is likewise true for sine, since it simply a cosine with φ=-
π2 radians (or -90°). This is shown below.

In this diagram the magnitude of the sinusoid has changed by a factor of M (which we will take to be a positive
real number) and the phase has changed by a factor of θ (a real number, not necessarily positive). It is our task
to find the value of M and θ for a particular system, H(s), at a particular frequency, ω. We call M the magnitude
of the system (or transfer function) at ω, and we call θ the phase of the system at that frequency.
 Using complex impedances it is possible to find the transfer function of a circuit. For example, the circuit
below is described by the transfer function, H(s), where s= jω.
Circuit Transfer Function

Vout (s) 1
H (s) = =
    Vin (s) 1 + sRC

Consider the case where R=2MΩ and C=1μF. In that case:

1 1
H (s) = H (jω) =
1 + 2s 1 + j2ω

Generally we know the input Vin and want to find the output Vout. We can do this by simple multiplication

1
Vout (jω) = Vin (jω) ⋅ H (jω) = Vin (jω) ⋅
1 + j2ω

If we have a phasor representation for the input and the transfer function, the multiplication is simple (multiply
magnitudes and add phases). Finding the output becomes easy. Try it out.

Interactive Demo
Choose a transfer function.
Magnitude of H(jω), (i.e., |H(jω
1 1
H (s) = H (jω) =
1+2s 1+j2ω 1

1.6 1.6
H (s) = H (jω) =
|H(jω)|

s2 +0.5s+1.6 2
(1.6−ω )+j(0.5⋅ω)
0.45

Set input parameters, Vin(t)=A·cos(ω·t+φ).

Set ω:   1.000 ω 0
3 0
0 1 2
Set A:   1 A 0.2
ω
2
Set φ:   0 φ -180
180 Phase of H(jω), (i.e., ∠H(jω)),
At ω =1, H(jω) = 1/(1.00 + j2.00) = 0
0.45∠-63.4° = M∠θ.
Since the input can be represented as
∠H(jω), °

1∠0°,
-45
The output is M·A∠(θ+φ) = 0.45∠-63.4°. -63.4
Time
Magnitude Phase
Domain
-90
0 1 2
0.45·cos(1·t
H(jω) 0.45 -63.4° ω
+ -63.4°)

1·cos(1·t +
Input 1 0°
0°)
 Output 0.45 -63.4°
0.45·cos(1·t Vin(t) & Vout(t) vs. t
+ -63.4°)
2

1 delay, Td
Td
Directions for Use

Vin(t), Vout(t)
0
Use the radio buttons to choose a
transfer function, and the sliders to -1 period, T
choose the frequency, amplitude and
-2
phase of the input (you can also set 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
frequency by clicking and dragging in time
either of the top two graphs.)

The paragraph below the sliders goes

through the calculation of the numerical
value of the transfer function at the
chosen frequency, and gives H(jω) in
terms of magnitude and phase. Note
that these are also shown on the top two
graphs by a dot. To find the magnitude
of the output, simply multiply the
magnitude of the input (A) by the
magnitude of the transfer function (M).
The phase of the output is sum of the
input phase (φ) and the phase of the
transfer function (θ).

The bottom graph shows input, Vin(t)

in black, and Vout(t) in magenta. The
period, T (maroon), is shown from one
upward zero-crossing of the input
function to the next (shown by black
dots). The delay Td (green), is shown
from an upward zero crossing of the
input to the next upward zero crossing
of the output (green dot). The phase is
negative (since output lags input) and
equal to ‑Td/T·360°. So if the delay was
Td=T/4 (i.e., one quarter of a period) the
phase shift would be -90°)

Things to try
Choose the first order (upper) transfer function, set ω=1, A=1, φ=0, so the input is A·cos(ωt+0°)=cos(t). The
paragraph just below the sliders shows how to calculate the value of the transfer function at that frequency, and
it is a complex number with a magnitude (M) of 0.5 and a phase angle (θ) of -63.4°. To find the output we
multiply magnitudes (A·M=0.5) and add phases (φ+θ=-63.4°), so the output is 0.5·cos(t-63.4°).
Now increase frequency. You can see from the graph that the magnitude of the transfer function drops, so the
magnitude of the output drops. Also, the phase decreases, so the ratio Td/T decreases.
 Change the value of A (second slider). This changes the magnitude of the input, and since the output magnitude
is simply A·M the magnitude of the output changes commensurately.
Change the value of the input phase, φ, and note that the input function slides back and forth. Since the
difference in phase between input and output (θ) is determined by the transfer function, the output moves back
and forth the same amount.
If you make the value of ω a small number, the magnitude of the transfer function is close to 1, and the phase is
close to zero, so input and output are almost the same.

Now select the second transfer function. Note that as you change ω there is a range of frequencies for which the
output is actually larger than the input. Also, as the frequency gets high, the phase of the transfer function
approaches -180° so the output is inverted relative to the input (and Td≈½·T).
Note: all angles are given in degrees. They should be changed to radians before evaluation by calculator or computer.

Key Concept: It is useful to study the response of a system to sinusoidal inputs

Sinusoidal functions are important because functions of time can be broken down into a sum of
sinusoids. Given a system given with a sinusoidal input, we can determine the output in a
straightforward manner from the transfer function. These two facts, together, make the determination of
a transfer functions to sinusoidal inputs a useful endeavor (and, ultimately, quite powerful).

Key Concept: The frequency response is shown with two plots, one for magnitude and one for
phase.

The frequency response of a system is presented as two graphs: one showing magnitude and one
showing phase. The phasor representation of the transfer function can then be easily determined at
any frequency. The magnitude of the output is the magnitude of the phasor representation of the
transfer function (at a given frequency) multiplied by the magnitude of the input. The phase of the
output is the phase of the transfer function added to the phase of the input.

A Bode plot is simply a plot of magnitude and phase of a tranfer function as frequency varies.
However, we will want to be able to display a large range of frequencies and magnitudes, so we will
plot vsthe logarithm of frequency, and use a logarithmic (dB, or decibel) scale for the magnitude as
well. We'll explore that in the next installment.

An animation
To get a more intuitive idea of what the frequency response represents, consider the system below. (Hit start
button to show animation)
Click here for an animation of an analogous electrical system.

u k
m
b
 2.5
u
y

-2.5

Animation by Ames Bielenberg

The transfer function of the system is given by (with m=1, b=0.5, k=1.6, u=input to system, y=output (the position
of the mass):

The magnitude and phase plots are shown below.

The input is a sinusoidal function whose frequency increases with time. You can see by the animation that at
low frequencies (and low times) the input and output are equal in magnitude, and in phase (after the initial
startup transient dies out). This is shown by a magnitude of one and a phase of zero on the plots of magnitude
and phase of H(jω). At intermediate frequencies (and times) the system is somewhat resonant, and the output
actually gets larger than the input (but there is a growing phase lag, i.e., negative phase). As frequency
increases further, the output decreases; again, you can see this both in the animation and in the magnitude plot.
The outline of the peaks of the output plot is similar to the magnitude plot above. The phase is not as obvious,
but it obviously starts at 0° and then decreases to -180° (you may need to zoom in to see the phase shift). At
high frequencies (phase near -180°) the two waveforms are completely out of phase; when one is at a
maximum, the other is at a minimum.
 References

© Copyright 2005 to 2022 Erik Cheever    This page may be freely used for educational purposes, but the url must be referenced.
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Erik Cheever        Department of Engineering          Swarthmore College