Design and Fabrication of Solar Powered Stirling Engine

for Producing Electricity

By

Md. Fuad Hossain Nahid Student ID: 180203031

K.M Sirajus Salekin Student ID: 180203037

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

Supervised by

Dr.-Ing. Irfan Ahmed

Associate Professor and Head of Department

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology

Co-Supervised by

Md. Alamgir Hossain

Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology

Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology (BAUST)

Saidpur Cantonment, Saidpur-5310, Bangladesh

February 2023
 APPROVAL

This is to certify that the project and thesis work (ME 4000) submitted by Md. Fuad
Hossain Nahid (Student ID: 180203031) and K.M Sirajus Salekin (Student ID:
180203037) entitled “Design and Fabrication of Solar Powered Stirling Engine for
Producing Electricity” has been accepted by the board of examiners for the partial
fulfillment of the requirement often degree of B.sc in mechanical engineering,
Bangladesh Army University of Science & Technology, Saidpur Cantonment,
Bangladesh.

BOARD OF EXAMINERS

1.

Dr.-Ing. Irfan Ahmed Chairman

Associate Professor and Head of the Department (Supervisor)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology
Saidpur Cantonment, Bangladesh.

2.

Md. Alamgir Hossain

Member
Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering (Co-supervisor)
Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology
Saidpur Cantonment, Bangladesh.
 DECLARATION

This is a certification confirming only the group members have worked on the project and
thesis, "Design and Fabrication of Solar Powered Stirling Engine for Producing
Electricity." They attended the mechanical engineering program at the Bangladesh Army
University of Science and Technology in Saidpur-5310, Bangladesh. Anywhere for the
award of any degree or diploma, this thesis work or any portion of this work has been
submitted.

Thanking you,

Md. Fuad Hossain Nahid K.M Sirajus Salekin

(Student ID: 180203031) (Student ID: 180203037)

 Dedicated to

Our Beloved Parents and Teacher

The authors would like to express their thanks, praise, and appreciation to the All-Mighty
Allah SWT, who has made it possible for them to successfully complete the thesis work.

Salutations and invocations are extended to the prophet Muhammad (SM), who guided
humanity along the blessed and righteous path and who is deserving of praise and honor.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We begin by giving appreciation to the Almighty Allah for endowing us with the capacity
to work hard and be accomplished. Actually, no number of words could ever accurately
express how grateful we are. This study was made possible by our beloved parents' love,
care, and patience. We also appreciate their blessings and words of wisdom, which helped
us a lot in doing this research.

We are immensely appreciative of our family members' continuous support in any

situation as well. It gives us great pleasure to express our gratitude to Dr.-Ing. Irfan
Ahmed, our esteemed supervisor, and Md. Alamgir Hossain, our co-supervisor, for their
invaluable guidance, inspiration, and, most importantly, for their consistently cooperative
attitude, which enabled us to finish this thesis in its current form. Also acknowledged for
providing funding for this initiative is the Vice-Chancellor of Bangladesh Army
University of Science and Technology, Saidpur. We also like to express our gratitude to
the staff members of the various labs. They gave us the information we required and
assisted us with the project.

The Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology has supported our research
from the beginning, and the authors are incredibly thankful to them for doing so. We owe
the Mechanical Engineering Department, BAUST, and the entire faculty for their
countless acts of compassion, support, and inspiration in every situation.

Md. Fuad Hossain Nahid

K.M Sirajus Salekin

I
 ABSTRACT

This paper highlights the conception, development and evaluation of stirling engines for
the producing of electricity from solar energy. Humans have long used solar energy, often
known as solar heat, for various purposes. Only a small portion of the solar energy that is
accessible gets used, though. Heat engines or photovoltaic panels range in power from a
few watts to many megawatts when used to generate electricity from solar energy. Instead
of using any sort of fossil fuel to power the engine. We designed and build a thermal lag
stirling engine. The engine is heated by a Fresnel Lens solar collector . A predetermined
volume of a gas (Helium) is sealed inside a stirling engine, The stirling cycle is a chain of
actions that alters the gas pressure inside the engine and makes it work. Solar rays are
focused into a specific spot using a Fresnel lens to create heat. The engine is setup near
the lens's focal point and the fresnel lens is mounted on a stand.

II
 Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................. I
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... II
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. III
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................VII
List of Figures ................................................................................................................ VIII
Nomenclature ..................................................................................................................... X
CHAPTER 1 ....................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Stirling Engine ............................................................................................................ 2
1.2.1 Stirling Engine History ........................................................................................ 2
1.2.2 Stirling Cycle ....................................................................................................... 3
1.2.3 Operational Feature of The Stirling Engine ......................................................... 4
1.2.4 Stirling Engine Cycle Configuration .................................................................... 5
1.3 Fresnel Lens ............................................................................................................... 7
1.3.1 Description ........................................................................................................... 7
1.3.2 The Optical Experimental Analysis of a Fixed Focus Lens Solar Collector ...... 8
1.3.3 Theoretical Limit for Solar Concentrator ............................................................. 9
1.3.4 Fresnel Lense ……………………………………………………………………… 9
1.4 Lens as a Solar Collector ………………………………………………………………...11
1.4.1 Solar Thermal Fresnel Lens Collector…………………………………………11
CHAPTER 2 ..................................................................................................................... 12
MOTIVATION ................................................................................................................. 12
2.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 12
2.2 Potential of the Thermal Lag Engine........................................................................ 12
CHAPTER 3 ..................................................................................................................... 14
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 14
3.1 Review of Previous Works ....................................................................................... 14
3.2 History of Solar Powered Stirling Engine ................................................................ 15
3.3 Using Solar Energy for Generating Electricity ......................................................... 15
3.4 Suitable Type of Engine for Generating Electricity ................................................. 16
3.5 Using Fresnel Lens as A Heat Source ...................................................................... 16
3.6 Goal of the Project .................................................................................................... 17

III
CHAPTER 4 ..................................................................................................................... 18
METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 18
4.1 Stirling Engine Design Parameters ........................................................................... 18
4.1.1 Working Principle……………………………………………………………...18
4.1.2 Engine Parts and Components ........................................................................... 22
4.1.3 Material Selection .............................................................................................. 22

4.1.4 Dimension of The Components ......................................................................... 23

4.2 Fresnel Lens Solar Collector ................................................................................... 23
4.2.1 Working Principle .............................................................................................. 23
4.2.2 Parts and Components ........................................................................................ 24
4.2.3 Material Selection .............................................................................................. 24
4.2.4 Focus Point and Dimensions .............................................................................. 24
4.3 Design and Designing of Parts ................................................................................ 25
4.3.1 Designing of Individual Parts of The Engine ................................................... 25
CHAPTER 5 ..................................................................................................................... 29
CONSTRUCTION, EXPERIMENTATION & CALCULATION .............................. 29
5.1 Construction .......................................................................................................... 29
5.1.1 Regenerator with Pulse Tube .......................................................................... 29
5.1.2 Nozzle ............................................................................................................. 30
5.1.3 Cylinder .......................................................................................................... 31
5.1.4 Piston and Connecting Rod ............................................................................. 31
5.1.5 Flywheel.......................................................................................................... 32
5.1.6 Fresnel Lens Solar Collector .......................................................................... 32
5.1.7 Stand for Solar Collector................................................................................. 33
5.2 Experimental Setup ............................................................................................... 34
5.2.1 Assembly of The Engine with Fresnel Lens.................................................... 34

5.3 Calculations ........................................................................................................... 35

CHAPTER 6 ..................................................................................................................... 40
RESULT & DISCUSSION .............................................................................................. 40
6.1 Result ........................................................................................................................ 40
6.1.1 Experimental Analysis…………… …………………………………………..40
CHAPTER 7 ..................................................................................................................... 48
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 48
7.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 48
7.2 Future Recommendation……………………………………………………………..48
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 49

IV
 List of Tables

Table 1: Materials Selection for project ............................................................................. 22

Table 2: Dimension of the Components ............................................................................. 23

Table 3: Material Selection for Fresnel Lens Solar Collector............................................ 24

Table 5 : List of Calculated Value…………………………………………………………..39

Table 6.1 : Hot Chamber Temperature (K)………………………………………………..40

Table 6.2 : Cold Chamber Temperature (K)………………………………………………41

Table 6.3 : Voltage (V) at Different time (s)………………… ………………………….42

Table 6.4 : RPM at Different time and temperature……………………………………….43

Table 6.5: Lux at Different time (s)…………..…………………………………………..44

Table 6.6: Current(amp) at Different RPM……………………………………………….45

Table 6.7: Current (amp) vs Voltage (V)…………………………………………………46

V
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1: P-V diagram of Stirling cycle ............................................................................ 3

Figure 1.2: T-S diagram of Stirling cycle............................................................................. 3

Figure 1.3: Schematic diagram of Alpha configuration ....................................................... 5

Figure 1.4: Schematic of Beta configuration ........................................................................ 5

Figure 1.5: Schematic of gamma configuration ................................................................... 6

Figure 1.6: Schematic of thermal lag configuration ............................................................. 6

Figure 1.7: Fresnel lens ........................................................................................................ 7

Figure 1.8: Thermodynamic limit diagram .......................................................................... 9

Figure 4.1: Tailer Thermal lag type Stirling engine for generating electricity................... 18

Figure 4.2: Tailer’s TLE cycle ........................................................................................... 19

Figure 4.3: Tailer’s vertical TLE........................................................................................ 20

Figure 4.4: Helium (gas) circulating inside the engine ...................................................... 21

Figure 4.5: schematic of a fresnel lens solar collector ....................................................... 24

Figure 4.6: Fresnel Lens .................................................................................................... 25

Figure 4.7: Pulse Tube........................................................................................................ 26

Figure 4.8: Cylinder ........................................................................................................... 26

Figure 4.9: Nozzle .............................................................................................................. 26

Figure 4.10: Flywheel ........................................................................................................ 26

Figure 4.11: Piston ............................................................................................................. 27

Figure 4.12: Connecting Rod ............................................................................................. 27

Figure 4.13: Engine Assembly ........................................................................................... 28

VI
Figure 4.14: Fresnel Lens Solar Collector ......................................................................... 28

Figure 5.1: Hot section pulse tube ...................................................................................... 29

Figure 5.2: Regenerative material helium gas .................................................................... 30

Figure 5.3: Nozzle .............................................................................................................. 30

Figure 5.4: Cylinder ........................................................................................................... 31

Figure 5.5: Piston and Connecting Rod.............................................................................. 31

Figure 5.6: Flywheel and Crankshaft ................................................................................. 32

Figure 5.7: Fresnel Lens Solar Collector ............................................................................ 32

Figure 5.8: Stand of Solar Collector ................................................................................... 33

Figure 5.9: Assembly of The Engine with Fresnel Lens .................................................... 34

Figure 6.1: Time (s) vs Hot chamber temperature (K) ...................................................... 41

Figure 6.6: Time (s) vs Cold chamber temperature (K)..................................................... 42

Figure 6.3: Time (s) vs Voltage (V) ................................................................................... 43

Figure 6.4: Time (s) vs RPM vs Temperature (K) .............................................................. 44

Figure 6.5: Lux vs Different Time (s)................................................................................. 45

Figure 6.6: Current (amp) vs Different RPM ..................................................................... 46

Figure 6.7: Current (amp) vs Voltage (V) .......................................................................... 47

VII
 NOMENCLATURE

Symbols Description
Ƞth Thermal efficiency
Ap Cross sectional area of piston length
Cp Heat capacity at constant pressure
Cv Heat capacity at constant volume
D Bore diameter
G Acceleration of gravity
H Height of the liquid column
J Amount of energy received by solar dish
L Stroke length
𝐿
Stroke to bore ratio
𝐷

mact Actual mass in the system

P Differential pressure
patm Atmospheric pressure
Pi Initial pressure
P2 Final pressure
Qin Heat input from solar concentrator
R Universal gas constant
R Compression ratio
Tmax Temperature of hot side
Tmin Temperature of cold side
Vc Clearance volume
Vcomp Compression volume
Vr Ideal volume Ratio

Vs Swept volume
Vt Total volume

VIII
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
A basic engine, the Stirling engine heats and cools the working gas inside the cylinder to
transform thermal energy into kinetic energy. Robert Stirling created the external
combustion engine known as the Stirling engine in 1816. The Stirling engine goes
through compression, heating, expansion, and contraction similar to other heat engines.
The heat from a nuclear reactor, the sun, geothermal heat, waste heat, or any other heat
source can all be used directly by the Stirling engine. The Stirling cycle is used by a
Stirling engine instead of the internal combustion engines cycles. In a Stirling engine, the
gases used are never released. There are no exhaust valves to release high-pressure gases,
besides an IC engine, and no explosions take place. Stirling engines are incredibly silent
as a result of this [5]. A constant volume of gas is sealed inside a Stirling engine as its
basic operating principle. A sequence of steps known as the Stirling cycle alters the gas
pressure inside the engine. The amount of work the engine can accomplish is altered by
this. A parabolic reflector is an apparatus for reflecting energy, such as light, sound, or
radio waves, for collection or projection. A parabolic mirror or Fresnel lens may focus
sunlight or solar energy onto a tiny point, which, depending on the size of the parabolic
dish, can produce a considerable quantity of heat. The parabolic reflector works by
reflecting all incoming rays that are parallel to the axis of the dish to a central point, or
focus, thanks to the geometric features of the paraboloidal shape. Parabolic reflectors can
be used to gather and aggregate energy entering the reflector at a certain angle because
different types of energy can be reflected in the manner specified. The focus and the dish
can both transmit energy in a beam that is perpendicular to the axis of the dish.

1
1.2 Stirling Engine
The Stirling engine is a machine that can be used for a variety of purposes and has a
number of extremely desirable environmental and performance attributes. A solar heated
Stirling engine generator set was taken into consideration for this project because off-grid
homes require a domestic power supply as well as a clean source of electricity and hot
water [18].

The whole community is looking for solutions in response to an increasing awareness of

environmental damage. External combustion engines like stirling engines have many
advantages by nature, including the ability to burn a variety of fuels continuously while
emitting clean pollutants and operating quietly. The Stirling engine is mechanically
simplified in the Thermal Lag Engine (TLE), which gives the idea a new social
dimension [34]. The TLE could be useful in poor countries where there is a need for
inexpensive, locally produced engines that use available materials.

1.2.1 Stirling Engine History

Hot air engines were well known in 1699. The Stirling brothers' "economizer" or
"regenerator," which was patented in 1816, completely altered the market. The Reverend
Robert Stirling, one of the brothers, was worried about the health of his parishioners
because steam engine accidents frequently resulted in injuries. This served as the
invention's driving force. The brothers' pressured engine and improved power by 1843 to
the point that they could use it to power all of the equipment in an iron foundry in
Dundee, Scotland [17]. Despite their tremendous success, steam engines became obsolete
when high-quality steel was introduced because it made them safer. About eighty years
later, the internal combustion engine was invented, allowing it to outpace its rivals. In the
1960s, interest in Stirling engines was rekindled after more than a century. Various
engine types regarding piston and cylinder configuration, displacer movement
mechanisms, and the like have been created. In 1964, researchers from the Ohio
University Mechanical Engineering Department, led by William T. Beale, developed the
free piston engine. In 1974, the team left the university to establish Sun Power Inc. with
the intention of creating commercially viable free piston engines for low-tech applications
[13]. In its mission statement, Sun Power Inc. demonstrates a strong social conscience by
stating that it focuses on applications in developing nations.

2
1.2.2 Stirling Cycle

Stirling engines generate work by compressing and expanding a working fluid at various
temperatures [14]. The four procedures described below make up the Stirling cycle :

Figure 1.1: P-V diagram of Stirling cycle [17]

Figure 1.2: T-S diagram of Stirling cycle [2]

Process 1-2: Isothermal Compression

The working fluid that is being compressed is cooled in the cold section. As a result,
compression takes place at a constant low temperature. The fluid is being worked on.

Process 2-3: Constant volume regenerative transfer process

The working fluid flows at a steady volume through the regenerator and into the hot
portion. The regenerator heats the working fluid, causing the temperature of the fluid to
rise from T(hot) to T(cold). Internal energy and entropy are both increasing [24].

3
Process 3-4: Isothermal Expansion

The fluid is heated to a high, constant temperature and expands. Work is done by the
fluid.

Process 4-1: Constant volume regenerative transfer process

At a constant volume, the working fluid returns through the regenerator to the cool
section. The regenerator recovers heat from the fluid. There is no work done, and internal
energy and entropy drop [24].

1.2.3 Operational Feature of the Stirling Engine

The Stirling engine has most of its favorable qualities because the combustion or heat
source is located outside the cylinder.

 Being able to use any heat source, such as solar energy, biomass, geothermal
energy, natural gas, or coal, to power a Stirling cycle engine [15].
 Reduced maintenance needs, particularly for the cylinder's seals. This is so that
the surfaces and components won't be harmed by combustion byproducts that are
present in the cylinder.
 Running stealthily The Stirling cycle engine's noise level is extremely low
because there are no periodic explosions, with the main causes being the
combustors (if a combustion heat source is utilized) and the drive linkages.
 Due to the continual nature of the combustion and the abundance of oxygen
present, fuels completely burn off (if used).
 Helium and hydrogen are two examples of unusual gases with good thermal and
transport qualities that can be used to charge an engine since the same unit of gas
is trapped in the cylinder and not released with each cycle.
 The biggest disadvantage of external combustion is the challenge of effectively
transferring heat to the cylinder. There has been a considerable deal of research
done on the design of the heat exchangers in Stirling cycle engines because it is so
crucial. As with most design issues, trade-offs are necessary; in this case, there are
three important ones: keeping a low gas volume while minimizing pressure drop
via the heat exchangers. Design optimization is an interesting problem because
these requirements are incompatible.

4
1.2.4 Stirling Cycle Engine Configuration
As a huge number of mechanisms have been developed to create the necessary motions,
the configuration of Stirling engines is based on the arrangement of the cylinder (s) rather
than the overall form.

Alpha Configuration: This engine has two pistons and is a standard single-acting
engine. Because the two pistons are phased to move gas between their two cylinders
using the regenerator and heat exchangers, there is no displacer in this system. They have
a number of important subgroups [20].

Figure 1.3: Schematic diagram of Alpha configuration [17]

Beta Configuration: The Beta configuration machine efficiently utilizes cylinder space
and dimensions as a single-acting, single-cylinder piston-displacing device. There are not
many variations of this type [17].

Figure 1.4: Schematic of Beta configuration [17]

5
Gamma Configuration: There are a wide number of configurations and mechanisms
available for this kind of design. At its core, a gamma engine requires a piston, a
displacer, two cylinders, and single-acting action [30].

Figure 1.5: Schematic of gamma configuration [17]

Thermal Lag Engine: This innovative concept uses mechanical displacers to

mechanically simplify the conventional Stirling engines. In a three-cylinder engine, the
piston operates in a cooled cylinder while a heated cylinder receives heat from an external
source to run the engine [27]. The gas is occasionally exposed to the chilly heat exchange
area because of the movement of the piston. There is only one moving component, as
opposed to typical Stirling setups. The piston functions as both a power and a
displacement piston. Consequently, a complicated linking mechanism is not required.

Figure 1.6: Schematic of thermal lag configuration [27]

6
1.3 Fresnel Lens

1.3.1 Description
In comparison to a normal lens, the Fresnel lens uses less material because it is divided
into a number of concentric annular portions. The number of sections in a Fresnel lens
should be limitless. When compared to an equivalent simple lens, each section's overall
thickness is reduced. In effect, this creates a series of surfaces with the same curvature
with gradual discontinuities between them from the continuous surface of a typical lens.
Some lenses have flat surfaces instead of curved surfaces, each section having a distinct
angle. One way to think of such a lens is as a circular array of prisms with steeper prisms
on the sides and a flat or slightly concave center. The initial (and largest) Fresnel lenses
had individual prisms for each region. Later, "single-piece" Fresnel lenses were
developed for use as brake, parking, turn signal, and other automotive lenses. For the
production of increasingly complicated lenses, modern computer-controlled milling
machinery (CNC) or 3D printers may be employed. Fresnel lens design enables a
significant decrease in thickness (and therefore in mass and volume of material) at the
cost of lowering the imaging quality of the lens, which is why precise imaging
applications like photography often still employ larger conventional lenses.

Figure 1.7: Fresnel lens [38]

7
1.3.2 The Optical Experimental Analysis of a Fixed-Focus Fresnel Lens
Solar Concentrator

An indirect measuring system for performance testing in actual weather conditions was
developed to validate the fixed-focus performance of the FFFSC. A large Fresnel lens, a
polar-axis tracking device, a solar pyrometer, an adjustable platform, a diffuse flat
receiver, a charge-coupled device camera, an absorptive-reflective neutral density filter, a
data collection system, etc. are the system's primary components. Polar-axis tracking is
used by the fixed-focus Fresnel lens solar concentrator. The Fresnel lens had a 300 mm
focal length, 900 mm aperture diameter, 3 mm thickness, and 1 mm groove pitch. It was
composed of thin films. For the heat our engine would need, we looked into a number of
renewable options. 13 probable heat sources were on our early list that we may potentially
used. We decided that the Fresnel lens was the best option after analyzing the advantages
and disadvantages of each. The Fresnel lens was one of the probable heat sources we took
into account. Temperatures of more than 500 degrees Celsius are possible for the Fresnel
lens. It also has versatility. The size of the focus and focal length can both be optimized
based on the lens's construction. These qualities make a solar Fresnel lens excellent.
Despite the fact that several of these gadgets are commercially available, we were unable
to locate one that suited our needs [39].
In 1748, Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon came up with the idea to create a lens
composed of several concentric circles as a way to reduce weight. Sometime later in 1822
this idea was improved upon by Augustin-Jean Fresnel as a way to create lighthouse
lenses. Originally, the lens was used to take a small light source and magnify it to go
large distances. This was a highly effective technique, and has remained relatively
unchanged since its invention. When researching techniques for solar collection the
Fresnel lens seemed to be a viable option for harnessing sunlight as a heat source.

8
1.3.3 Theoretical Limit for Solar Concentrator

A heat engine would run between a solar concentrator's focus and the sun's surface and
extract energy for free, acting as a perpetual motion machine, if the concentrator could
produce sunlight with an intensity equivalent to a temperature higher than the sun's
surface [33]. Explain the theoretical maximum's underlying mathematics in terms of
point-focus systems using diagrams. Total solar energy leaving the sun is determined by
multiplying the intensity 𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛 at the sun's surface by its surface area, 4πR2. [33]

𝐸𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛 × 4𝜋𝑅2

Figure 1.8: Thermodynamic limit diagram [33]

1.3.4 Fresnel Lens

In 1748, Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon came up with the idea to create a lens
composed of several concentric circles as a way to reduce weight. Sometime later in
1822 this idea was improved upon by Augustin-Jean Fresnel as a way to create
lighthouse lenses. Originally, the lens was used to take a small light source and
magnify it to go large distances. As can be seen from Figure 6, this was a highly
effective technique, and has remained relatively unchanged since its invention. When
researching techniques for solar collection the Fresnel lens seemed to be a viable
option for harnessing sunlight as a heat source [39].

9
Since all of this energy must travel through the sphere that contains the Earth's orbit, the
intensity of the light passing through it. Iearth , is equal to the sum of solar energy,

Esolar , divided by the sphere's surface area 4πR2 [33].

𝐸𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛 4𝜋𝑅2 𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑅2

𝐼𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = = =
4𝜋𝐷 2 4𝜋𝐷 2 𝐷2

The laws of thermodynamics dictate that the intensity of light on Earth cannot exceed the
intensity of light on the sun. Consequently,
𝐷2
𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛 = 2 𝐼𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑅

If the sun half angle = , then from trigonometry, the maximum concentration ratio given by
𝐷 2 /𝑅2 is:

𝐷2 1
=
𝑅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜎

When the value of 𝛿 = 0.27° is entered into the equation, The theoretical limit for line
focus systems is calculated similarly to that described above, except that the spheres are
replaced with circles and their perimeters, yielding a maximum of:

The use of refractive materials in the concentrators caused the light to be refracted to an
even smaller point, allowing for larger concentrations. This approach has created sun light
concentrations as high as 84000, resulting in a 15 percent higher intensity at the focus
than at the sun's surface [33].

10
1.4 Lens as a Solar Collector

1.4.1 Solar thermal Fresnel lens collector

Fresnel lenses are widely employed in solar energy applications because of their great
optical efficiency, low cost, and minimal material consumption. The investigation of the
first full-scale Fresnel lens solar collector field is presented in this work. The local district
heating network in Lende marke, Denmark, receives heat from a field of 144 two-axis
tracking solar collectors made by the Danish company Heliac. Using the quasi-dynamic
test method, the thermal performance of the solar collector field was evaluated. It was
discovered that the collectors' peak efficiency was 17% lower than that of a brand-new
collector and that the collectors' heat losses accounted for 50% of the solar field's overall
heat losses. Since the collectors were left outside for a year without cleaning, soiling was
the main reason for the decrease in peak efficiency. A simulation model created in
TRNSYS was also used to calculate the system's annual performance, and it was verified
by comparing the results to measurement data. When operating at an exit temperature of
95 °C and an input temperature of 45 °C for the year 2021, the heat generation was 262.8
kWh/m2 (relative to aperture area). The annual heat generation was also subjected to a
sensitivity analysis by altering the ground cover ratio, mean collector temperature, and
soiling level. The sensitivity analysis revealed that, in contrast to flat-plate collectors, the
collectors are capable of producing heat above 100 °C because they are generally
insensitive to fluctuations in the mean collector temperature [39].

11
 CHAPTER 2

MOTIVATION

2.1 Background
There is no denying that people around the world are looking for solutions to
environmental problems. These have manifested in a variety of ways. sources of
renewable energy, improved construction techniques and insulation, combined heat and
power generation, etc. And commitments are not just restricted to certain businesses.
Passive housing, micro-CHP for domestic use, and other innovations are the result of the
public's interest in new and improved technology [8]. A highly decentralized system for
the production of renewable energy is one of the bigger ideas. Although a fundamental
paradigm shift in energy generation is necessary, the idea is gaining popularity.
According to recent research, 31 US states could obtain all of their required electricity
from nearby renewable sources [10] .

However, when it comes to important challenges, climate change often takes center stage.
Thirty percent of people on the planet still do not have access to power. For as many as 2
billion people, these problems which are typically compounded by a lack of safe water
perpetuate poverty. Due to the difficulty of doing so, the majority of these nations are no
longer able to close the technical development gap.

2.2 Potential of the Thermal Lag Engine

Consequently, Stirling engine technology is still in its infancy. But there's been a lot of
promise mentioned. Stirling technology can be utilized to improve heat exchangers, seals,
and engines through the pressurization of the engine, use of various working fluids,
improved heat exchangers, new materials, etc. The Stirling engine also offers a number of
benefits, such as its great mechanical simplicity and lack of moving components in the
hot area. Ceramics are a good example of a material that may be used with loose
tolerances since it is resistant to very high temperatures. Stirling engines are an exception

12
to this rule since their moving parts need to have precise tolerances and high surface
finishes, which are challenging to produce with these materials. The anticipated lower
cycle efficiency relative to a Stirling cycle engine can be reduced by operating at higher
temperatures. Thermal efficiency is boosted in this way. Because of its relatively
unrestricted flow, the Stirling engine can operate at higher speeds [28]. There is no need
for high-temperature sealing methods because the piston in a Stirling engine is in a cooled
cylinder. This enables the use of straightforward rubber seals, such Tailer's annular
rolling seal [26]. Stirling engines are occasionally used in solar applications. Because
highly pure silicon is pricey, photovoltaic cells are pricy. Conversely, ordinary materials
like steel and rubber can be used to create stirling engines. External heat engines are
inherently capable of running on any kind of fuel. They run smoothly and silently with
strict pollution control since combustion is what they do. Another element that needs to
be considered is cost effectiveness. What best exemplifies this The symbolic price of
producing energy from hydrocarbons is one dollar per watt. Due to its low initial and
ongoing costs, an upgraded Stirling engine may be able to do this.

The prospects above suggest a number of uses for the Stirling engine. It might be a part of
a hybrid power generating system that absorbs solar heat during the day and softly burns
any fuel type at night if all advantages are completely realized. It is also feasible to satisfy
the demand for low-cost, on-site engines powered by regional resources in non-
industrialized areas [32]. A Stirling engine that runs on coal, wood, agricultural energy, or
solar power could provide electricity or power tiny appliances for isolated or
underdeveloped populations worldwide. The aforementioned issues and advancements
point to several possibilities for low-tech devices like the Stirling engine to emerge as the
sustainable engines of the future.

13
 CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Review of Previous Works

This paper provides a multiple criteria were used to consider an optimized high-
temperature differential Stirling engine. With a finite rate of heat transfer, regenerative
heat loss, conductive thermal bridging loss, a finite regeneration process time, and
imperfect dish collector performance, a thermal model has been created to calculate the
output power and thermal efficiency of the solar Stirling system. In order to maximize
both simultaneously, the output power and overall thermal efficiency were taken into
account. The temperature of the working fluid and the greatest and lowest temperatures of
the solar absorber were used as decision variables in multi-objective evolutionary
algorithms (MOEAs) based on the NSGA-II algorithm [36].

The following paper briefs that the amount of solar energy that reaches the surface of the
planet has a low intensity, at 5-7.5KW/m2. Therefore, sufficient solar energy must be
captured by solar collectors for any practical application. This essay examines the
configuration of a solar Stirling engine and evaluates the efficacy of employing a
parabolic reflector as a heat source. Any incoming ray that is parallel to the axis of the
dish will be focused at a point by the parabolic reflector because of the geometric
characteristics of the paraboloidal shape. The main idea behind a Stirling engine is that a
predetermined volume of gas (helium or hydrogen) is contained inside the device. A
multitude of things happen during the Stirling cycle, altering the gas pressure inside the
engine and making it work. The engine should be built like a vertical Stirling engine with
double acting and gamma arrangement [1].

This paper provides the modelling and simulation of a solar powered Stirling engine
system with parabolic dish and electric generator aiming to determine its energy
production and efficiency. One of the most promising renewable energy technologies for
reducing reliance on fossil fuels in the production of electricity is the use of Stirling
engines with a parabolic dish to convert solar energy from thermal to electric. The solar
radiation concentration system, heat transmission in the thermal receiver, the thermal

14
cycle, and the conversion of mechanical and electrical energy are all included in the
model. All of the major activities taking place in the compression, expansion, and
regenerator spaces as well as other thermodynamic and energy transfer processes in the
engine are meticulously represented. The engine efficiency was found to be close to
23.8% when employing a directly lighted thermal receiver without a cavity, translating to
a worldwide efficiency of 10.4% [37].

3.2 History of Solar Powered Stirling Engine

Solar Stirling power generation has been the topic of extensive research, and several
commercial systems have been created. The used generators are typically 5kW to 25kW
in capacity and are a part of a solar power system. Dish-Stirling systems exhibit
efficiencies comparable to the most efficient photoelectric cells now available (about
30%) [9]. However, photoelectric cells continue to improve and become less expensive.
The following chapters will go into more detail on this. The Solar Stirling application
typically has a much higher overall efficiency than its combustion-heated counterpart
operating at the same temperature differential because parasitic losses brought on by heat
escaping up chimneys and through combustion chamber walls are not present. This is due
to the nature of the incoming energy. A single cylinder beta layout is used in the most
majority of currently accessible systems, allowing a somewhat consistent heat input into
the cylinder head. A heat pipe absorber system is necessary in more contemporary models
and multi-cylinder engines, such as the DMC5 [5] developed by the University of
Canterbury's Department of Mechanical Engineering, to prevent hot spots. A parabolic
trough can be used, which has more affordable but larger arrays of concentrators, for
activities at lower temperatures. Unfortunately, this technique is ineffective, producing
power from just around 3% of the total energy. Like all other solar thermal systems, the
Solar Stirling system has the drawback of producing no electricity at night when it cools
down. Because of the system's substantial thermal mass, turning it back on each morning
can be time-consuming.

3.3 Using Solar Energy for Generating Electricity

It is the star that is closest to Earth, being 149598000 kilometers away on average. It is
entirely unremarkable and entirely safe to live next to a yellow dwarf star with a diameter
of 1392,000 kilometers and a mass of 1.99x1030 kg for the next 6x109 years, which is

15
much longer than humans will exist. Pressures inside the sun's core are so high (4.1 x
1016 Pa) that hydrogen atoms can fuse together to generate helium. At a rate of
3.85x1026 W, or 4.7x109 kg of matter per second, and temperatures close to 14000 K,
this process produces "solar energy." Gamma radiation is produced by this reaction,
which rises to the surface where it is absorbed and repeatedly released after being
intercepted by atoms. After a few hundred thousand years, the severely degraded energy
eventually makes it to the surface of the sun as lower-energy infrared and visible light.
Approximately 8 kw/cm2 of energy are travelling through the photosphere, or surface, of
the sun at a temperature of 5800 K. Only a minuscule portion, one part in 2200000000, of
the energy makes it to Earth; the great majority is lost to deep space. The atmosphere
allows for the passage of 75% of this tiny amount to the planet's surface without being
reflected back into space. The ocean absorbs the majority of the energy that reaches the
Earth's surface, which leads to evaporation and eventually precipitation [23]. A solar
thermal power generation system's concentrating collector array may receive a very small
amount of sunlight. Since radiation flux concentrates and can reach extremely high
temperatures, Stirling engines with very high efficiency can be used to produce
electricity. In the end, solar radiation is the source of all renewable energy, whether it is
converted directly or indirectly. In a strict sense, sunlight is a nonrenewable resource.

3.4 Suitable Type of Engine for Generating Electricity

Based on the foregoing findings, we chose a single-cylinder Stirling engine of the Tailer
thermal lag type for our project due to its simplicity. It is easy to put together, has fewer
moving parts, is robustly built, and is durable. It can withstand any weather or
circumstance. Costs for construction are minimal. It has the capacity to generate a
significant amount of electricity [6].

3.5 Using Fresnel Lenses as A Heat Source

Integrated solar systems (i.e. photovoltaic modules installed directly in the façades) and
concentrating solar systems are more popular. This paper defines the possibility of using
Fresnel lens to improve the efficiency of integrated photovoltaic modules. Both dynamic
simulations (done using TRNSYS software) and experimental results (conducted on
dedicated set-up with linear Fresnel lens) were described. It can be concluded, that Fresnel
lenses allow improving the overall efficiency of the integrated photovoltaic systems during
16
conducted tests, the performance of the tested photovoltaic module increased by about 7%
[40].

3.6 Goal of the Project

The foregoing explanations make clear that further research is needed to fully understand
the driving phenomena that underlie the engine. With the exception of basic
generalizations about its operating principles, very few people have tried to examine and
simulate the engine. There has been much little research. So far, these experiments have
regarded the TLE like a mysterious black box. In order to quantify the amount of effort
produced, the researchers tried to start the engine. The primary variables were altered, and
the results were evaluated. However, nobody has attempted to quantify the engine's
working cycle to verify the claims.

 To design a solar-powered thermal lag-type Stirling engine;

 To fabricate and construct the Stirling engine;
 To improve the overall performance and efficiency of the constructed Stirling
engine.

17
 CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY

4.1 Stirling Engine Design Parameters

In this study, we chose a Stirling engine of the Tailer thermal lag type to produce energy
from a solar concentrator. Compared to the alternatives, this engine layout has fewer
moving components. This engine only has seven different major component kinds and
one cylinder.

Figure 4.1: Thermal lag type Stirling engine for generating electricity [21]

4.1.1 Working Principle

Tailer outlines his four-step methodology for describing the basic TLE cycle. A lengthy
heater is connected to a cooled, much larger-diameter cylinder space in the enclosed
engine volume [27]. There is a temperature difference between the heated cylinder and
the cooled cylinder while the piston is in the bottom dead center position. In order to
convey the cold gas into the heated region, the gas is compressed. It takes some time for
the gas to heat up at the top dead center. As a result, both pressure and temperature
increase. The piston is pushed back by the expanding gas, creating work. Because the hot
part is constantly releasing heat into the gas, this expansion takes place at a higher
temperature than it would if it were adiabatic. Gas flows from the heater towards the
cylinder as a result of the piston's action expanding the cold part of the engine's volume.
The gas expands into the cylinder, where bulk mixing takes place, as a result of the gas's
inertia and the piston's motion. As a result, the cold cylinder walls and heat

18
transmission, and temperature diffusion are increased. However, due to its thermal inertia,
the gas's temperature does not drop instantly. This occurs gradually and continues as the
piston begins to recompress the gas. The temperature of the gas does not fall immediately,
though, because of its thermal inertia. This starts slowly and keeps going when the piston
starts to recompress the gas. The engine's operation depends critically on the time interval
between the gas's displacement and its change in internal energy. The gas temperature
should be as low as possible before compression. The engine's network output will be
increased as a result.

Figure 4.2: Tailer’s TLE cycle [27]

Without discussing the losses that are suffered naturally, Tailer describes an idealistic
TLE. He discusses how the expanding cylinder's influence of heat transfer minimizes
expansion work [31]. West is aware that some of the gas cools inside the cylinder during
expansion as a result. Nevertheless, at the right speeds, the thermal inertia of the gas
makes sure that the temperature of the gas is higher than the lower temperature at the end
of expansion, allowing cooling to happen during compression. The association between
the engine speed and the rate at which the gas temperature in the cooler decreases during
expansion is first brought up by West, who emphasizes its importance. This statement is
important. Because of its low thermal inertia, gas cannot expand at a high temperature

19
and pressure when the engine speed is too low. Therefore, expansion work will be
reduced. The possibility of cooling during compression will be less likely at the
conclusion of expansion because the temperature difference between the gas and the wall
will be lower. As a result, compression work will multiply. This suggests that the cooling
rate is greatest during the expansion stroke in terms of the thermal lag effect. As a result,
the optimal phase shift of 90 is overlooked. In addition, factors besides dwell durations
and thermal inertia affect heat transfer in Tailer's engine. Two more occurrences support
the thermal lag effect in this engine.

1 – Cylinder 2 – Piston
3 – Cooling Bath 4 – Cooler
5 - Flat Heated Chamber 6 – Heat Source

Figure 4.3: Tailer’s vertical TLE [28]

Consider the cooler in Tailer's TLE, which chills the entire piston cylinder and the duct
going to it, to demonstrate the first effect. It is crucial to understand that while some of
the cold heat transfer area is changeable, some of it is fixed. The action of the piston
maximizes the heat transfer surface and, as a result, the cooler's capacity for heat transfer
at the bottom dead center. This strengthens the thermal lag effect by delaying the cooling
of the gas until after an expansion. The ratio of the variable to fixed cold heat transfer
area in Tailer's engine is only 0.23 due to the piston stroke being only 1.9 cm [27].
Therefore, it is impossible to overstate the impact of his engine's changeable cooler
area. To do this, long-stroked thermal lag test engines would be necessary. The nature of

20
the gas flow within the altering geometry is what leads to the second event. The entering
mass flow is centered and the cylinder wall velocities are moderately modest as hot gas
expands into the piston chamber. Due to the gas's poor thermal conductivity, temperature
diffusion causes some cooling, but it is only small. Vortices are only created because of
the gas's mass inertia when the piston starts to recompress the gas, which causes the
cylinder walls to move at much greater speeds and causes the convection coefficients to
rise. Additionally, because the gas is being compressed up against the cylinder head, there
is a significant increase in the amount of effective heat transfer area that can be used to
cool the gas during the compression stroke, which causes the highest cooling rates to
occur during this phase of the engine's operation. The thermal lag effect is strengthened as
a result.

Figure 4.4: Helium (gas) circulating inside the engine [27]

We are using a glass tube with a diameter of 1.6 cm as the pulse tube. The pulse tube is
filled with regenerator material to maintain the temperature and the steady flow of heat
energy. Glass wool makes up the regenerator's components. The hot gases are moved
from the pulse tube to the engine cylinder using a CD. As the piston transitions from TDC
to BDC, hot gases impact it and release heat. The pulse tube, which stores heat energy, is
forced by the piston as it advances from BDC to TDC. As long as heat is present, this
process continues.
21
4.1.2 Engine Parts and Components

Major parts to be manufactured for this engine are:

 Regenerator with Pulse tube (heated section)
 Nozzle
 Cylinder
 Piston
 Connecting Rod
 Flywheel

4.1.3 Material Selection

Table 1: Materials Selection for project

Parts Material
Pulse tube Stainless Steel
Regenerator Helium Gas
Nozzle Aluminum
Cylinder Pyrex Glass Tube
Piston Cast Iron
Connecting Rod Cast Iron
Flywheel Aluminum
Generator Techogenerator
Base Stainless Steel
Output Source 3V LED bulb

22
4.1.4 Dimension of The Components

Table 2: Dimension of the Components

Parts Dimension
Pulse Tube Diameter 1.5 cm and length of 4.8 cm

Nozzle hot side end is 2 cm of diameter and cold

side end is of 1.8 cm diameter.

Piston Bore diameter of 1.49 cm

Cylinder The cylinder has a length of 4.5 cm and
bore diameter of 1.5 cm. the stroke
length of .7 cm
Flywheel Diameter of 5 cm

4.2 Fresnel Lens Solar Collector

4.2.1 Working Principle

The principle of operation is straightforward enough: given that the refractive power of a
lens is contained only at the optical interfaces (i.e. the lens surfaces), remove as much of
the optical material as possible while still maintaining the surface curvature. Another way
to consider it is that the continuous surface of the lens is ”collapsed“ onto a plane.
The practical aspect of compressing the lens surface power into a plano surface requires a
finite prism pitch, a slope angle component (which acts to refract the rays in the prescribed
manner) and a draft component (which for the normal refractive lens design is optically
inactive but necessary to return the surface profile ”back to the plane“).The convention is
to specify the slope angle with respect to the plane of the lens and the draft angle with
respect to the normal. For example, a small slope angle would correspond to a prism with a
gradual incline whereas a small draft angle corresponds to a very steep prism decline.

23
 Figure 4.5: schematic of a Fresnel Lens solar collector [41]

4.2.2 Parts and Components

The Fresnel lens solar collector is consisting of three parts:

 Square frame structure
 Collective material (Lens)
 Holding stand

4.2.3 Material Selection

Table 3: Material Selection for Fresnel Lens Solar Collector

Parts Material
Steel
Square frame structure

Reflective materials 40x30 cm Fresnel Lens

Stand Steel

4.2.4 Focus Point and Dimension

The diameter of the dish needs to be calculated more intricately in order to be determined
all the way around its surface. This term, which is often referred to as the "linear
diameter," refers to the diameter of the flat, circular sheet of material typically metal that
can be cut and bent to create the dish. In the calculation, two intermediate results are

Useful : 𝑃 = 2F (or the equivalent: P= 𝑅 2 /2𝐷) Q=√𝑷𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐

24
𝑃 = 2𝐹 the volume of the dish, the quantity of fluid it could accommodate if the rim were
𝜋
horizontal and the vertex at the bottom is represented by ( 2 𝑅2𝐷) where the symbols are

described as above. This can be related with the formulae for the volumes of a cylinder
2𝜋 𝜋
(𝜋𝑅 2𝐷) a hemisphere ( 3 𝑅 2𝐷 where 𝐷 = 𝑅) and a cone ( 3 𝑅 2𝐷) Of course, (𝜋𝑅 2)
is the

aperture area of the lens

Figure 4.6: Fresnel Lens [42]

4.1 Designing of Parts

4.1.1 Designing of Individual Parts of The Engine

The Taylor thermal lag type engine has 7 major parts to design and construct. These are:
 Pulse tube
 Nozzle
 Cylinder
 Piston
 Connecting Rod
 Flywheel

25
Figure 4.7: Pulse Tube Figure 4.8: Cylinder

Figure 4.9: Nozzle

Figure 4.10: Flywheel

26
 Figure 4.11: Piston

Figure 4.12: Connecting Rod

27
 Figure 4.13: Engine Assembly

Figure 4.14: Fresnel Lens Solar Concentrator

28
 CHAPTER 5

CONSTRUCTION, EXPERIMENTATION & CALCULATION

5.1 Construction
The Stirling engine is built and developed by manufacturing individual pieces. We use
our university lab machine to make 7 types of key parts as per design requirements. Our
engine parts are made in our university's machine shop, which employs four different
types of machine equipment-

• Central lathe machine

• Milling machine
• Drilling machine
• Grinding machine

5.1.1 Regenerator with Pulse Tube

A hollow stainless steel with a diameter of 1.5 cm and a length of 4.8 cm was employed. As
working fluid, Stirling engines use a compressible fluid such as; air, hydrogen, helium,
nitrogen or even vapors. In general, hydrogen and helium are used because of their higher
heat-transfer capabilities than other fluids. Helium is used as one of the most commonly
working fluids in Stirling engines. The specific heat at constant pressure and volume for
this fluid are 5195 and 3117 J/kg K, respectively.

Figure 5.1: Hot section pulse tube

29
 Figure 5.2: Regenerative material

5.1.2 Nozzle
The nozzle was made from a solid aluminum bar. It's a CD (converging diverging) type
nozzle with a 2 cm hot side end and a 1.8 cm cold side end.

Figure 5.3: Nozzle

30
5.1.3 Cylinder
Pyrex glass tube makes up the cylinder. The cylinder is 4.5 cm long and 1.5 cm in
diameter.

Figure 5.4: Cylinder

5.1.4 Piston and Connecting Rod

The piston is also composed of Stainless Steel . The piston has a bore diameter of 1,49
cm . An cast iron bar serves as the connecting rod.

Figure 5.5: Piston and Connecting Rod

31
5.1.5 Flywheel
Aluminum is used for the flywheel. It measures 5 centimeters in diameter. The flywheel's
center. It is made up of a bearing and is attached to the frame via crankshaft.

Figure 5.6: Flywheel

5.1.6 Fresnel lens Solar Collector

By breaking the lens up into a number of concentric annular parts, the Fresnel lens uses less
material than a normal lens would. An endless number of pieces would make up the perfect
Fresnel lens. When compared to an equivalent simple lens, the overall thickness is reduced
in each part. By doing this, the continuous surface of a typical lens is effectively split into a
number of surfaces with the same curvature with progressive gaps between them.

Figure 5.7: Fresnel Lens

32
5.1.7 Stand for Solar Collector

The Fresnel lense collector is held in place with the help of the stand. Angles of mild steel
make up the stand (Rotating stand). The stand is built with a rectangle design to support
and balance the collector.

Figure 5.8: Stand for Solar Concentrator

33
5.2 Experimental Setup

5.2.1 Assembly of The Engine with Fresnel Lens

The final engine assembly includes a pulse tube with a regenerative material inside on the
hot side, as well as a nozzle that connects the hot and cold sides. The cold side consists of
a cylinder, a piston inside the cylinder, and a connecting rod linking the piston to the
flywheel.

Figure 5.9 : Assembly of The Engine with Fresnel Lens

34
5.3 Calculations
Energy efficiency of the engine is determined by:
 the properties of the working fluid (Helium)
 the ratio of the diameters of the displacer or piston
 the ratio of the temperatures of the heater and cooler
 the efficiency of the engine

Required Formula’s:
 Experimental value:
Bore diameter, D = 1.5 cm

Stroke length, L = 0.75 cm

Cross sectional area of piston = 1.75 cm2
Qi = 31.14 watt (heat added in the cycle from Fresnel Lens)
Tmax = 516 k
Tmin = 308 k
Selecting working fluid as (Helium)
Parameters,
R = 2.0769 KJ/kg.K
Cp= 5.19 KJ/kg.K
Cv= 3.1156 KJ/kg.K
K = 1.66

 Engine Efficiency:

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
ŋ= × 100% [43]
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
4.68
ŋ =
31.14
× 100%
ŋ = 15% = 0.15

 Work Done:

Here, Qi = heat added in the cycle, ŋ = Engine efficiency

Work Done = Qi × ŋ
=31.14×0.15
= 4.67 watt

35
  Swept Volume:

2
Swept Volume , V = 𝜋×𝐷 ×𝐿
S
4
2
V = 𝜋×(1.5) ×0.75
S
4
V = 1.32 cc
S

Here,
D = Bore diameter
L = Stoke length including clearance and swept length

n = Number of cylinders

 Clearance Volume:

h= distance between TDC (top dead center) to the head of the cylinder

2
Clearance volume, V = 𝜋×𝐷 ×ℎ
c
4
2
V = 𝜋×(1.5) ×0.4
c
4
V
c = 0.70 cc

 Total Displacement of The Engine:

Total Displacement = Swept Volume + Clearance Volume

Total Displacement = (1.32+0.70) cc
Vt = 2.02 cc

36
 Compression Ratio:
Here,
V = total volume of engine
t
V = clearance volume of engine
c
V = swept volume of engine
s

r = 𝑉𝑡
𝑉𝑐

r = 2.02
0.70
r = 2.88

 Solar Power Input:

Assuming there will be constant amount of heat received by the Fresnel Lens
Amount of energy received -

Solar Intensity = 4983 w/m2 (Date : 9 Feb 2023)

= 4.9 Kw/h/day
= 4.9 (kw/h)/ 24h
= 0.2078 Kw
= 207.6 watt/m2

Input Power, Q = solar intensity (w/ 2 ) × Area ( 2)

i 𝑚 m
𝜋
= 207.6 × × 0.15
4
=31.4 watt

 Calculation of Actual Mass in the System

𝑸𝒊𝒏=𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒕×𝑪𝑽 × 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑻 𝒎𝒊𝒏

31.4 =𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑡 × 3.1156 × 103 (516 − 308)

𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 4.80 × 10−5 kg/sec

37
  Calculation of Volume:

From ideal gas equation PV = MRT

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 × 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑡 × 𝑅 × 𝑇𝑎𝑡𝑚

1.01325× 105 × 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 4.80×10−5 ×2076.9× 300
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 2.95 × 10−4 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

 Calculation For Initial Pressure

𝑃𝑖 × 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑡 × 𝑅 × 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝑖 × 2.95 × 10−4 = 4.80×10−5 ×2076.9× 299
𝑃𝑖 =1.01042 bar

∴ Initial pressure 𝑃𝑖 = 1.01042 bar

Isentropic gas equation between p, t

𝐾
𝑃𝑖 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐾−1
=
𝑃𝑓 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥
1.66
1.01042 308 1.66−1
=
𝑃𝑓 516
𝑃𝑓 = 2.6 𝑏𝑎𝑟

Final pressure, 𝑃𝑓 = 2.6 bar

38
5.2.5 Calculated Value

Table 5: List of Calculated Value

Parameter Value

Bore diameter, D 1.5cm

Stroke length, L 0.75cm

Total displacement, V 2.02cc

Swept volume vs 1.32cc

Clearance volume, 𝑉c 0.70cc

Compression ratio, r 2.88

Work done 4.68 Watt

solar power input, Qin 31.14 watt

actual mass in the system, 𝑀𝑎𝑐t 4.8×10-5 kg/sec

volume, 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 2.95× 10-4 m3/sec

Fnitial pressure, 𝑃i 1.01042 bar

Final pressure, Pf 2.6 bar

39
 CHAPTER 6

RESULT & DISCUSSION

6.1 Result
The highest temperature was measured from the fresnel solar
collector all the way to the engine's hot side = 516 K
The engine temperature is on the cool side = 308 K
The efficiency of the engine, ŋ = 15%

Work done by the engine = 4.67 watt

6.1.1 Experimental Analysis

Hot Chamber Temperature vs Time: We had taken two infrared thermocouple and
stopwatch. Combustion chamber was heated with the required heat and measured the
temperature after every 30 seconds. Total 180 seconds had been measured from which
we got 516 K temperature.

Table 6.1: Hot Chamber Temperature (K)

Time(S) Temperature(°C)
30 308
60 346
90 409
120 457
150 491
180 516

40
 Figure 6.1 : Time (S) vs Hot chamber Temperature(K)

Explaination of The Graph: When we start the engine the temperature started to
increase along with the time. If we had kept the temperature constant the engine would
have been for a longer period.

Cold Chamber Temperature: In Come of cold chamber, there was not much increase
in temperature. But the experimental process was similar to that of the hot chamber.

Table 6.2 : Cold Chamber Temperature(°C)

Time(s) Temperature(K)
30 292
60 296
90 298
120 302
150 304
180 308

41
 Figure 6.2 : Time (S) vs Cold chamber Temperature (K)

Explaination The Graph: This is a graph of time (s) vs. cold side temperature (K). This
graph depicts the decline in time as the cold side temperature rises. The cold side
temperature is shown on the x axis, and the time is shown on the y axis.

Voltage at Different Time (S): The voltage was measured with multimeter along with
the time.

Table 6.3 : Voltage (V) at Different Time (S)

Time(S) Voltage(V)
30 0
60 0
90 0
120 1.2
150 1.9
180 2.6

42
 Figure 6.3 : Time (S) vs Voltage (V)

Explaination of The Graph: Up to 90 second the engine did not start. After 120 second
the engine started to run and started to increase the voltage. And at particular period when
the voltage reached 2.6 V.

RPM at Different Time and Temperature (K): For the temperature reading we had
used infrared thermocouple and the measured RPM with tachometer and time was
measured by stop watch. The reading was taken after every 30 second.

Table 6.4 : RPM at Different time and Temperature (K)

Time (S) RPM Temperature (K)

30 0 308

60 0 346

90 0 409

120 1200 457

150 1910 491

180 2680 516

43
 Figure 6.4 : Time (S) vs RPM vs Temperature (K)

Explain Graph: After up to 90 second the engine did not run. So, when the engine started
to run the RPM started to increase along with the increase of temperature. So, when the
RPM reached to 2680 it become slightly comfort. But the temperature kept on increasing.

Lux at Different Time (S): Light meter was used which was mobile application type
software. From which we took the reading keeping it on the sunlight after every 15
minutes.
Table 6.5 : Lux at Different Time (S)

Time (s) Lux

12:00 18209
12:15 18785
12:30 21750
12:45 22765
13:00 18750
13:15 22490
13:30 19452
13:45 20179
14:00 22370
14:15 19875
14:30 18730

44
 Figure 6.5 : Lux vs Different Time (S)

Explaination of The Graph: Due to weather related the temperature was low. As a result,
of that we could not take our desire temperature reading.

Current (A) at Different RPM: We measured the current by voltmeter and the measured
the RPM with tachometer.

Table 6.6 : Current at Different RPM

Current (amp) RPM

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 1200

1.3 1910

1.8 2680

45
 Figure 6.6 : Current (amp) vs Different RPM

Explaination of The Graph: When the engine is running at a rpm then the current is
show. In this graph, the highest measured rpm is 2680 and the current is 1.8 amp.

Experimental Load Curve of DC generator: The DC generator load curve is measured

voltage(v) vs current(amp).

Table 6-7 : Current (amp) vs Voltage (V)

Current (amp) Voltage (V)

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 1.2

1.3 1.9

1.8 2.6

46
 Figure 6.7 : Current (amp) vs Voltage (V)

Explaination of The Graph: This graph shows that the DC generator’s load curve.
Current and voltage is proportionally increase

47
 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

7.1 Conclusion

An experiment has been made to create, test and evaluate a Stirling engine that runs on
Fresnel Lens. We have built and manufactured a (Thermal Lag) Stirling engine, whose
primary goal is to utilize solar energy to generate electricity. A Fresnel Lens is the
engine's primary power source. A Fresnel lens produce as engine primary power source,
while lens produces 400 degrees Celsius temperature in this system. The distance between
Fresnel lens and engine is 30 cm. The light from sun falls in to the lens from all direction
and concentrate all the light to the combustion chamber and then combustion chamber
heated up. We used combustion chamber is stainless steel and used helium gas for
working fluid. When heat reached 184 degrees Celsius in combustion chamber, the engine
starts. However due to temperature issue we were unable to start our engine by the
Fresnel lens. We started our engine using spirit lamp, by another way. Then we tested it
using a variety of sensor and measured start time of the engines RPM, Hot and Cold
cylinder temperature, Voltage, solar intensity and also collected the lux parameter. In this
project the value has been measured by the Infrared thermo-couple, techo-meter, Lux
meter apps and multimeter. Problem and lessons can be learned from the project and can
be used to guide for future development. We had got the maximum voltage was 2.6 V,
current 1.8 amp, maximum rpm 2680. Our engine efficiency was 15%. We measured the
engine output was 4.67 watt.

7.2 Future Recommendation

The Stirling engine proposed in this dissertation raises the possibility of a distributed
system that can reliably and effectively produce renewable electricity and heat. Stirling
systems have a wide range of applications, from microgrids in places without a
dependable grid to domestic generating in a grid-connected environment. It is alluring to
combine the benefits of producing electricity, storing energy, and using heat energy. It is
compelling to consider how this technology can help decarbonize humanity's energy
supply. This dissertation's main goals are to validate a design approach that can be
utilized to further improve a Stirling engine system and to show that it can be used as a
clean energy technology.
48
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