PRACTICAL CONTACT ULTRASONICS - ANGLE BEAM

INSPECTION

Angle beam inspection uses shear (transverse) waves to interrogate a part as

opposed to the longitudinal waves used in straight beam testing. Properly used,
highly effective and accurate angle beam evaluations can determine the
soundness of the part being inspected.

In the simplest terms, angle beam inspection combines the basic operating
principle of a fish finder with a bank shot in a game of pool or billiards. The
sound beam is sent through the part at a known angle that is created by
attaching a piezoelectric transducer to an acoustically transparent wedge at a
predetermined angle. The sound beam reflects from the back surface of the part
and returns to the inspection surface some distance away from the transducer.
The direction the sound takes is called the sound path (Fig. 1). For purposes of
illustration, only the centerline of the sound beam is shown. The sound beam
between the transducer and the back surface of the material is called the first
leg or node. Sound that reflects back up from the back surface is called the
second leg. The total distance down the sound path from the entry point to the
point where the beam again hits the top surface, the sum of the legs, is called
the skip distance. As the transducer is moved back and forth over the surface of
the part, the sound beam travels through the part ahead of the transducer. If the
sound beam does not hit a reflector (discontinuity) while travelling through the
part, it will simply reflect back down into the part, travelling outward until the
sound attenuates or dissipates.

This is typical behavior of the angle beam sound path in a piece of flat material.
The next step is to determine precisely where the sound is going. To do this, it
is necessary to know the angle of the sound beam in the part in relation to a line
drawn vertically through the material thickness.

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This is called the refracted angle and is determined by the angle at which the
transducer is mounted on the wedge in the transducer assembly or probe. The
most commonly used search angles in contact UT work are 45, 60 and 70
degrees as referenced to steel. The refracted angle in other materials will not be
the angle marked on the probe. Figure 2 illustrates a 45 degree probe.

On the side of most commercial wedges is a mark called the exit point that
denotes the point at which the center of the sound beam leaves the base of the
transducer. When using a 45 degree probe, the distance from the exit point to
the point directly above an internal reflector is the same as the depth to that
reflector. Another use of the exit point is to determine the location of the probe
with respect to a fixed point on the part such as a weld centerline. This distance
should be recorded on the inspection report form as the surface distance and as
long as the reference point is also recorded, the inspection can be accurately
repeated should the need arise.

Probe Selection

In many cases, the governing code or specification will specify the angle to be
used for a given inspection. However, operators may find that for some
inspections no wedge angle, probe size or frequency is specified and the
operator will be required to determine what combination of equipment will be
needed to perform a valid inspection. In this situation, the factors to be
considered are material thickness, length of the transducer's near field, type and
possible orientation of discontinuities and geometry of the part.

Material thickness will define the inspection angle required to adequately cover
the full volume of the area to be inspected.

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For example, on thinner materials, if a wedge with a steep angle such as 45
degrees is used, the second leg of the sound beam may come back up under
the front edge of the wedge, making it impossible to measure the surface
distance. If a shallower angle is used such as 70 degrees, the distance the
probe must be backed away from the area of interest may be excessive and
can exceed the part size or geometry. Generally, to ensure a complete
inspection, the operator must be able to back the transducer away from the
nearest edge of the area of interest by at least the full skip distance for the
angle being used plus the length of the transducer. This will permit the sound
beam to interrogate the part using both legs of the sound beam (Fig. 3). The
scanning surface must be free of weld spatter, dirt, loose scale and other
foreign matter to allow proper coupling of probe and base metal. Part size may
limit choice of search angle if there is limited scanning space next to the area of
interest.

The near field length of a transducer varies depending on the diameter and
frequency of the crystal. As discussed in the first article of this series,
inspections performed using the near field are not reliable. If uncertain of the
length of the near field for a given transducer, the operator should either
calculate it or have the Level III do so to confirm the proper frequency/diameter
combination. Some near field will always exist, but if made short enough to be
kept within the wedge material, an accurate inspection can be performed.

Probe size is often dictated by the near field effect, but geometry of the part
should also be considered when selecting a probe. In some conditions, the
physical size of the probe can affect the inspection. For example, when
inspecting a girth weld on small diameter pipe, a large transducer may not sit
flat on the scanning surface. It may have a tendency to rock from side-to-side
while scanning the part. When this occurs, the probe is not coupled properly to
the part and some of the sound can be lost. The amount of sound entering the
part is less than the amount of sound used to calibrate the system. This results
in less sound striking the potential discontinuity and negates the value of the
inspection.

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Changing to a smaller width probe reduces lateral rocking and more nearly
matches the calibration conditions thereby providing better inspection results. In
some situations, it may even be necessary to use a wedge contoured to fit the
inspection surface.

The distance from the probe exit point to the front end or nose of the wedge is
another consideration. If too small a search angle is used, the nose may hit the
toe or edge of a weld crown before the sound beam reaches the root or bottom
of the weld. In this instance, the root will not be interrogated in the first leg and
the probability of missing a root indication is greatly increased. If too steep an
angle is used on thinner materials, the sound path may remain totally under the
wedge and no sound will enter the area of interest.

Orientation of discontinuities should also be considered when selecting a wedge

angle. The greatest amount of sound will be reflected back from a discontinuity
if the sound beam strikes it perpendicularly to the major surface of the
discontinuity. As an illustration, visualize a blade held in a stream of water. If
parallel to the flow, no water bounces off the blade but just flows past it.
However, if held perpendicular to the flow, water hits the flat side of the blade
and bounces back. The same effect occurs with sound and a discontinuity. The
best results are obtained when the sound beam is perpendicular to the largest
surface of the discontinuity.

It should be noted that if the backwall of the material being inspected is not
parallel to the scanning surface, the angle of the second leg will change, and
reflectors will display a screen signal at an improper location. This can occur at
pipe-to-fitting welds where the fitting may have an internal bevel.

Equipment Setup

Once material thickness is determined and the correct probe combination is

selected, the next step is to set up the equipment. Selection of screen width
greatly affects the ability of the operator to discriminate between vertical screen
traces or signals that appear when sound is reflected back to the transducer.
The term screen width refers to the distance that the baseline of the screen
represents. Operators must inspect parts requiring sound paths of various
lengths. It is necessary to adjust the screen face to represent the distance that
best displays the image of the sound reflecting back from the part.

To select optimum screen width, the length of the sound path for a full skip
distance in the thickness of material to be tested must be determined. As
thickness increases, the length of a full skip also increases, and at some point
can require that a wider screen width be used. The screen width must be able
to display the full skip. If not, indications generated at the far end of the second
leg may not appear on the screen.

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Commonly used screen widths for general weld inspections are 5 and 10 in. (13
and 25 cm). This means that the width of the screen is set to represent either a
5 or 10 in. sound path. If the screen is set at 5 in., each major graticule
(numbered left to right) represents 0.5 in. (1.3 cm) of sound path with minor
graticules equal to 0.1 in. (0.25 cm). For a 10.0 in. screen, major graticules
represent 1 in. and minor graticules equal 0.2 in. (0.5 cm). Figure 4 shows the
sound path and screen presentation for a sound beam striking a reflector at 1
in. and a back-wall at 5 in. Each major vertical graticule is shown, with each
representing 0.5 in. of sound path. In an angle beam inspection, different
reference blocks would be used. However, for demonstration purposes, Fig. 4
shows the relationship between the transducer, sound beam and screen
presentation.

5
When using a 70 degree probe on 1.5 in. (3.8 cm) thick material, the sound
beam reaches the back surface at a distance (sound path) of approximately
4.25 in. (11 cm) with a full skip distance of approximately 8.5 in. (22 cm).
Therefore, if a 5 in. screen is used, 3.5 in. of the sound path is not shown on the
screen and any discontinuities covered by that segment of the beam will be
missed. For this example then, it would be necessary to use a 10.0 in. screen
(Fig. 5). As can be seen, the point where the sound enters the part under the
probe exit point, shows a strong signal at the extreme left of the screen, and the
sound reflecting from the hole shows a screen signal at an 8 in. (20 cm) sound
path. No signal is seen where sound reflects from the back wall at 4.25 in.
because all sound is reflected away from the transducer.

The sound beam is not a single solid line like a laser beam as shown in most
illustrations but is cone shaped and more like the beam of a flashlight that
spreads as it travels farther from the source. This is called beam spread. As the
transducer moves forward toward a reflector, the leading edge of the sound
cone strikes the reflector first.

6
The sound beam is less intense at this location and as a result, less sound is
reflected back. This gives a low amplitude signal at a longer screen distance or
sound path (Fig. 6a).

As the transducer continues to move toward the reflector, the centerline of the
sound beam strikes the base of the notch where maximum reflection will occur
(Fig. 6b), resulting in a higher signal amplitude at a shorter sound path than was
seen in Fig. 6a. As the back portion of the sound beam travels over the notch
(Fig. 6c), the majority of the sound beam has already passed over the notch.
Thus a low amplitude screen signal is seen at an even shorter sound path. The
amplitude of this signal may be higher than that of Fig. 6a because the shorter
sound path results in more sound being reflected back to the transducer.

Scanning Patterns

In order to ensure that the full volume of the area of interest is inspected,
several standard scanning patterns are often required by the governing code or
specification. The more common patterns are described here and shown in Fig.
7. Proper transducer manipulation is required to ensure full coverage, and with
practice and some dexterity the motions will become second nature to the
operator.

The primary scan pattern requires that the operator move the transducer toward
and away from the area of interest for at least a full skip distance back from that
area (Fig. 7a). On each successive scan, the transducer is moved slightly to the
right, so that the path the transducer follows overlaps the previous scan. The
percentage of overlap is usually spelled out in the governing documents.

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At the same time as the transducer is being moved forward and back, it also
needs to be oscillated sideways over a range of approximately ±15 degrees as
in Fig. 7c. Again, the actual range of oscillation should be set by the code or
specification. The weld (in this example) should be inspected from both sides to
ensure no possible indications are missed.

The scan pattern shown in Fig. 7b is used to detect transverse discontinuities.

The transducer is again oscillated as before but is guided along the side of the
weld with the transducer point slightly in toward the weld centerline so that the
full width of the weld is interrogated. As shown, the weld should be scanned
from both ends and from both sides of the weld.

The need for scanning from both sides of the weld is demonstrated in the
following example. Figure 8 shows a welded plate with a planar discontinuity
oriented parallel to the original weld groove, which is typical of sidewall lack of
fusion.

8
When scanning from the left side of the weld, as the transducer is moved
toward the weld the nose of the transducer bumps into the weld crown at
position A1. At that point the sound beam has not yet moved forward far enough
to reflect off of the discontinuity. As the transducer is moved back away from the
weld, the sound will reflect from the root reinforcement, and when it does start
reflecting from the base metal back-wall, the second leg is above the
discontinuity and it is missed again. Therefore, if the weld is only scanned from
the left side, this discontinuity would not be found. Because of beam spread, it
is likely that some signal would be seen on the screen caused by the sound at
the edges of the sound beam hitting the discontinuity, but it is entirely possible
that the reflected sound would not cause a signal amplitude high enough to be
rejectable.

If the weld is scanned from the right side also, the operator must make sure that
the transducer is moved back far enough to ensure full coverage of the weld
volume. At position B1, the orientation of the discontinuity is such that the
reflected sound would most likely reflect back and down to the back-wall,
reflecting from there back up to a point behind the transducer, so the
discontinuity would again be missed. Only when the transducer is moved back
to position B2 would the main portion of the sound beam hit the discontinuity at
a near-perpendicular angle, giving a solid signal.

This is not an unusual example, for this condition occurs much more frequently
than expected. The condition can be further aggravated if the weld joint has
poor initial fit up. Then, the weld crown can be excessively wide, making the
odds of seeing a far-side planar discontinuity even more difficult. However,
experienced UT operators should realize that if fit-up is poor, greater diligence
is required when they see a weld crown that is too wide for the material
thickness.

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 PRACTICAL CONTACT ULTRASONICS – IIW BLOCKS

The most critical task prior to starting a contact angle beam ultrasonic
inspection is the UT operator’s calibration of the UT equipment with respect to
the specific part to be inspected. The term calibration in UT is applied to both
annual scope calibration and on site or field calibration. Annual calibration
determines that the scope meets horizontal and vertical linearity requirements
and can be done in house by a Level III or externally by a qualified UT
equipment supplier. On site calibration using the IIW block or derivatives, the
focus of this article, is performed by the UT operator at the time of the
inspection and consists of setting up the scope presentation and sensitivity of
the inspection unit to perform a specific inspection.

The two most commonly used UT calibration methods in the US are based on
either the International Institute of Welding (IIW) calibration block or a derivative
that the American Society of Mechanical Engineers' Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code (ASME Code) refers to as a basic calibration block.

The IIW Block

IIW calibration blocks are 12 x 4 x 1 in. in size and are made of the same or
acoustically similar material as the part to be inspected. Predominant features
of an IIW block, Type 1 (Fig. 1), are two side drilled holes that are 0.06 and 2 in.
in diameter and two notches. The first notch is a 0.06 in. deep curved notch with
an inner radius 1 in. from the marked reference point and another 0.08 in. full
width notch directly opposite the reference point. One end of the IIW block is cut
to a 4 in. radius from the reference point. For illustration purposes, additional
etched markings located on the long edge of the block have been shown on the
same side or front of the block in Fig. 1.

The IIW block is designed to permit the operator to perform multiple functions
for both straight and angle beam testing including distance and sensitivity
calibration and wedge angle verification.

10
For straight beam calibration, the transducer can be placed on the 1 in. surface
at the reference point and the screen width can be set by using the 4 in.
reflection from the opposite side. Block thickness can be used for 1 in.
reflections. Because the reference point is directly opposite the 0.08 in. notch,
resolution can also be determined.

Wedge Angle Verification

For angle beam testing, the wedge angle can be checked by placing the
transducer on the 1 in. surface at point A in Fig. 2. In this example, a 70 degree
point (shown on the side of the wedge) is placed over the 70 degree mark
etched on the side of the block. The transducer is then moved back and forth
until the return signal from the 2 in. diameter hole is maximized on the cathode
ray tube (CRT) screen. The actual refracted angle can be read by determining
where the exit point mark aligns with markings on the side of the block. When
using 45 or 60 degree probes, the operator starts with the transducer over the
corresponding mark on the block and checks the wedge angle in the same
manner. It should be noted that most codes and specifications permit the wedge
angle to vary slightly within ±2 degrees of the designated angle, but the the
tolerance should be verified before continuing. If the wedge angle is within
tolerance, the operator can proceed to distance calibration or setting screen
width.

Distance Calibration

To set up a CRT screen width that represents the proper distance for the part
being tested, the operator must determine the length of the sound path in that
thickness of material, as was described in the previous article. Once the length
of a full skip distance is calculated, the screen width can be set. In the following
example we will set up a 10 in. screen.

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Prior to starting the distance calibration, good operating procedure is to make
sure the electrical zero, or main bang, is at or just off the left edge of the CRT
screen. If not, it is possible that the operator will be working with the second
reflection, which makes it impossible to calibrate the machine. A simple way to
determine this is to dampen a finger with couplant and rub the bottom of the
transducer face. The resulting signal can be set to the left side of the screen.

Once the operator is comfortable that the main bang is in the right place, the
transducer is placed on the 1 in. block surface above the marked reference
point (placement B, Fig. 2) and is aimed at the end of the block with the 4 in.
radius. Using the range and delay controls (may be named differently on newer
machines, see manual), maximize the signal from the 4 in. radius and set the
reflector signal at the fourth major graticule on the CRT screen. Then turn the
transducer around and maximize the return signal from the curved notch with
the 1 in. radius. Set that signal at the first major graticule. For smaller diameter
transducers, it may be necessary to move the transducer to the side of the 1 in.
surface to get a good signal back from the radiused notch. Switching back and
forth between the two transducer positions, the operator should continue to
adjust the controls until both signals line up on the proper graticules. When this
is accomplished, screen width is set to 10 in. with each major graticule
representing 1 in. of sound path.

Sensitivity Calibration

Sensitivity calibration is done to provide an inspection reference level based on

the amplitude (height) of a signal from a reflector of a known size. On the IIW
block, that signal is generated from the 0.06 in. side drilled hole. To set
sensitivity, the block is turned over and the transducer is placed on the 1 in.
surface inboard of the 0.06 in. side drilled hole (placement C, Fig. 2). The
transducer is moved back and forth until the signal from the hole is maximized
on the CRT screen. Using the gain control, the signal amplitude is then adjusted
so that the maximized signal is set at 80 percent of full screen height (FSH).
The amount of gain in decibels (dB) is recorded and this gain value becomes
the reference level for inspection. Note that 80 percent FSH is commonly used,
but some codes and specifications may require other FSH values.

Once the UT system has been calibrated, the operator can increase the gain
setting to the scanning level (dB value) dictated by the governing code or
specification and perform the inspection.

Alternative Calibration Blocks

While the IIW block is a very good calibration block, its large size and heavy
weight are inconvenient when carried in the field or when working out of position
and up in the air. Several other calibration blocks have been designed that are
smaller and lighter in weight.

Distance Sensitivity Calibration Block. The most commonly used alternative

block is the distance sensitivity calibration (DSC) block (Fig. 3).

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The DSC block measures 4 x 1 x 2.5 in. which is considerably smaller and
lighter than the IIW block and will fit into a pocket. This block has a flat scanning
surface with a 1 in. radius at one end and a 3 in. radius at the other end. The 3
in. end of the block has a machined 0.375 in. deep, 0.031 in. wide flat bottomed
notch with a 2.625 in. radius from the reference point. Manufactured
commercially, these blocks can be purchased from many UT suppliers.

When using a block that has a radius on both ends, it is important to remember
that most of a sound beam will reflect from an interface, so when the sound
reflects from the 1 in. radius, most of the sound returning towards the
transducer will reflect from the scanning surface and travel down towards the 3
in. radius. This sound will then return to the scanning surface but since it hits
the scanning surface at the wrong angle to enter the probe , it reflects
downward towards the 1 in. radius and then returns to the transducer, creating
a second signal. As a result, it is important to note that the distance between the
back wall signals is the sum of the distances from the radii to the reference
point and the second back wall (and all others) will show on the screen at 4 in.,
the sum of 3 + 1 in., after the preceding back wall.

To perform a distance calibration for a 5 in. screen, the transducer is placed at

the reference point and aimed at the end with the 1 in. radius. The first return
signal is maximized and placed on the second major graticule. Two additional
signals should be on the screen; a short signal from the notch and a taller signal
from the 3 in. radius. The signal from the 3 in. radius should be placed on the
tenth major graticule and using the delay and range controls, the 1 in. and 3 in.
signals should be adjusted until both fall on the proper graticule. When this is
done, the scope should be set for a 5 in. screen. The signal locations are
represented by the green signals shown on the 5 in. screen (Fig. 4a).

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To confirm calibration, the transducer is reversed and aimed at the 3 in. radius.
If calibration is correct, the first signal on the screen will be the notch (just past
the fifth graticule) and the next will be the 3 in. radius signal (sixth graticule).
These positions are shown by the signals shown in purple on the 5 in. screen
presentation (Fig. 4a). As mentioned above, since the signal from the 1 in.
radius occurs 4 in. later, it would come up at 7 in., which cannot be seen on a 5
in. screen.

To perform a distance calibration for a 10 in. screen, the transducer is again

placed at the reference point and aimed at the end with the 1 in. radius, but this
time the first return signal is maximized and placed on the first major graticule.
Because the distance between back walls is the sum of the radii, the operator
should also see back wall signals at 5 in. and 9 in., with notch signals 0.375 in.
before each back wall signal, shown in green in the 10 in. screen presentation
(Fig. 4b). Again, the delay and range controls should be used to position the
back wall signals in the proper places. To verify calibration, the transducer is
again reversed and aimed at the 3 in. radius. The operator should then see
back wall signals at 3 in. and 7 in., with notch signals slightly before each back
wall signal (signals shown in purple on 10 in. screen presentation in Fig. 4b).

14
In either calibration, if the second set of signals (shown in purple) do not come
up on the screen where they should be, the operator should use the delay
control to determine that the main bang is where it should be (at or off left side
of screen). If not, and if a first back wall is at that location, move the main bang
to the left edge of the screen and start over.

Sensitivity calibration using a DSC block is performed in the same manner for
either a 5 or 10 in. screen. Once screen width has been set, the transducer is
aimed at the 3 in. radius and the signal from the notch is maximized and set to
80 percent full screen height (or as detailed in governing documents). The gain
setting for this signal amplitude is used as the reference level for the
inspections. When using a 10 in. screen, there will be two notch signals, at
screen locations of 2.625 in. and 5.25 in. The 2.625 in. signal should be set to
80 percent FSH (or as required), and if the operator is permitted to do so, peaks
of the two signals can be connected to create a rudimentary distance amplitude
correction (DAC) curve.

There is a correlation between the IIW block and the DSC block. The signal
amplitude from the notch of an accurate DSC block should be within ± 2 dB of
the signal created by the 0.06 in. side drilled hole in the IIW block, and this
should be checked at regular intervals.

Distance Calibration Block. The distance calibration (DC) block (Fig. 5a),
often called a 1-2 block, is similar in shape to the DSC block but has a 1 in.
radius and a 2 in. radius. It does not have a notch for sensitivity calibration. For
this reason, distance calibrations can be performed but the operator must carry
a separate block to set the sensitivity level of the equipment

Half Round Distance Calibration Block. Another DC block is the half round
block (Fig. 5b). Like the 1-2 block, it can be used for distance calibration but a
separate sensitivity block is required. The advantages to the half round block
are that that they can be readily manufactured by any machine shop and, by
using various radii, very narrow screen widths can be set up.

15
IIW Hit Block. The IIW hit block is a small portable sensitivity calibration block
that is a 1 in. thick piece of material representing the corner of the IIW block that
contains the 0.06 in. side drilled hole. The block is 4 x 2 x 1 in. with an 0.06 in.
side drilled hole 0.6 in. down from the 1 in. scanning surface and 1.4 in. in from
the end of the block (Fig. 6). By using the hit block and a DC block mentioned
earlier, calibration for both distance and sensitivity is achieved. Distance is done
as mentioned above, and sensitivity is done using the hit block in the same
manner as is done on a full size IIW block.

16
 PRACTICAL CONTACT ULTRASONICS - ANGLE BEAM SCAN
USING BASIC CALIBRATION BLOCK

Article four of this series, IIW Based Angle Beam Calibration, discussed angle
beam calibration using the IIW block and some of its derivatives. With the IIW
block, the reference reflector is a single reflector that results in a single screen
trace, or if the sound path is long enough, in a second trace farther down the
time line. Most codes and specifications that specify IIW calibration rely on a
simple formula to account for attenuation or loss of sound that occurs as the
sound beam travels through the part being inspected.

An alternative method of angle beam UT calibration for welds uses a calibration

block with three side-drilled holes called a basic calibration block. All three holes
are of the same diameter and are used to determine the amount of sound
energy returned from a reflector of the same size at different sound paths. Basic
calibration blocks are referenced in Article 5 of Section V: Ultrasonic
Examination Methods for Materials and Fabrication of the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code and thus are often referred to as ASME Cal Blocks. The
block discussed in this article is shown in Fig. 542.2.1 in Article 5 (1999
Addenda) of this code. A simplified version is recreated here in Fig. 1.

17
The Basic Calibration Block

The thickness of the weld being inspected determines the size of the calibration
block to be used. One of the benefits of using the basic calibration block is that
Section V of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code permits using a block
of a particular thickness to cover a range of weld thicknesses. For example, a
3/4 in. thick block can be used for welds with a thickness of 1 in. or less; a 1 1/2
in. thick block can be used for welds in the 1 to 2 in. range; a 3 in. thick block
can be used for welds in the 2 to 4 in. range, and so on. In all cases, a block the
same thickness as the weld being inspected can be used. The major advantage
of blocks that cover a range of weld thicknesses is that an inspection agency
can manufacture two or three blocks that will generally cover the full range of
weld thicknesses that will normally be inspected.

As shown in Fig. 1, most blocks have a standard 6 in. width and a minimum
length of 3t, where t is the block thickness. When determining block length, the
fabricator should consider which transducer wedge angles will be used for the
applicable range of weld thicknesses. Since a 70 degree wedge angle utilizes
the longest sound path, a common choice is a block length slightly longer than
the distance required to accommodate a full skip distance for a 70 degree
probe. A block this length can be used for 45 and 60 degree transducers as
well. Weight can become a consideration on thicker blocks. For example, a 5 in.
thick carbon steel cal block that is 6 in. wide and 15 in. (3t) long will weigh about
150 pounds, making it awkward to handle and dangerous if dropped. It is not
uncommon to see a handle welded on one end of blocks of this size to facilitate
lifting with a crane.

The three side-drilled holes are located at three distances (1/4t, 1/2t and 3/4t)
from the scanning surface. Diameters for these side-drilled holes are described
in a table (refer to Fig. 542.2.1 of Section V) for each calibration block
thickness. As the blocks increase in thickness, hole diameter also increases
creating a larger reflector that results in lower sensitivity. Thus, in thicker blocks,
a discontinuity in a thin weld that might be rejectable may not be rejectable in a
thicker weld.

Nominal hole sizes for the various block thicknesses are: a 3/32 in. diameter
hole for a 3/4 in. block, a 1/8 in. diameter hole for a 1 1/2 in. block and a 3/16 in.
diameter hole for a 3 in. block. As block thickness increases in 2 in. increments,
hole diameter increases by 1/16 in. Hole diameter tolerance is ± 1/32 in. for all
blocks. Minimum hole depth is 1 1/2 in.

Another benefit of basic calibration blocks is that their fabrication is relatively

simple and can be done in-house using a band saw, a drill press and several
different sized drill bits and reams. A piece of acoustically similar steel of the
correct thickness that has been properly heat-treated (refer to Article 5 of the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code) should be scanned using a straight
beam transducer to determine that the piece is free of internal defects and
laminations. It can then be cut to size using either a vertical or horizontal band
saw.

18
Once the block is sized and soundness is confirmed, holes can be drilled using
a bit with the proper diameter in a drill press. The holes must then be reamed to
ensure a smooth reflecting surface for the sound beam. Care should be taken
when choosing the size of the drill bit. Most reamers remove 0.002-0.003 in. of
material from each side of the hole thus requiring that a slightly smaller bit be
used.

At this point of fabrication, optional notches in the top and bottom surfaces of
the block can be machined into the block if needed (refer to Fig. T-542.2.1,
Section V, Article 5 of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for notch
dimensions and positioning). The block is now ready for production calibrations.

The DAC Curve

A distance amplitude correction (DAC) curve is used to determine attenuation or

degree of sound loss that occurs as the ultrasonic sound path increases in
length. A reflector of known size close to the transducer (short sound path)
returns more sound to the transducer than a reflector of the same size that is
farther away (long sound path). This is due in part to the fact that a sound beam
spreads as it travels away from the transducer, much like the cone of light from
a flashlight. Some attenuation or loss of sound power also occurs as the sound
beam travels through the material of the test object. Any change in the wedge,
transducer or coaxial cable can affect the amount of sound generated and
would therefore require a new DAC curve to be generated.

Loss of sound power as sound path length increases is not linear. Use of a
simple formula such as that used with the IIW block will not accurately show the
amount of sound returning to the transducer. The concept of using three side-
drilled holes of the same diameter at different sound paths was developed to
compensate for any distance error in amplitude that appears on the monitor.

Calibration Based On Hole Depth

Two techniques are commonly used in calibrating the basic calibration block.
The first uses the actual sound path to each hole to establish screen width. The
second uses the hole depth or distance from each hole to the scanning surface.
The hole depth technique is the more simple of the two calibration methods.
Figure 2 shows correct positioning of the transducer to locate the three holes
using the first leg of the sound beam. Couplant is first applied to the surface of
the block and the screen trace representing the nearest hole (at the 1/4t depth)
is maximized. The left side of the trace is positioned above the first major
graticule on the screen baseline. Amplitude or screen height of the trace is set
at 80 percent of full screen height or FSH. The gain setting for this amplitude is
recorded as the reference level. The top of the trace is marked on the monitor
with a marker. (This can be marked electronically in newer equipment. See
user’s manual).

19
Next, with no change to gain setting, move the transducer backwards on the
scanning surface until the trace from the 1/4t hole (or 7/4t) in the second leg is
maximized. Position the screen trace on the baseline at the seventh major
graticule. Then, switching back and forth between the first and second leg
signals, use the range and delay controls to set the two traces over the proper
graticules. (Controls for range and delay may vary on newer equipment. Consult
user’s manual.) When this has been done, the maximized screen traces from
the 1/2t (2/4t) and 3/4t holes should show above the second and third graticules
for the first leg and above the sixth and fifth graticules for the second Leg. When
locating the 3/4t hole, do not mistake the signal from the corner of the block,
which may show up as a larger trace just to the right of the hole trace. The
operator should then go back to each hole location, maximize the signal on the
screen, mark the top of each respective trace with the grease pen and finally
connect the dots in as smooth a line as possible. This line becomes the DAC
curve for that block and equipment (Fig. 3). Note both ends of the curve have
been extended to include both the first and eighth graticules. In some cases,
when the 1/4t hole trace is set at 80 percent FSH, it may not be possible to see
the traces at the sixth and/or seventh graticules. If this occurs, set the trace
from the 1/2t hole to 80 percent FSH as shown in Fig. 3 and use that gain
setting as the reference level. Be sure to report that the 1/2t hole was used to
set the reference level.

20
The technique may seem confusing but Fig. 4 can be of help. The full thickness
of a block is 1t, which can also be written as 4/4t. The three holes, if kept in 1/4t
units, would be at 1/4t, 2/4t and 3/4t depths. Full thickness or 4/4t would be the
bottom surface of the block. In Fig. 4, a regular block is shown in solid lines with
the standard three holes. Directly below is a reverse or mirror image of the
block that shows where those holes would be if the block were twice as thick.
Total thickness is now twice that of the normal block and is represented as 2t
or, if expressed in 1/4t increments, 8/4t.

The second leg sound paths in Fig. 4 are also shown as if they continue straight
on into the mirror block instead of reflecting back from the bottom surface. In
this way, the second leg signal for the 3/4t hole appears to be at the 5/4t depth
in the mirror block. Similarly, the 1/2t (2/4t) hole appears at 6/4t and the 1/4t
hole appears at the 7/4t position. A full skip distance, two thicknesses, would be
at the bottom of the mirror block or at the top of the regular block.

Now consider the screen positions of the six traces that make up the DAC
curve. In the first leg, the 1/4t trace is at graticule 1, the 2/4t trace is at graticule
2, the 3/4t trace is at graticule 3 and there is no trace at graticule 4 (the bottom
of the block). In the second leg, the 5/4t trace is at graticule 5, the 6/4t trace is
at graticule 6, the 7/4t trace is at graticule 7 and there is no trace at graticule 8
(top of the actual block or bottom of the mirror block). These 1/4t designators
are shown below the baseline in Fig. 3 and to the right of Fig. 4. There are
several codes that refer to the second leg points on a DAC curve as the 5/4, 6/4
and 7/4 locations.

21
Calibration Using Sound Path

When calibrating using the sound path method, couplant is again applied to the
surface of the block and the signal returning from the nearest hole (at the 1/4t
depth) is maximized. Then the operator applies the trigonometric formula:

sin θ = opposite side ÷ hypotenuse

where θ is the the complementary angle of the wedge angle, opposite side is
the distance from the scanning surface to the center of the hole, and the
hypotenuse is the sound path. This is shown graphically in Fig. 5. Remember
that the wedge angle is the angle formed by a line normal (90 degrees) to the
scanning surface. For a 70 degree wedge, θ is 20 degrees and for a 60 degree
wedge, θ is 30 degrees. With the 45 degree wedge, both wedge and
complementary angles are 45 degrees.

Once the sound path has been calculated, the left side of the screen trace for
that hole is placed on the screen at the distance that represents that sound
path. The amplitude (screen height) of the trace is set at 80 percent FSH. The
gain setting for this amplitude is recorded as the reference level.

22
Then, with no changes to the gain setting, the same operation is performed on
the 1/2t hole, maximizing the reflector, calculating the sound path and locating
the trace at the proper location on the monitor. In most cases, it will be
necessary to go back and forth between the 1/4t and 1/2t holes to properly align
both screen traces in their proper screen locations using the range and delay
controls. The 3/4t hole trace and the second leg reflectors from all three holes
are then set up on the screen in a similar manner. This sets the screen width for
the holes in the block being used.

As with hole depth calibration, the operator may find that the screen traces for
the last two positions, 1/2t and 1/4t holes in the second leg of the sound path,
may not be visible at the recorded reference level. This usually means that the
1/4t hole in the first leg was in the near field and cannot be used to develop the
reference level. When this occurs, it is necessary to go back to the 1/2t hole
(first leg), set that screen trace to 80 percent FSH and use that gain setting as
the reference level. If the 1/2t and 1/4t holes in the second leg can be seen on
the screen, calibration can be completed. Note that when the reference level is
changed, sound path locations of all holes should be rechecked to ensure the
sound path is unchanged. If the last two hole traces are still not visible, it may
be necessary to change transducer sizes and/or frequencies to reduce the near
field to allow proper calibration.

Once traces from the six hole locations (three in the first leg and three in the
second) are all properly located, the operator should go back to each hole,
maximize the screen trace and mark the top of the trace on the surface of the
monitor. This is repeated for all six traces and the six points are then connected
to form a curve on the screen that represents the DAC curve for that block and
equipment being used.

Using a DAC Curve

Scanning is performed at a gain setting higher than the reference level. This
level is typically dictated by a governing code or specification. When a screen
trace is seen, the gain setting is set back to the reference level and the signal is
maximized. In most codes and specifications, any discontinuity that creates a
screen trace at a reference level that exceeds the distance amplitude correction
curve is rejectable. If the maximized signal is below DAC but is greater than 50
percent of DAC height, the indication is usually recorded and any signal greater
than 20 percent of DAC should be interrogated. These are general rules, and
the operator should refer to the governing code or specification to determine the
actual requirements.

23
 PRACTICAL CONTACT ULTRASONICS - ANGLE BEAM SCAN
PATTERNS AND DEFECT LOCATION

Articles one through five of this series discussed basic equipment setup and
calibration techniques commonly used for contact angle beam testing.
Remaining articles in the series are focused on what is required once the UT
operator is given a specific part to inspect. In this article, full penetration plate
butt welds and corner and T joint welds will be used as examples. Ultrasonic
testing of no welded parts (castings, forgings and so on) is done in a similar
manner, though the location reference points vary depending on the
configuration of the part being inspected.

Determining Accessibility

The first step in setting up onsite for an inspection is to determine accessibility

to the area of interest for the weld to be inspected. In some cases, the
governing code or specification might also require ultrasonic inspection of the
base material for a short distance beyond the toe of the weld. This requirement
should be taken into consideration when selecting the wedge angle and
determining the length of the scanning area.

Common Weld Configurations

Figure 1 shows three common weld configurations; butt welds in a plate, a

corner joint made by two plate ends set at 90 degree angles to each other and a
T joint between two plates (typically seen in beam-column connections). The
surfaces adjacent to the weld (or in the case of corner and T welds, the face
directly behind) are the surfaces from which the weld can be ultrasonically
scanned. As shown in all three figures, these surfaces are commonly labeled
Faces A, B and C as applicable.

The two weld sketches in Fig. 1a show plates with two weld configurations, a
single-V butt weld at the top and a double-V butt weld at the bottom. While the
scanning surfaces for both are labeled the same, the location of the root of the
weld is different and will affect the location of certain types of discontinuities.
Face A is on the plate side with the weld crown for a single-V weld with Face B
on the root side. In the case of a double-V weld, Face A is usually the side of
the weld most easily accessible.

Figure 1b shows a typical corner weld with the Face A scanning surface on the
weld crown side of the beveled plate, Face B on the opposite side of the same
plate and Face C directly opposite the beveled plate on the reverse side of the
other plate. These face designations are the same for a typical T weld as shown
in Fig. 1c. Scanning from Face C is done with a straight beam transducer and is
used primarily to detect laminar tears in the vertical member behind the weld or
sidewall lack of fusion at the vertical face of the weld groove as shown. In all
inspections, the face from which the weld is being inspected should be recorded
on the inspection report form.

24
Determining the Scan Surface

Once the scanning face has been selected, it is necessary to determine how
much of that surface is required to perform a full coverage inspection of the
area of interest.

25
This is determined by material thickness and choice of the wedge angle if that
choice is left up to the operator and is not specified by code or specification. In
order to attain full volumetric coverage, it is necessary to ensure that the weld
area is scanned by both the first and second legs of the sound beam. If an
additional portion of the base metal requires inspection, that distance must be
added to the scanning area also.

Minimum Scanning Surface. Figure 2 shows the minimum scanning surface

required on each side of a plate butt weld to provide full coverage of the weld
volume. In the figure, Face A is the scanning surface and the weld is being
scanned from both sides. Notice that at position A1, where the nose of the
transducer hits the edge of the weld crown, the sound beam only covers a small
portion of the bottom of the weld. At position B1, from the other side of the weld,
only an additional small volume that was not covered by A1 is scanned.
However, as the transducer is moved away from the weld, toward positions A2
and B2 respectively, the sound beam will interrogate the entire cross-section of
the weld, resulting in full coverage of the weld volume. If the governing
documents require that a portion of the base metal also be interrogated, then
that distance must also be included when the scanning surface is prepared.
Operators should keep in mind that a 70-degree probe would require a much
longer scan path than a 45-degree probe. However, a 45-degree sound beam
may be too short to get the second leg completely through the weld cross-
section before the nose of the probe hits the edge of the weld crown.

Surface Preparation. The portion of the plate to be used as the scanning

surface must be free of any loose scale, rust or other foreign material that might
cause bad coupling and thereby prevent sound from entering the part. If weld
spatter is present, it may be necessary to use a cold chisel to remove it. A 3 in.
wide chisel is wide enough to clean a large area quickly and is a good tool for
this purpose. If used properly, it will not gouge the plate surface. Once the
scanning surfaces have been prepared, couplant can be applied and the weld
scanned.

26
Discontinuity Orientation

In order to detect both transverse and axially oriented discontinuities, the weld
must be scanned in two directions from both sides of the weld.

Axial Discontinuities. For axial discontinuities (those that run parallel to the
weld length) the transducer is aimed at the weld and moved back and forth as
shown on side A of the plate surface in Fig. 3.

Transverse Discontinuities. For transversely oriented discontinuities (those

that run across the width of the weld) the transducer should slide along the side
of the weld in both directions as shown on side B of the surface in Fig. 3. Both
types of scan are performed on both sides A and B of the surface to ensure that
all orientations of discontinuities are found.

Manipulating the Probe

Overlap. As the probe is moved back and forth, the sound beam is required to
overlap the previous scan by some percentage. The scan pattern shown in Fig.
4 illustrates a scan pattern with a 50 percent overlap. If the amount of overlap is
not detailed in governing documents, a 20 to 50 percent overlap is usually used.
The easiest way to estimate the percentage of overlap is to look at the tracks
the transducer makes in the couplant on the surface of the plate.

Oscillating the Probe. In addition to being moved back and forth, the probe
should also be oscillated from side to side to detect discontinuities that may not
be oriented at exactly 90 degrees to the sound beam. If no oscillation
requirement is specified in the governing code or specification, a range of
approximately 15 to 20 degrees can be used (see Fig. 4).

27
Difficulties of Probe Manipulation. At first glance, these manipulations may
appear relatively straightforward and not a complex task. One might assume
that all that is required is to spread the couplant and then slide the transducer
back and forth far enough to ensure full coverage by the sound beam while
wiggling the probe back and forth sideways. However, the combination of
movements is more difficult than first perceived and, in addition, probe
manipulation must be done while the operator is watching the CRT screen and
not the probe. The process is further complicated by the fact that operators
routinely use probes that vary from 0.25 in. to 1.0 in. or greater in diameter. All
of these factors make it difficult to maintain a good scanning pattern with
consistent overlap. It’s helpful to remember that proficiency improves with
practice.

Scanning Rate. Most codes or standards require that the scanning rate not
exceed a maximum travel speed, typically not more than 6.0 in. per second.
The actual scan speed will either be detailed in the governing specification or in
one of the specification reference documents. This restricted scan rate ensures
that any reflected sound has sufficient time to return to the transducer before
the transducer moves on.

28
Reporting Discontinuity Locations

Using an XY Coordinate System. The final step before beginning an

inspection is to select a set of reference points so that any discontinuities can
be accurately located. This is most commonly done with an XY coordinate
system, where the X-axis represents the distance across the weld and the Y-
axis represents the distance along the length of the weld. Figure 5 shows typical
locations for these points on different types of welds.

Locating the Zero Point. As shown in Fig. 5a, the zero point for X on a plate
weld is the centerline of the weld and the zero point for Y is the left end of the
weld. For corner and T welds, the zero point for X is at the back of the weld
(Fig. 5b). For horizontal runs in pipe welds, it is common to place the Y
reference point (Y = 0) at the top of the pipe (Fig. 5c) and in line with an elbow
or fitting on vertical runs. The point at which X is equal to zero is again the
centerline of the weld. Note that some codes and specifications do have specific
conventions for these locations so they should be checked prior to setting your
own locating marks. If no specific location instructions are given, the operator
should select one set of conventions and record them on the report form. It is
also smart to mark the point at which Y equals zero on the weld. Then, if repairs
are needed, the welder will know the point to measure from.

29
30
The distance of a discontinuity from Y = 0 is fairly obvious; the distance is
measured from the left end of the weld to the nearest end of a discontinuity.
Therefore, a discontinuity that starts at 6.0 in. from the left end of the weld and
ends 8.0 in. from the left end would be listed as a 2.0 in. indication at Y = 6.0 in.

Locating a defect on the X-axis requires a little more thought. Centerline

indications are easy because they are at X = 0, as shown by indication 1 on the
shaded weld in Fig. 6. Indication 2 is 0.5 in. from the centerline away from the
inspector and would be recorded as being at X = +0.5 in. Because indications 3
and 4 are both on the operator side of X = zero, they would be recorded at X =
–0.5 in. and –0.25 in., respectively. There is one note of caution when scanning
the weld from the other side; the operator should make sure that the ±X
convention is not accidentally reversed.

Sizing the Discontinuity

Six Decibel Drop. When sizing a discontinuity for length, the operator should
refer to the governing documents for direction. However, if a specific method of
determining the end point is not given, it is common practice to use the six
decibel drop method for making that determination. If used, note of its use
should be recorded. The six decibel drop method refers to the fact that a 6
decibel (dB) decrease in gain results in a 50 percent decrease in screen
amplitude. The operator manipulates the transducer to maximize the signal from
an indication. When this is achieved, the maximized signal is then set to 80
percent full screen height (FSH) and the transducer is moved slowly along
parallel to the axis of the defect until the screen signal drops to 40 percent FSH,
or 50 percent of the maximized signal (a 6 dB drop). A mark is then made at the
centerline of the transducer to denote that end of the discontinuity. The
transducer is then moved back toward the other end of the discontinuity until the
signal peaks at 80 percent FSH and again drops to 40 percent at the other end
of the indication. This end is marked as before using the centerline of the
transducer. The distance between the two marks is considered the length of the
discontinuity.

31
Irregularly Shaped Discontinuities. Note that since many discontinuities are
irregular in shape, the operator should continue the sizing scan past the point at
which a 50 percent amplitude drop is first seen. It is possible that a discontinuity
will have a varying orientation that will drop off in amplitude at one point then
increase in amplitude again farther away from the center of the discontinuity. If
this condition occurs and the scan is stopped when the signal first drops to 50
percent, the recorded length will not reflect the actual discontinuity length. If the
acceptance-rejection criteria being used is based on a combination of length
and decibel rating, miscalculation of the length could have serious results.

Discontinuity Depth

The depth of a discontinuity can be calculated using a trigonometric function

based on the sound path or surface distance and the inspection angle. This can
be read directly from a graphic UT calculator. On newer machines, depth
calculation is an integral part of the programming and can be done by simply
pushing a button. Regardless of how depth is calculated, the operator should
bear in mind that depth calculation is based on the nominal wedge angle (45, 60
or 70 degrees). In addition, most codes and specifications allow the transducer
to vary within a range of ±2 degrees. As a result, a three decimal place depth
number may not be as accurate as the operator might think. It should also be
noted that the welder that must dig out the defect identified by the UT operator
will not be able to remove the weld in 0.001 in. increments when using a 0.375
in. diameter carbon air arc rod or 36 grit grinding wheel.

It has been the author's habit to report the defect depth to the next lower full
0.0625 (1/16) of an inch. Reporting a defect in this manner is done for two
reasons. Repeated handling of the transducer results in more wear at the nose
of the wedge face, thus causing the angle to decrease over time. In addition,
digging a little deeper the first time ensures removal of the defect and is quicker
and less expensive than if a second attempt is required.

32
This article describes common defects found in angle beam UT weld
inspections along with examples of the transducer positions and resulting
screen presentations related to those defects. Common false indications and
the means of determining them are also discussed.

Using the Correct Terminology.

The following terms are often used interchangeably and sometimes incorrectly
to describe ultrasonic testing signals.

Relevant and Nonrelevant Indications. A signal seen on the UT screen that

results from sound reflecting from an internal reflector within the part being
inspected or caused by a physical condition such as geometry is called an
indication. A relevant indication is created by a physical reflector in the part. A
nonrelevant indication is caused by part geometry or a physical condition other
than an actual discontinuity or defect.

Discontinuity. A discontinuity is any foreign material in the part (slag, porosity,

etc.) or an unintended disruption in the weld or base material such as a crack,
incomplete penetration or incomplete fusion. If the discontinuity type and size
are within the acceptable limits of the criteria of the governing documents, they
may be acceptable. Small amounts of slag or porosity may be acceptable
depending on their size. However, certain discontinuity types (cracks,
incomplete penetration or lack of fusion) are often rejectable regardless of size.

Defect. A discontinuity that is rejectable is a defect. To determine that a

discontinuity is indeed a defect according to the criteria of the governing code or
specification, the UT operator must first know the type of discontinuity causing
the indication, accurately locate it with respect to a known reference point on
the weld, and determine its size.

Cracks

Cracks are usually linear and irregular or jagged. In normal indications, the
damping in the transducer causes the right side of the signal to drop off quickly.
However, because a crack is jagged, multiple returns result, causing the screen
signal to be much wider thus producing a distinctive indication on the UT screen
referred to as a "church steeple" (Fig. 1).

33
Another effective way to determine that an indication is a crack is in the way in
which a crack indication "walks" across the screen (Fig. 2). As the sound beam
begins to move across the crack, the inherent beam spread causes the leading
edge of the sound cone to reflect sound back well before the signal is
maximized. This causes a short or low amplitude signal to appear on the far
right side of the screen (signal A). As the transducer gets closer to the crack,
more of the sound beam reflects back causing the signal height to increase and
move toward the left side of the screen as the sound path gets shorter. When
the centerline of the sound beam, where the sound strength is greatest, reaches
the base of the crack, the signal is usually at maximum strength (signal B). As
the centerline clears the crack and the trailing edge moves past the crack, the
signal height drops and it moves toward the left of the screen until it disappears
(signal C). In effect, we see a wide short signal that grows in height as it moves
towards the left and then diminishes in height until it disappears.

If the width of the UT screen is set at one full skip distance, the crack should
start to appear just to the right of the midpoint and then drop off the screen near
the quarter point of the screen between the main bang and the midpoint (Fig. 2).
If the crack starts from the scanning surface, the signal should walk in from the
far right of the screen and drop off just to the right of the midpoint. These are
generalizations and the exact location will depend on the material thickness and
will vary due to the different sound paths. Because of this, it is possible for the
operator to overlook a shallow same-side crack in the first leg if the signal is so
close to the scanning surface that it appears to be part of the main bang.

34
Incomplete Penetration

An incomplete penetration (IP) signal tends to behave much like the signal for a
crack, travelling from right to left on the screen; increasing and then decreasing
in height. However, because IP is generally smooth-sided (the unfused edge of
the weld groove) rather than jagged like a crack, the width of the screen signal
is generally much narrower than that of a crack signal. A problem that occurs
frequently is that since the IP is at the root of the weld, the screen signal may
not have been fully maximized when the transducer hits the near edge of the
weld crown. In thinner materials, this problem is likely to occur. Scanning from
both sides of the weld may not catch this configuration. If the signal continues
to increase in height until the transducer hits the weld crown, it may be that the
signal, which has not reached rejectable size, is indeed rejectable. If this
occurs, a smaller transducer may be needed to get close enough to fully
maximize the signal. Failure to do so may cause an operator to accept a
rejectable defect.

35
Sidewall Lack of Fusion

Sidewall lack of fusion (LOF)is a particularly hard defect to identify. Common

bevel angles in weld joints do not often complement the angles used for
ultrasonic testing. As a result, the orientation of the unfused sidewall of the weld
may not return a signal amplitude large enough to be rejectable. Additionally,
sidewall LOF may not show at all in the first leg when the weld is scanned from
the side where the defect is located, or may show as an acceptable indication
when seen in the second leg. Thus, the weld must be inspected from both
sides when the part configuration permits. If signals occur that are determined
to be along the side of the weld, even if they do appear acceptable, it may be
necessary to switch wedge angles and interrogate the area again to determine
whether or not sidewall LOF is present.

Slag

During the welding process, powdered or granular flux is melted to provide

shielding gasses for the welding arc. As the residue cools, the solids form a
glasslike substance called slag which may be trapped in the weld creating a
slag inclusion. An overall irregular shape is a clue that a slag inclusion is the
indication being seen.

Because the cone-shaped sound beam hits the irregularly shaped slag at
several points at once, the signal tends to give a presentation with multiple
peaks (Fig. 3). As the transducer moves forward, the centerline of the beam hits
the various contours with more strength, causing the height or amplitude of
each signal to increase and then drop off as the sound beam crosses each
reflection point. As a result, the multiple peaks of the signal will go up and down
as well as move slightly to the right or left as the scan progresses. This signal
with multiple peaks alternating up and down is typical of slag inclusions. The
alternating peaks can be effectively demonstrated by stopping the transducer
when a multipeak signal is maximized then angulating the transducer back and
forth sideways at that position.

36
Porosity

Weld porosity forms in a manner similar to slag, when gas is trapped in the
cooling weld metal before it can escape to the surface of the weld. However,
rather than having solids in the inclusion and being irregularly shaped, pores
are usually gas-filled and rounded in shape.

Reflectors. A flat (planar) surface perpendicular to the sound beam will reflect
a large amount of sound resulting in a very high screen signal. A side-drilled
hole is a line reflector, reflecting sound from the circumference only where the
sound beam strikes the hole perpendicular to the circumference with a length
equal to the depth of the hole. As a result, the signal from a side-drilled hole is
smaller in screen amplitude (height) than a planar reflector.

A rounded reflector, such as a gas pore, is a point source and sound only
reflects from it at a single point where the sound beam strikes the hole
perpendicular to the circumference. Because a pore has no appreciable length
and the diameter is usually a very small percentage of the cross-sectional area
of the sound beam, the signal from a pore returns a very small amount of
sound, resulting in a very discrete screen signal often of low amplitude. The
effect of the sound beam reflecting from that circular shape gives the screen
signal for porosities distinctive characteristics.

37
When the sound beam first hits a circular pore, it does so at a slight angle,
causing the sound to reflect away from the transducer (Fig. 4a). As the
centerline of the sound beam hits the pore directly, sound is reflected back to
the transducer (Fig. 4b). However, as the centerline passes over the pore,
sound in the lower portion of the sound cone is again reflected away from the
transducer (Fig. 4c). The overall result is a single, narrow, sharp signal that
pops up on the screen at only one location and then disappears immediately.
There are some exceptions to this; if the pore is large or is close to the scanning
surface, the signal may move slightly to the left, usually 1 to 2 minor graticules,
before disappearing.

38
39
Again, the pore is a point source and once the signal is maximized, the operator
will notice that a slight movement of the transducer forward or backward, or
oscillation of the transducer slightly to the right or left, will cause the signal to
disappear.

In the case of cluster porosity or closely aligned pores, the screen display may
demonstrate several signals very close together that can be confused with a
slag inclusion. However, it is often possible to isolate the individual signals,
which will show the very tight or narrow trace and the location of each signal at
one spot without significant lateral movement, which generally does not occur
with a slag inclusion.

Nonrelevant and False Indications

As mentioned earlier, nonrelevant indications are those that will not affect the
use of the part or are created by geometry or other physical characteristics.
Some of the more common indications in this category are backing bar
indications, mode conversion and signals from sources outside of the weld.

Backing Bars. Backing bars are commonly used in butt welds on structural
steel. Their purpose is to provide a surface under the weld groove on which to
lay the first bead or root pass of the weld. A properly welded backed butt joint
will result in full penetration between the sidewalls of the weld and the backing
bar. As a result, sound may enter the backing bar through this weld junction,
ricochet around in the backing bar, reflect from one of the corners and then
return back to the transducer. Figure 5a shows this joint configuration and how
the sound beam may reflect back from a corner. The signal from the backing
bar reflector shown will appear just a bit into the second leg and may be
misidentified as a sidewall discontinuity because of the apparent location of the
signal on the screen (Fig. 5b). If the backing bar is accessible, this type of false
indication can usually be damped with a finger wet with couplant as shown.

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Mode Conversion. Mode conversion results when a shear wave reflects from
a surface that causes the wave to convert to a longitudinal wave. This occurs
occasionally on backed welds when the shear wave hits the gap created by a
poorly fit up backing bar, converts to a longitudinal wave and travels up to the
weld crown (Fig. 6). The L-wave then returns to the root, converts back to a
shear wave and returns to the transducer. Because the L-wave velocity is
approximately twice that of a shear wave, the resulting signal appears about
halfway out in the second leg. The weld crown is a good reflector and the
signal is very strong, often exceeding 100 percent of full screen height.

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The location and height of the mode conversion signal easily identify this type of
false indication. First, the height of the signal is extremely strong for a
discontinuity at the apparent location. Secondly, if the sound path is calculated
correctly, the operator can see that the apparent location is outside of the weld
and heat-affected zone. When this occurs, damping the surface of the weld with
a wet finger shows that the sound has converted and can be damped on the
weld crown. Mode conversion like this can also occur in open root pipe welds
and double V plate welds if the root or opposite side weld crowns are a shape
that permit it.

Extraneous Reflectors

Occasionally, screen signals show up where no signal should logically be. An

example can be shown in beam-column connections. If a gusset plate has been
welded between the column flanges to carry the structural load across the
column and the plate is in line with the upper and lower beam flanges, the
gusset fillet welds may reflect sound back to the transducer as shown in
transducer positions A and B in Fig. 7. These signals can be confusing because
they appear to be outside the weld area. When these occur, it is necessary to
visually inspect the part to see if another part or weld may be causing the errant
signal.

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Another nonrelevant indication may occur in beam-column connections if cope
holes have been cut in the web to permit access to the full width of the beam
flange. This signal usually appears strong in the first leg when the transducer is
near the center of the beam (over the web) but is too far away from the weld to
be a relevant indication as in transducer position C in Fig. 7. If this occurs, the
operator should wet a finger with couplant and damp along the edges of the
cope hole to confirm that the signal is coming from the hole.

It should be noted that the discontinuity descriptions discussed in this article are
general in nature and the actual discontinuities in production welds may vary
depending on wedge angle, material thickness, weld configuration and
discontinuity size. However, if operators are familiar with the general screen
presentations for different discontinuity types, they are better equipped to
categorize a weld defect or correctly identify false indications that would be
costly if misidentified and called out as defects.

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The most basic requirement for an accurate inspection is to have equipment
that functions properly. This article discusses proper equipment maintenance
and, in addition, offers tips to minimize maintenance.

Flaw Detectors

General Care. Most flaw detectors or UT “scopes” come with a 110/120 V

power cable, either an integral or external battery pack, and most have battery
eliminator/chargers. Some machines also have switches that permit plugging
into 50 cycle power or 220/240 V outlets. Flaw detectors are electronic
instruments and, as such, should not be stored in damp areas or subjected to
extreme temperatures. Normal housekeeping practices should be followed in
care and cleaning. Consult the owner's manual to determine if additional care is
needed.

Scope Check. The most common equipment check performed on a scope is for
horizontal and vertical linearity. Often contracted out to an equipment supplier,
this can be done in-house unless prohibited by governing codes or
specifications. The procedure to perform these tests can be found in the ASTM
Standard E–317–01, Standard Practice for Evaluating Performance
Characteristics of Pulse-Echo Examination Instruments and Systems without
the Use of Electronic Measurement Instruments. This procedure provides
methodology for performing the tests but does not establish performance limits
for the system. These limits are established by the using parties.

Batteries

Duration of Use. Most scope batteries are rechargeable with the length of
useable time determined by the milliampere hour (mAh) rating of the batteries
and the number of equipment functions the batteries will be required to support.
The milliampere hour rating denotes battery capacity, not output, which is
measured in volts. Higher mAh batteries increase running time between
charges. As an example, a 1,600 mAh, 1.5 V battery will have a longer life
between recharges than an 800 mAh, 1.5 V battery, even though both deliver a
nominal 1.5 volts.

Comparing Battery Types. In the past, nickel-cadmium (NiCad) batteries were

the rechargeable battery type used most often in UT scopes. However, NiCads
have a tendency to develop a "memory.” That is, if used for short periods of
time between recharging, they eventually "remember" they only have to work for
a short time and no longer accept a full charge. This problem does not occur
with nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion batteries. In addition, these two
battery types can be recharged 10 to 20 times more often than NiCad batteries.
As noted earlier, the listed voltage output on batteries is nominal and the actual
voltage can vary above or below that stated. This variance may damage or be
insufficient to run the equipment. Before replacing dead batteries with a new
battery type, consult equipment documentation or contact the manufacturer to
determine that the battery type being substituted is acceptable.

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Cables

Cable Construction. The coaxial cable used to connect the transducer to the
scope has a central conductor surrounded by a nonconducting cover that is in
turn surrounded by a braided metal mesh followed by an outer cover. The metal
braid acts as shielding to exclude external electrical noise from the central
conductor and is flexible enough to allow the cable to be coiled compactly. Each
end of the cable typically has a BNC or microdot connector so that it can be
attached to the transducer and scope.

Common Cable Failures. Three common service related failures occur in

coaxial cable. The first is a break in the central conductor. This disrupts the
electrical signal between the transducer and scope and can cause the screen
trace to flicker on and off or disappear completely. A volt-ohmmeter can be
used to check for continuity between the central prongs in each connector. If
none exists, the cable should be repaired or replaced.

Breaks in the braided shielding are another common failure. Breaks can occur
as a result of excessive bending or because sharp cornered, heavy objects
(such as calibration blocks) have been dropped on the cable. If the braided
shielding has been broken, the cable should be replaced. In some cases, the
cable can be cut at the break and the connector reattached to the shortened
cable.

If, instead of being broken, the cable has become pinched, it is possible that the
central conductor has been damaged and has allowed the metal of the braided
shield to contact the center wire. As a result, additional interference in the form
of excessive noise may be seen on the screen. The volt-ohmmeter can be used
to detect this condition by determining if continuity exists between the central
conductor and the braid. A check between the central pin in the connector and
the side of the connector to which the braid is attached should not show
continuity. Care should be taken with microdot connectors so that the meter
lead touching the central conductor does not accidentally touch the sidewall of
the screw connector and cause a false reading.

Transducers

Effects of Heat. In most situations, a transducer does not incur wear because
the wedge separates it from the scanning surface. However, when scanning a
hot surface, not only is the beam angle affected, but intense heat can also
cause the transducer crystals to separate from the damping material. If the heat
has caused the crystal pieces to relocate and they no longer remain in the same
plane, the transducer has been ruined.

Avoiding Air Gaps. When using a transducer with removable wedges, care
should be taken to ensure that the wedge is properly coupled to the transducer.
Gear oil with a viscosity between 85 and 95 works well as a couplant and will
stay in place much longer than motor oil. To be sure that a full couple has been
made on a clear wedge, turn the wedge and transducer assembly over, wet the
wear surface, and then look through the wedge at the wedge/transducer

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interface. If the full cross-section is dark, it has a full couple. If only a partial
couple has been made, a silvery color on part, or all, of the interface can be
observed. This indicates an air gap between the wedge and transducer and the
assembly should be re-coupled. (Tip: A small eye drop bottle makes a good
container for gear oil and will hold enough gear oil to last several months. The
dropper top can be pried out in order to fill the bottle and then replaced to
provide a good seal.)

Wedges

Causes of Irregular Wear. Many codes will allow using a wedge angle that is
within ±2 degrees of the nominal wedge angle. However, when that range is
exceeded, the wedge is no longer acceptable. Irregular wear on wedges is
easily explained. If, during use, the operator’s grip on the transducer puts more
pressure on the front of the transducer ("nose heavy"), it will cause excessive
wear on the front of the contact surface and, over time, the transducer will tilt
forward and cause the entry angle to decrease (A in Fig. 1). Conversely, a "tail
heavy" grip causes the back of the contact surface to wear faster and the entry
angle increases (B in Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Typical wedge angle wear patterns.

Correcting Irregular Wear. Correcting irregular wear in plastic wedges is fairly

simple. The wedge angle on the worn wedge is first determined by maximizing
the sound beam on the large hole in an IIW block. Once it is known which end
of the wedge needs to be corrected and to what degree, a sheet of sandpaper
can be placed on a hard flat surface and the wedge sanded with pressure on
the end opposite that has worn down in service. Judicious sanding and frequent
checking of the angle on the IIW block will re-establish the correct wedge angle.
Care should be taken when sanding to ensure the wear surface remains flat
both fore-and-aft and from side-to-side as well.

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Compensating for Irregular Wear. If an operator is aware that his grip is nose
or tail heavy, he can avoid irregular wear by occasionally swapping wedges with
a co-worker with an opposing grip. Natural use of the wedge in this way will
correct for each operator's habit. Note, however, that if the wedge angle has
already exceeded the acceptable range, it cannot be exchanged; it must be
sanded back to the correct angle.

Maintaining Clean Test Surfaces. Clean scanning surfaces reduce wear on a

wedge. Part surfaces can be cleaned with a steel scraper and then wiped with a
clean cloth. However, the small paint brush that is often used to apply couplant
to the scanning surface can be easily contaminated with grinding grit or other
debris when the brush is laid aside during the scan or if inadvertently dropped.
This can be prevented by attaching a small ring magnet to the brush handle
with a short piece of nylon twine. The brush can then be easily hung adjacent to
the testing surface by attaching the magnet to the part being tested. This
arrangement can also save trips up and down the scaffold to retrieve dropped
brushes.

Calibration blocks

Good and Bad Practice. "How can someone mess up a solid steel calibration
block?!" Oddly enough, it just takes neglect and a failure to follow good
maintenance practices. For example, an operator may attempt to clean the
0.060 in. hole in the IIW block with a small wire. Over time, this can score the ID
of the drilled and reamed hole, creating a rougher ID surface, which causes it to
become a better reflector, thereby creating a lower reference level than is
accurate.

Similarly, using a thin ruler to clean the 1/32 in. notch in a DSC block can
damage the plating, allowing corrosion to occur at the bottom of the notch. With
time, this can round out the square notch, which then requires a higher
reference level to achieve an 80 percent signal from that notch. This, in turn,
results in a much more sensitive inspection than would be made with an
accurate DSC block. Note that if the reference level from the DSC notch is
regularly compared to the signal from the 0.060 in. hole in an IIW block, this
condition is avoided. To remove foreign substances such as coal dust or fly ash
from the hole or notch in a block, a toothpick or similar objects softer than the
block should be used.

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