Perspectives on Educational Psychology

Author(s): Ernest R. Hilgard

Source: Educational Psychology Review , December 1996, Vol. 8, No. 4, Special Issue on
Studying Part I (December 1996), pp. 419-431
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23359447

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Educational Psychology Review, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1996

Perspectives on Educational Psychology

Ernest R. Hilgard12

As a background, the views are presented of Jean Jacques Rousseau, Johann

Heinrich Pestalozzi, Friedrich Froebel, and Johann Friedrich Herbart, who had
a five-step proposal for teaching. I then review briefly the "new psychology" of
G. Stanley Hall and William James, followed by trends in psychology and
education in the early twentieth century. The influences of psychoanalysis and
Gestalt psychology are addressed, as well as the development of educational
psychology textbooks and the growth of instructional psychology.
KEY WORDS: educational psychology; instructional psychology; James; Thorndike.

INTRODUCTION

Because educational psychology has to be understood in relat

to other innovations in the discussion of education, the paper be
with educational innovations in Europe during the nineteenth c
tury.

THE CONTINENTAL BACKGROUND IN ANTICIPATION

OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Four names of theorists from the European continent recur frequent

in the discussion of educational innovations in the nineteenth cent
Rousseau of France, Pestalozzi of Switzerland, and Herbart and Froe
of Germany.

'Stanford University, Stanford, California.

Correspondence should be directed to Ernest R. Hilgard, Stanford University, Depart
of Psychology, Stanford, California 94305-2130.

419

1040-726X/96/1200-0419S09.50/0 © 1996 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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420 Hilgard

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) gave his proposals for education

in his book Emile, first published in 1762 with an English translation in
1979. His primary message reflected his views on the natural basis for de
velopment, with an emphasis on the child's discovering things for himself
or herself. These sensible ideas were fitted within his developmental theory
that implies stages representing a recapitulation of the experiences from
savage to civilized life.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) was a Swiss lawyer who had
developed a model school. He favored industrial training combined with
literary studies, education as growth rather than mere acquiring of infor
mation, and saw as desirable a school atmosphere of love, friendliness, and
understanding rather than of fear (Pestalozzi, 1820/1977).
Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1843) had visited Pestalozzis school.
He was the first of those mentioned to provide a psychological basis for
his recommendations. He had a five-step proposal for teaching:

1. preparation
2. presentation
3. association and comparison
4. generalization or abstraction
5. practical application
Herbartionism took over with the formation of the Herbart Club
within the National Educational Association in 1892. The first yearbook o
the National Herbart Society appeared in 1895 (see DeGarmo, 1895). Five
were published before the Society changed its name to the National Society
for the Study of Education, and began its significant yearbooks in 1902.
Finally, Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) entered into the American pic
ture as the founder of the kindergarten movement in Germany. Although
his ideas were somewhat romantic, and some of the "games" offered wer
overinterpreted as to their meaning for the kindergarten-aged child, he em
phasized that activity was the root of all education, and he assigned a rol
to productive and creative activity.
The first kindergarten in America was established in Waterloo, Wis
consin, by Mrs. Schurz, the wife of Carl Schurz, a prominent German ref
gee who had left Germany when so many liberals emigrated after the
failure of their revolutionary activities in 1848. She had studied with Froebel
and had been active in kindergarten work with her sister in Hamburg. Car
Schurz had become a friend of Abraham Lincoln, and was an ambassador
to Spain as well as a high officer in the Civil War.
The German-English Academy in Milwaukee, and related groups in
other cities, all took an interest in founding kindergartens. Private kinde
gartens spread rapidly, so that there were 400 kindergartens by 1880. The

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Perspectives on Educational Psychology 421

first public kindergarten was established by St. Louis Public Schools super
intendent William Torrey Harris in 1873, in time for my parents to attend
kindergarten in Belleville, Illinois (not far from St. Louis) in the 1870s.
G. Stanley Hall helped out by offering the first workshop for kinder
garten teachers in 1885. In 1891 the prestigious National Education Asso
ciation passed a resolution by unanimous vote that the public kindergarten
should become part of all school systems.
The ideas and practices of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel
came to America from the European continent, but soon they were assimi
lated into American culture. It is a mistake for psychologists in reviewing
their history to think only of what psychologists have done, for many of
the changes were initiated by educators. One educational administrator
who deserves more attention than he has received from psychologists is
William Torrey Harris (1835-1909), a superintendent of the St. Louis Public
Schools (1868-1880) and later U.S. Commissioner of Education (1889
1906).
Harris was a remarkable man, described as "the commanding figure
of his pedagogical era" (Cremin, 1961). He was a scholar in philosophy, a
profound student of Hegel, and founder of the Journal of Speculative Phi
losophy, the first such journal in the English language. He readily assimi
lated the views of Pestalozzi and Herbart, and he set the pattern for others
as an able administrator. He also accepted the Froebel kindergarten, and
his St. Louis schools were the first to make the kindergarten part of the
public school system (Harris 1893, 1895, 1898).

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE NEW

PSYCHOLOGY

As one turns to the "new" kind of psychologist of Harris' time

founded the American Psychological Association, one finds some
iar names also influential in educational psychology, such as G. S
Hall and William James.
Hall, through his interest in the child-study movement, had developed
an interest in pedagogy. His professorship at Johns Hopkins University in
1883 was in both psychology and pedagogy. When he became the founding
president of Clark University in 1888, his interest in educating the child
and in educating teachers continued. He named his new journal founded
in 1891 the Pedagogical Seminary. The term "educational psychology"
gradually entered the professional vocabulary but did not supplant "child
study" until early in the twentieth century.

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422 Hilgard

William James introduced teachers to his kind of psychology in his

Talks to Teachers, given first in 1892 but not published in book form until
a number of years later (James, 1899). The lectures had been given to
elementary and secondary school teachers in Cambridge, at the request of
Harvard University, and they were well received. Once he had prepared
the lectures he delivered them again and again in the years 1895 and 1896,
chiefly in summer schools for teachers across the country, but also to the
wider audience at Chautauqua, New York. He approved of the recitation
method as superior to the lecture method, and he favored the introduction
of concrete object teaching and of activities in which the learners engaged,
such as keeping notebooks, making drawings, plans, and maps taking meas
urements, and even entering the laboratory to perform experiments. He
had good things to say about the introduction of "manual training." Imi
tation and emulation had their places, for children admire a teacher who
can say: "Come and let me show you how."
An appreciation of James's Talks to Teachers was given as part of his
1976 presidential address before the APA by Wilbert J. McKeachie of the
University of Michigan. He expressed the belief that the laws of learning,
until recently, were mostly an extension of what James had taught
(McKeachie, 1976).

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION IN THE EARLY YEARS

OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Three names stand out among the American psychologists who sh

educational psychology in the early years of the tweentieth century:
Dewey, Edward L. Thorndike, and Charles H. Judd. After an introduc
each will be discussed in detail.
Dewey as a philosopher-psychologist with a hands-on experience in
education and Edward L. Thorndike as the prototype of educational psy
chologist, were highly visible as outstanding leaders. Judd, of the same age
group, and the only one of the three with the prestige that came in that
generation from having earned his doctorate under Wundt, was not as well
known to a wider public as were the other two. Judd's Genetic Psychology
for Teachers appeared in 1903, the same year as Thorndike's Educational
Psychology, but it was Thorndike's title that was to define the new field,
shaped by his introduction of laws of learning.
Thorndike came to Teachers College in 1899. It had been founded in
1887 and became part of Columbia University in 1893. Dewey came as a
professor of philosophy to Columbia in 1905, but he served also as a pro
fessor of the philosophy of education in Teachers College.

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Perspectives on Educational Psychology 423

So Dewey and Thorndike were colleagues for many years, from 1905
to 1930, but each went his own way. Dewey retired in 1930. Thorndike re
mained influential until his death in 1949. Dewey, although 14 years older,
survived him by 3 years. Dewey was a philosopher. He was interested in
the experimental method, but not enough to collect data himself. The re
sults of scientific methods in physical and biological sciences by others were
enough to convince him that science was the road to dependable knowl
edge. Thorndike, not a philosopher, was first of all an experimenter and
measurer who valued data above all else. Dewey was a progressive and a
reformer in politics; Thorndike, to the extent that he was political at all,
was a conservative. Dewey tried to remake the schools; Thorndike wanted
them to do better what they were already doing and was more interested
in quality control than in innovation. These contrasts are not strictly polar
opposites. Dewey and Thorndike did not engage in confrontation over their
differences. In other words, Thorndike's findings could be adapted for use
in Dewey schools, and Thorndike had no objection to curricular changes
that led to good measurable outcomes.

John Dewey (1859-1952)

Dewey's interests turned to education in the form of the Laboratory

School (indicative of his "experimentalist" philosophy), that operated from
1896 to 1903 at the University of Chicago. A careful history of the school
was prepared later by two of its first teachers (Mayhew and Edwards, 1936).
Dewey's emphasis was on intelligent problem solving, in which each
child solves the problems that are confronted by selecting appropriate ma
terials and methods and by learning to adapt these materials and methods
to his or her ends. Children's interests sustain them as they experiment
with solutions by testing them. The kinds of problems solved are social as
well as individual, for education is envisaged as preparation for life in a
democracy by democratic living here and now in the school itself.
Dewey's title at the University of Chicago in 1894, when he was brought
there from the University of Michigan, was professor and head of the De
partment of Philosophy, which included psychology and pedagogy. He is
remembered for a number of books that influenced educational practices,
such as The School and Society (1899), published while he was still at the
University of Chicago, and for others after he moved to Columbia: Interest
and Effort in Education (1913), Schools of Tomorrow, written in collabora
tion with his daughter Evelyn Dewey (1915), and Democracy and Education
(1916).

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424 Hilgard

Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949)

Thorndike, the experimenter, had evolved his learning theory while

preparing his dissertation on animal learning, one of the most cited studies
in American psychology (Thorndike, 1898). Not long afterwards, he pub
lished with Woodworth an experimental investigation in which together
they demolished the prevailing doctrine of formal discipline by showing
that the educational gains that could be obtained by merely "exercising the
mind" were very slight (Thorndike and Woodworth, 1901). They demon
strated how little transfer there was from one kind of learning to another
unless the two kinds of learning involved very similar processes, actually
called "identical elements" by them.
Thorndike wrote a number of books to be used for instructional pur
poses during his appointment at Teachers College. These included Educa
tional Psychology (1903), An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social
Measurements (1904), and, perhaps his most influential contribution, the
three-volume Educational Psychology (1913a,b, 1914a), along with the ac
cessible condensation, Educational Psychology, Briefer Course (1914b). This
was not all he produced. He also averaged about one journal article a
month throughout his active career. His empirical contributions to educa
tion can be illustrated by two of his major thrusts: the improvement of
instruction in the classroom and the measurement of both the learner and
the products of learning.
He was naturally interested in reading and arithmetic because of their
importance and because of the amount of time devoted to them in the
elementary schools. Therefore, he sought to limit the words used in text
books (the favorite American vehicle for guiding learning). Such textbooks
might be written to use the words most needed because they were most
frequently met. Hence, he produced The Teacher's Word Book (1921b) with
the 10,000 most common words, to be followed later by The Teacher's Word
Book of 30,000 Words, indexed by frequency of use based on word counts
from a variety of contexts (Thorndike and Lorge, 1944). The enormous in
fluence of these books was well recounted later in Joncich's (1968) biog
raphy of Thorndike. Thorndike had started earlier on his scales for the
measurement of ability in reading (Thorndike, 1914c) followed by the
Thorndike-McCall Reading Scales (1921c).
Thorndike tackled arithmetic in the same manner, always keeping in
mind his learning theory of specific connections and the identical elements
principle of transfer. He developed other scales for handwriting, English
composition, spelling, and drawing. In the course of this work he became
known for his dictum: "Whatever exists, exists in some amount. To measure
it is simply to know its varying amounts" (Thorndike, 1921a, p. 379).

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Perspectives on Educational Psychology 425

Charles H. Judd (1873-1946)

Although Judd graduated from Wesleyan University in Connecticut

only a year before Thorndike, their careers separated after each graduated,
with Thorndike heading for Harvard and Columbia, while Judd went to
Leipzig to study with Wundt. Judd was close enough to Wundt to produce
authorized translations of his books, but even as a graduate student he was
independent enough to take a minor in pedagogy.
His early brushes with pedogogy after returning home were unsatis
factory, and he became recognized in experimental psychology while direc
tor of the laboratory at Yale. He was elected to the presidency of the APA
in 1909, the year that he became director of the Department of Education
of the University of Chicago as a fitting person to revive what had declined
after Dewey had left. He spent the rest of his life there.
An experiment that he had performed at Yale (Judd, 1908), countered
the famous Thorndike and Woodworth (1901) experiment on transfer of
training. Judd selected as his experiment the problem of shooting at a tar
get placed under water which required the subject to overcome the dis
placement of the target because of the refraction of light. Once proficiency
is established at one depth, the problem of transfer is to find whether or
not the skill will persist with target submersion at a different depth. Judd
demonstrated that if the subject had been taught the principles of diffrac
tion, the difference in depth interfered very little. If this knowledge was
lacking, however, a great deal of trial and error was needed to hit the
target at the new depth. There were the same objective common elements
in the task in one arrangement as in the other, but these did not make
them equally easy. Judd argued that the transfer was mediated not by what
the two depths had in common, but by having a generalization or principle
that could be applied equally to the two situations. Hence, higher mental
processes could be involved in transfer without invoking the old faculty
psychology. In his later book, The Psychology of High School Subjects, Judd
(1915) cited his experiment in criticism of the Thorndike/Woodworth ex
periment (1901) in which they proposed the theory of identical elements
to explain transfer.
As Judd moved into education and educational administration, he car
ried with him several conceptions from his earlier training under Wundt
and his years as an experimental psychologist at Yale. In Chicago there
were five recurrent themes from his earlier years:
1. The first theme was his interest in research in reading. At Yale,
with student collaborators, he had undertaken studies of eye movements
in reading (Judd, McAllister, and Steele, 1905). At Chicago, this interest

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426 Hilgard

was carried on by William S. Gray and Guy T Buswell, and Judd wrote
his own book on Silent Reading (Judd, 1927).
2. A second theme was his interest in the teaching of school subjects
represented in his Psychology of High School Su bjects (Judd, 1915) and its
sequel Psychology of Secondary Education (Judd, 1927a).
3. A third interest was in school surveys, a subject that had interested
him since his Yale days and was to be extended in Chicago.
4. A fourth interest was in social psychology and social institutions,
represented in part by his book Psychology of Social Institutions (Judd,
1926).
5. Fifth, and finally, all of these directions were tied together in his
Education as the Cultivation of Higher Mental Processes (Judd, 1936).

The Influence of New Viewpoints in Psychology

The different perspectives of Dewey, Thorndike, and Judd did not re

solve the psychological conflicts among educators as noted by Boyd H.
Bode, an educational philosopher, in his book Conflicting Psychologies of
Learning (Bode, 1929). He expressed the hope that the newer Gestalt psy
chology might promise a resolution of the conflict. At the same time, psy
choanalysis was bringing a searchlight to bear on the individual that
strengthened those who were seeking to adapt education to the needs of
the child (e.g., Hendrick, 1934).
Dissatisfaction with the strictures of behaviorism and the limited in
tellectual appeal of Thorndike's connectionism led to an enthusiasm for
the Gestalt emphasis on wholeness and on organization instead of overt
discreteness. Köhler's experiments brought insight and understanding back
into the vocabulary after higher mental processes had been interpreted by
Thorndike as merely the exercise of habits, despite Judd's efforts to provide
a corrective. Kurt Lewin brought motivation into the picture in the relevant
form of level of aspiration and eventually produced an influential experi
ment on social climates (Lewin, Lippitt, and White, 1939).
Unfortunately Gestalt theory got into the hands of some who were
over-enthusiastic and did much to discredit it. Prominent among these were
Raymond H. Wheeler and his young protégé, E Theodore Perkins, who
together wrote Principles of Mental Development (1932). This book pro
moted a concept of organismic psychology according to which all learning
has to follow a few organismic laws, with prominence given to maturation.
Experimentation was hardly needed because the laws, if true, had to be
obvious and of exceptionless validity. There was at least one other textbook
on educational psychology from the Gestalt point of view, but its claims

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 Perspectives on Educational Psychology 427

were little supported by data (Hartmann,

residue from Gestalt psychology, but as a rall
psychology its central position did not last
Psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic ideas wer
1930s, and they were finding their way int
Despite the importance attributed to child
tered curriculum, books on child study and
to incorporate psychoanalytic concepts. A si
sion to psychoanalysis of William Healy, al
(e.g., Healy, Bronner, and Bowers, 1930). I
were readily accessible (Hendrick, 1934).
The European psychoanalysts, who had c
1930s, had not yet made their influences fe
analytic influences came from the immigr
telheim (1948), Peter Bios (1941), Erik Eriks
(e.g., Redl and Wattenberg, 1951).
The conflicting themes in education at th
optimistic flavor and the heroic stances of th
I. The Second World War was now immine
nities would emerge accompanied by new pr
one historian of educational psychology lat
fore World War II as the nadir of education

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE TEXTBOOKS,

1926-1956

Because nearly all prospective teachers preparing to teach took a

course in educational psychology, the available books on educational psy
chology give some idea of what the teachers were taught. Two chief pos
sibilities confronted the authors of such books, One was to write a textbook
in psychology that might serve the teachers as the introduction to psychol
ogy that they needed, as a substitute for other available first books in psy
chology. The other was to write for those who already had had a first course
in psychology, but who wished to know how to apply psychology to the
tasks faced by a prospective teacher. Arthur I. Gates (1890-1972), who was
to become Thorndike's successor at Teachers College, chose the first of
these alternatives when he wrote Psychology for Students of Education
(Gates, 1923). The other approach was represented by books such as those
referring to subject matter in their titles, such as E. B. Huey's The Psychol
ogy and Pedagogy of Reading (1908).

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428 Hilgard

At the beginning of the period under consideration (1925-1956), Good

win Watson (1899-1976), then a young and popular instructor at Teachers
College, published a review of widely adopted textbooks in educational psy
chology (Watson, 1926). He noted at this time the absence of any special
emphasis on child development, personality, and mental hygiene, promi
nent in later books.. A later summarization of educational psychology text
books, covering 83 books published between 1920 and 1956 (counting
revisions as new books) showed a trend toward decreased attention to the
physiology of the brain, nervous system, and sense organs, and increased
attention to personality, mental hygiene, unconscious motivation, counsel
ing, and psychotherapy (Gates et al., 1956).

INSTRUCTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 1960s AND

BEYOND

The cognitive revolution in psychology did not leave education

moved. Piaget, standing as a symbol for cognitive growth, becam
tellectual hero for education as he did for developmental psycholog
Groen, 1978). He was not an educational psychologist, and he some
had to answer requests for applications of his theory by referring
tessori schools after a relatively quiescent period for the Montess
proach (Elkind, 1967).
There were, however, more important influences that led to a
phasis on cognitive processes.. There was the shock of the Russian l
ing of a man in space via Sputnik in 1957, with the fear that the U
States had lost its lead in technology. This led to increased governm
support of education in the traditional fields of mathematics and la
learning, to which the schools accommodated. This, however, mer
celerated developments that were already taking place.

The Influence of New Technologies

Among the developments affecting innovation were some adapt

of available technologies of instruction that had as their by-produc
attention to the detailed processes affecting the acquisition of know
in the classroom setting. The new devices included audiovisual aids
somewhat later, computers.
Audiovisual Aids. Projection lanterns, earlier known as "mag
terns," for projecting transparencies or opaque pictures came into
the late nineteenth century, particularly when arc lights and incand

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Perspectives on Educational Psychology 429

lights became available. They were cumbersome and expensive, and were
not widely used in school rooms until the 35 mm. slide projectors with film
strips made their appearance. About the same time 16 mm and 8 mm mo
tion-picture projectors came into classroom use.
The early phonograph had been invented by Edison, but it served
mostly for music and was not available for recording except in the cylin
drical form of the early Ediphones and Dictaphones. The audio side of
instructional technology became convenient with the sound motion pictures
and then with the electro-magnetic recorder. This came at first as the wire
recorder, then the tape recorder, along with radio, and video recording.
These changes moved rapidly, greatly acclerated by the training done in
the armed forces during World War II (Glaser, 1962).
There were some significant other developments in the meantime, such
as the introduction of programmed learning. An important step was taken
by B. F. Skinner when he published an article in the Harvard Educational
Review entitled "The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching" (Skin
ner, 1954) and a second article on "Teaching Machines in Science" (Skin
ner, 1958). It is true that Sidney L. Pressey of Ohio State University as
early as 1927 had introduced a simple machine for drill learning. The ad
vantage of Skinner's device was that it used programmed learning, through
which the machine served as a tutor to lead the learner along by "shaping"
the behavior through reinforcement, according to the learning principles
that he had long espoused.
There were many developments after Skinner's initiatives, such as the
replacement of teaching machines by programmed books, and the substi
tution of branching proprams for simple linear ones. A number of books
soon appeared, such as that edited by Arthur A. Lumsdaine and Robert
Glaser, Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning (1960). Computer-as
sisted instruction added new dimensions, although it was clearly inspired
by the earlier work (Atkinson and Wilson, 1969). Cognitive psychology was
soon taking over, and this was clearly true for instructional psychology
(Resnick, 1981).

CONCLUSIONS

Educational psychologists were confronted by the choice between a

plying contemporary psychology to instruction or discovering the psyc
ogy inherent in education. The second option became the one seen
preferable. The acceptance of cognitive psychology became the rule. A
view of the theoretical developments in cognitive psychology and how they
became relevant to education was published by Robert Calfee (1981). T

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430 Hilgard

impact of cognition on education was great enough to see the appearance

of a new journal, Cognition and Instruction, with its first issue published in
1984.

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