Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443

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Chemical Engineering Journal Advances

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/chemical-engineering-journal-advances

Hazardous and emerging contaminants removal from water by

plasma-based treatment: A review of recent advances
Ahmed Yusuf a, Hussein Kehinde Amusa a, Jamiu Olanrewaju Eniola b, Adewale Giwa a, c, *,
Oluwadamilola Pikuda d, Abdallah Dindi e, Muhammad Roil Bilad f
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
b
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
c
Chemical and Water Desalination Engineering (CWDE) Program, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates.
d
Department of Chemical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0C5, Canada
e
College of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82071, United States
f
Faculty of Integrated Technologies, Integrated Sciences Building, University Brunei Darussalam, Darussalam, Brunei

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The opportunities, challenges, and future trends of the application of non-thermal plasma (NTP) technology in
Non-thermal plasma water purification is critically reviewed. Different plasma methods were introduced and discussed, then we
Water treatment zeroed in on NTP (a direct discharge plasma) because of its low energy requirement. Recent and major strategies
Material functionalization
for the application of NTP in water treatment were then presented and discussed. The main opportunities and
Nanoplasmons
Plasma catalysis
challenges faced in the application of NTP for water purification were analyzed and discussed. Finally, the future
trend in the application of NTP in water treatment was projected, and a possible future direction of research in
water treatment was proposed. While NTP has gained massive attention for water purification, there is still room
for improvement in terms of leveraging its synergy with advanced water treatment technologies like catalysis,
membrane filtration, and biological degradation. These findings presented herein lay the foundation for future
improvements that can be implemented in the application of NTP in water treatment.

p-CP p-chlorophenol
PES Polyethersulfone
List of abbreviations
PMS peroxymonosulfate
AC Activated carbon
p-NCB p-nitrochlorobenzene
AG Alizarin green
Po pollutant’s initial concentration
BPA Bisphenol A
pH Potential of hydrogen
Co catalyst dosage
Ql Aeration rate
CNT carbon nanotubes
RNS Reactive nitrogen species
DBDP Dielectric barrier discharge plasma
ROS Reactive oxygen species
DE Degradation efficiency
SE Synergy effect
DMP Dimethyl phthalate
SMX Sulfamethoxazole
EG Expanded graphene
t Time
EY Energy yield
TFC Thin film composite
FTIR Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
TTHC Tetracycline hydrochloride
IO Iron oxide
UAD Underwater arc discharge
LTOP Low-temperature oxygen plasma
XPS X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
NTP non-thermal resistance
4-FP 4-fluorophenol
P Phenol

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: adewale.giwa@ku.ac.ae, agiwa@sharjah.ac.ae (A. Giwa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceja.2023.100443

Available online 3 January 2023

2666-8211/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Yusuf et al. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443

1. Introduction nitrites, and NO radicals. The following steps Eq. (1)–(15) are the
possible mechanisms involved:
The increasing scarcity of freshwater globally in recent decades has
e− ∗ + O2 →O• + O• + e− (1)
led to innovative technologies in water desalination and wastewater
treatment for water reuse. While conventional methods have in the past
e− ∗ + O2 →O+
2 + 2e
−
(2)
focused on advanced oxidation methods and reverse osmosis (RO) for
water purification, these methods are now being found to cost higher e− ∗ + H2 O→H • + HO• + e− (3)
and have limited capacity to remove hazardous organic pollutants [1,2].
The RO approach for the removal of hazardous organic pollutants has e− ∗ + O2 + M→O−2 + M (4)
higher energy requirements for pumping through the membranes, more
costs of treatment and replacement, and sometimes require followed up O• + O2 + M→O3 + M (5)
with advanced oxidation methods [3]. Furthermore, advanced oxidation
methods require onsite chemical precursors to generate reactive ⋅OH e− ∗ + 2H2 O→H2 O2 + H2 + e− (6)
radicals, and this method is slow [4].
The use of plasma has earned great attention in the science and HO• + H2 O2 → H2 O + HO•2 (7)
research community in various fields and subjects, including water
treatment. Plasma is a hot ionized gas consisting of approximately equal O + H2 O →2HO• (8)
numbers of positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons as
well as atoms, free radicals, and excited or non-excited molecules. It is O3 + H2 O2 →HO• + O2 + HO•2 (9)
thus now commonly referred to as the “fourth state of matter”. Plasma-
O3 + HO•2 →HO• + O2 + O−2 (10)
based water treatment technologies involve the formation of plasmas
which are projected to target molecules to generate reactive species and
O3 + h + H2 O→H2 O2 + O2 (11)
mineralize the molecules [5]. Even though the earliest reports of contact
between liquids and plasma were in 1887, studies regarding the use of H2 O2 + h→ 2HO• (12)
plasma for electrolysis applications did not begin until the early 1950s
[6–9]. Much more intense research focused on the environmental ap­ e− ∗ + N2 →2N • + e− (13)
plications of plasma for pollution control intensified only about three
decades ago [6]. The use of plasma for water treatment is an emerging N • + O• →NO (14)
form of advanced oxidation treatment technology largely due to its high
efficiency and environmental friendliness and the ability of plasmas to O• + NO→NO2 (15)
generate the required radicals by themselves either in the bulk liquid or
The direct plasma method generates plasma within the same system
in the air [5].
that is required for water treatment [9,11–13]. Since plasma-based
Numerous articles have reviewed plasma technology’s basic princi­
treatments employ various types of power sources such as DC, AC, mi­
ples, ranging from its physics, chemistry, engineering, modeling,
crowave, pulsed, etc., several reports name the type of direct plasma
chemical reactions, and general applications [7]. The application of
based on the type of power source discharge. The most common dis­
plasma for water treatment can not be regarded as a new topic consid­
charges are pulsed corona/streamer/spark discharge, DC pulseless
ering the intense research work carried out in the past few decades.
corona discharge, dielectric barrier discharge, gliding arc discharge, DC
However, this review will focus on the recent advancements in the ap­
glow discharge, DC arc discharge, etc. [14]. Some examples are shown in
plications of plasma technology and nanoplasmonics to water purifica­
Fig. 1. While the remote and indirect methods have been highly opti­
tion, the challenges, and future directions for industrial-scale
mized, developed, and commercialized, as reported by numerous
application.
studies, the direct discharge methods are still evolving [15].
Since the introduction of plasma for water purification, the plasma
types used can be broadly categorized as remote, indirect, and direct
2. Non-thermal plasma (NTP) technologies for water
discharge. Remote plasma methods are the earliest plasma applications
purification
for water treatment purposes. It involves generating plasma in one
location and using it to treat water in another. For example, ozone is
Direct discharge plasma can be categorized broadly as thermal and
generated from dry gases such as O2 through dielectric barrier dis­
non-thermal based on the temperature requirements. However, in recent
charges and then injected into water at the treatment location for
times, attention has been paid to the non-thermal types of plasma
oxidation treatment. Another example of remote plasma is the glow
technology due to its low energy requirements and thus will be the focus
discharge falling liquid film treatments [8].
of this review study. Non-thermal plasmas are different from other
The indirect plasma methods generate plasma near the treatment
plasma technologies as they are produced within a water treatment
location but not directly within the water treatment system. The most
system when high-energy electrons and active species are generated for
popular plasma sources using these methods are UV irradiation, high or
direct oxidation of dissolved organic molecules and require low tem­
low-pressure gas discharge lamps, high-energy gamma irradiation, and
perature, and near atmospheric pressure conditions [19,20]. This type of
electron beams [9]. The UV sources can be from varying lamps including
plasma is referred to in the literature by various names. For instance, it is
mercury lamps and mercury-free lamps. Common examples include
commonly named after the type of source (see Fig. 2) from which it is
xenon lamps, mercury vapor lamps, metal halide lamps, UV lasers, and
generated e.g. plasma jet, gliding arc, dielectric barrier discharge,
light-emitting diodes (LEDs). These technologies have been fully
plasma needle, corona discharge, spark or pulsed arc, etc. [14,21]. At
developed and commercialized e.g. ST110P system by SEN Lights Co.,
other times, it is referred to be based on the characteristics of the plasma
Japan, and WEDECO UV Systems, USA. Depending on whether the
generated e.g., ambient pressure non-thermal discharges, atmospheric
plasma source is located in contaminated water or above its surface, the
plasma, and one-atmosphere uniform glow discharge plasma. Certain
generated reactive species required to oxidate pollutants may vary.
studies have equally referred to this method as the “cold plasmas” [21].
Zehgioud et al. [10] recently documented the possible reaction mech­
This cold plasma is usually generated by applying an electric or elec­
anism involved in water treatment by plasma. Plasma generated in the
tromagnetic field to a gas. The field energy makes free electrons accel­
gas phase and in contact with water vapor (also called indirect
erate and ionize the gas atoms and molecules which eventually triggers
discharge), generates many reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitrate,

2
A. Yusuf et al. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443

Fig. 1. Some common plasma discharges include (a) dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) consisting of a dielectric between electrodes (High voltage (HV) and ground
electrodes) for the parallel flow of plasma [16], (b) DBD with coaxial thin film water and (c) corona discharge formed by passing the gas over an HV electrode, the gas
formed the corona after contact with the electric field around the electrode [17], (d) glow discharge formed from the direct passage of electric field to gas (similar to a
fluorescent bulb) [18], and different techniques for passing plasma to water, that is, (e) as gas discharge, (f) inside water as liquid discharge, and (g) on the surface of
gas and water as hybrid gas-liquid discharge [17].

the release of more free electrons and provokes new ionization. Excited
electrons produce molecular dissociations which lead to the formation
of new atoms and free radicals, these new species can also excite atoms
and molecules to higher energy levels. When excited atoms and mole­
cules return to a more stable energy level, they emit excess energy in the
form of broad-spectrum electromagnetic radiation (which includes ul­
traviolet). A typical plasma generated by any of the sources mentioned
earlier constitutes excited atoms and molecules, positive and negative
ions, free radicals, UV radiation, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and
reactive nitrogen species (RNS), such as nitric oxide or nitrogen dioxide
[22].
Various studies reported the performance of non-thermal plasma for
water decontamination. Most of the early studies investigated the more
degradable compounds, such as dyes because of the simplicity of the
degradation process [23,24]. Since then, more studies have investigated
the degradation of dyes using non-thermal plasma. The degradation of
other types of contaminants such as phenol has also been investigated
[25]. Asides from organic contaminants, plasma-based treatment has
been attempted for even more complex compounds such as 2,4,6-trini­
trophenol, phencyclidine, dioxins, and pesticides [26], and emerging
pollutants such as pharmaceuticals, plastics, and personal care products
[27,28]. A few recent studies have also found that non-thermal plasma
can also be used for the removal of microorganisms and viral particles in
the water which conventional water treatment methods cannot remove.

3
A. Yusuf et al.
Fig. 2. Schematic showing different sources for generation of plasma: (a) Corona discharge; (b) Micro hollow cathode discharges (MHCD); (c) Jet plasma; (d) Volume
dielectric barrier discharge; (e) surface DBD plasma source [14].
For instance, Dors removed E coli from river water through sterilization
with plasma [29]. Liu et al. also used plasma to remove staphylococcus
aureus from water [30], while Zhang et al. removed microcystin from
water [31].
3. Recent applications of plasma and nanoplasmons for water
treatment
3.1. Materials fabrication and modification
NTP technology is gaining considerable attention in materials
fabrication and modification for improved (waste)water treatment. This
technique can circumvent the use of a chemical agent which may lead to
secondary pollution [32]. It can be economically viable, and sustainable,
and can enhance the selective treatment of target pollutants from
wastewater. [31]. NTP can be used to functionalize materials such as
adsorbents, catalysts, membranes, etc., all used in advanced water
treatment technologies.
3.1.1. Adsorbent fabrication and modification
Activated carbon (AC) is a widely used adsorbent in pollutant
remediation. This is due to its high porosity, and better textural prop­
erties. To enhance the activity of AC, plasma technology is being used to
introduce oxygen-containing functional groups on its surface [33].
These oxygen-based functional groups lead to increased acidity which
enhances its adsorption capacity. Different plasma discharge types have
been used to treat the surface of AC. For example, [34] revealed that the
treatment of low-temperature oxygen plasma (LTOP) of AC fiber resul­
ted in incorporating carboxyl and other oxygen-type functional groups
on its surface. This plasma treatment resulted in a highly stable material
with no observable change in the physical properties of the AC fiber. The
LTOP treatment increased carbon atoms with unpaired electrons leading
to increased active sites for chemisorption. Although plasma-modified
AC gives increased active sites, operating at optimal conditions during
the treatment is essential. This is because the treatment condition op­
poses the two most important effects of plasma treatment (i.e. etching
effect and addition of oxygen functional groups on the surface of AC)
[35]. For instance, an optimum increase in treatment time and output
voltage increase the adsorbent surface roughness due to the etching
effect. While surface roughness may enhance the performance of
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Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443
adsorbents, too high treatment time and output voltage can generate
volatile materials resulting from the violent reactions between carbon
and highly reactive species, which could block the pores on the adsor­
bent surface [36,37]. In addition, the introduction of oxygen functional
groups can block the pores of AC and make the pollutants aloof from the
active sites. Therefore, AC adsorption capacity may become reduced due
to the destruction of pores from harsh plasma treatment conditions.
Biochar is another carbon-based adsorbent with excellent adsorption
capacity for different contaminants from wastewater. In recent years,
the use of a plasma-based approach is receiving great attention in
improving the adsorption capacity of biochar [35]. Jean-Rameaux et al.
[38] utilized a gliding arc non-thermal plasma-assisted to functionalize
and graft highly polar groups on the surface of biochar made from cocoa
shells to remove ibuprofen from polluted water. The plasma modifica­
tion resulted in the creation of several functional groups, such as -NH2,
-COOH, -CO, and -OH, which can enhance the removal of ibuprofen
from water. The plasma functionalized biochar achieved a 99.4%
ibuprofen removal rate compared to a 76.2% removal rate with the
pristine adsorbent. The improvement in the plasma-treated biochar is
attributed to the generation of more active sites and the binding ability
of the plasma during the modification/grafting processes.
Plasma has been used to functionalize carbon nanotubes (CNTs) for
water treatment. Yu et al. [39] reported that O2 plasma was used to
oxidize and introduce oxygen functional groups on CNTs. The modifi­
cation technique led to CNTs with a high specific surface area. The au­
thors applied the plasma-functionalized CNTs for lead removal from
wastewater. The material resulted in enhanced lead removal due to the
introduction of oxygen functional groups. Plasma treatment usually
produces chelating sites on surfaces of CNTs which can create additional
active sites, thereby improving the adsorption efficiency of CNTs for
trace metal removal in water [40].
Iron oxide/expanded graphene (IO/EG) nanoparticles were synthe­
sized and modified using an underwater plasma discharge process [41].
The synthesis condition was carried out at room temperature and at­
mospheric pressure. This synthesis procedure (as shown in Fig. 3) in­
volves discharging the IO/EG in a plasma reactor consisting of a
tungsten electrode, and a gas injection holder at a treatment time of 5
min and an output voltage of 5 kV. The plasma-treated IO/EG resulted in
a higher surface area by a factor of six than the parent EG material. The
modified materials were used as adsorbents in Cr (VI) removal from
A. Yusuf et al. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443

to selectively remove strontium and cesium from wastewater. The

membranes treated with plasma showed superior performance and
strong affinities for the metals during the adsorptive filtration process
compared to the pristine membrane. This superior performance is due to
oxygenated functional groups in the CNTs membrane treated with
plasma. This finding indicates the crucial role of plasma in CNTs
membrane enhancement for metal removal from wastewater.
Polymeric materials can also be treated with plasma to add func­
tional groups to ensure high performance and permeate flux. The plasma
treatment introduces new functionalities resulting from nitration, ami­
nation, and oxidation. Naz et al. [44] treated polysulfone with micro­
wave oxygen plasma for 15 to 30 s. Interestingly, the FTIR (Fig. 4)
analysis indicates the presence of sulfonic, nitro, and amine groups. The
peak at 1302 cm− 1 is attributed to the S=O bond, while the peak at 1354
cm− 1 represents the stretching of nitro compounds. These additional
functional groups aided the functionality of the membrane for filtration.
In addition, the plasma-treated membrane exhibited uniform narrow
pore size distribution compared to the pristine membrane. This
controlled pore size could improve the material’s performance in water
treatment applications.
Although extended plasma time results in reduced pore size, it is
essential to maintain the membrane at the microfiltration range. This is
because reducing pore size beyond microfiltration could lead to inef­
fective pore utilization. Plasma-treated nanofiber membrane offers
Fig. 3. Procedure for the synthesis of IO/EG adsorbent via Oxygen plasma
synthesized [41].
efficient pore utilization for a high flux and rejection ratio. Moreover,
the nanofiber plasma treatment could lead to zero contact angle,
revealing the modified membrane’s hydrophilic nature, which is
wastewater. Moreover, the plasma-assisted adsorbent achieved com­
essential for water treatment applications [45]. Salimi et al. [46] used
plete degradation of the heavy metal. This remarkable performance was
corona air plasma to modify the polyethersulfone (PES) grafted mem­
ascribed to the copious active sites, enhanced surface properties, and
brane. The authors successfully improved the hydrophilicity of the
high surface area of the IO/EG due to the influence of the
membrane. The improved hydrophilic membranes were effective for
plasma-assisted synthesis method. Heavy metal removal occurs via an
oil-water separation [47–49].
ion exchange mechanism. In this regard, introducing specific functional
Ye et al. [47] also developed a super hydrophilic composite mem­
groups, such as carboxyl and hydroxyl groups, via oxygen plasma
brane separating the oil/water mixture via oxygen plasma treatment.
treatment can facilitate this removal mechanism [42].
The composite was ground into the plasma and then treated for 20 min
in a microwave radical generator to improve the membrane surface
3.1.2. Membrane fabrication and modification
hydrophilicity. The plasma-treated membrane showed a total high oil
Plasma treatment has been applied as a green and efficient process in
rejection yield (99.1%) and superior biofouling resistance compared to
several membrane fabrication protocols. Plasma-modified membranes
the pristine membrane. Fig. 5a shows the XPS analysis of the pristine and
usually result in high rejection ability, recyclability, and flux. For
modified membranes. Both membranes show peaks of O 1 s, N 1 s, and
example, Ali et al. [43] used Ar/O2 plasma to fabricate a multi-walled
C1s representing the parent elements of the composite membrane.
CNT (MWCNT) functionalized membrane. In the plasma treatment,
However, the oxygen-treated membrane shows further O 1 s intensity
the Ar/O2 plasma was discharged at 2 Pa pressure, 80 W power, and
due to the introduction of a new O element by the plasma treatment.
13.56 MHz frequency, followed by MWCNT membrane injection into a
Consequently, this leads to improving hydrophilicity caused by the
borosilicate glass tubular plasma reactor. The membrane was employed

Fig. 4. FTIR analysis of a) polysulfone and b) polysulfone treated with microwave oxygen plasma for 30 s [44].

5
A. Yusuf et al.
Fig. 5. XPS analysis of (a) pristine and plasma treated composite membrane; (b) dispersion of pristine membrane in water after 6 days; (c) dispersion of plasma
treated membrane in water after 2 months [47].
uniform dispersion of oxygen shown by the Tyndall effect (Fig. 5b and
5c). Therefore, enhancing the hydrophilicity of the membrane via
plasma treatment plays a crucial role in oily water separation.
Plasma modification has also been used to aid membrane fouling
mitigation. The plasma-assisted treatment can be used to fine-tune the
roughness of membrane surfaces [50]. This is because plasma can create
active groups on the membrane surface. In this context, plasma based on
low-pressure and corona discharge plasma offer superior performance
compared to purified gases such as CO2, O2, Ar, and He-based plasma
[46,51]. Corona and low-pressure plasma have been used to enhance
membrane antifouling ability effectively, but corona plasma is more
energy-intensive [52].
Low-pressure plasma is viable for generating reactive species
essential for membrane fouling mitigation. Besides, plasma-promoted
chemical vapor deposition is an emerging membrane surface treat­
ment technique. Khoo et al.[53,54]. utilized this technique to increase
the antifouling resistance of a commercial thin film composite (TFC)
membrane, thereby improving its desalination capability in a reverse
osmosis process. The Low-pressure plasma can introduce polar func­
tional groups such as hydroxyl and carboxyl on the membrane surface.
Consequently, this leads to an increase in membrane fouling resistance
ability. Exposure time is a critical factor when performing surface
treatment with plasma. Principally, low exposure time is optimal for
plasma treatment while extended plasma treatment time could destroy
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Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443
active layers on the membrane surface due to the formation of thicker
layers. Plasmas have also been employed as a coating agent for mem­
branes used in membrane bioreactors in wastewater treatment. In this
system, introducing specific functional groups such as carboxyl, amino,
and hydroxyl contributes to the antifouling ability of membrane bio­
reactors [55]. This is because these functional groups act to inhibit the
adhesion of hydrophobic foulants on the membrane surface.
3.1.3. Catalyst synthesis
In catalyst synthesis for water treatment applications, a novel bulk
catalyst production strategy is essential for a straightforward process to
scale up. To this end, the plasma-assisted synthesis method can enhance
the bulk production of small, uniform particle-size materials. Recently,
Rahman et al. [56] reported bulk production of nano-WO3 catalysts via
an arc-assisted plasma chemical reactor. In this study, an expanded
Ar/O2 plasma beam interacts uniformly with parent tungsten via a
condensation process. The interaction produces bulk nano-WO3 through
oxidation followed by evaporation in a controlled process. The synthe­
sized nanomaterial exhibits a large surface area, uniform narrower pore
size distribution, and better stability in an aqueous medium. Accord­
ingly, the nanomaterial could completely degrade dye over a short re­
action duration. The novel synthesized material displayed other
functionalities, such as hydrogen production and antibacterial property.
This unprecedented feature is due to the small size of the material, which
A. Yusuf et al.
destroys cell membranes leading to the annihilation of bacteria and the
ability of the material to adsorb and desorb hydrogen. Szymanowski
et al. [57] applied the radio frequency-enhanced chemical vapor depo­
sition method to deposit titanium oxide film for improved chemical and
biological treatment of contaminants. The plasma-enhanced photo­
catalyst film showed high catalytic activity, significant contact angle
reduction, and increased wettability. Plasma-assisted catalysts have also
been reported for various applications [58,59]. However, catalyst syn­
thesis via plasma is rarely used in the open literature in water treatment
applications. Therefore, the research community must focus on utilizing
this clean, facile, and straightforward catalyst synthesis method in water
treatment applications.
3.2. Plasma-assisted advanced water treatment
The performance of NTP systems can be maximized when integrated
with advanced water treatment technologies such as catalysis, adsorp­
tion, membrane filtration, etc. These integrated technologies possess
powerful synergy that can increase the generation of powerful oxidants,
reduce operation costs, reduce mass transfer limitations, lower reaction
time, and increase pollutant degradation rates.
3.2.1. Sterilization and disinfection
Low-temperature plasma is a promising technique for destroying
microorganisms in (waste) water [60]. The conventional microbial
decontamination methods, such as chlorination, are stymied by the
generation of toxic by-products. Moreover, the use of plasma technology
can limit the generation of residual toxicity. Plasma generation in water
can trigger the production of active chemical species resulting from
electrode deterioration, UV photons, and shock waves which can be used
to inactivate most micro-organism or their colonies [61]. One of the
possible inactivation mechanisms is the deformation or disintegration of
the microbe structure or damaging of the capsid proteins [62]. A recent
study investigated the efficiency of plasma inactivation of E coli in water
by varying the non-thermal plasma reactor geometry. When the air was
used as plasma gas with reactor phase liquid (RFL) and Reactor phase
gas (RFG) reactor, the inactivation of bacteria took only 8 mins of
treatment and was more effective than the RFG reactor type when Argon
was used [63]. Similarly, the antimicrobial efficacy of a microfluidic
plasma reactor was investigated for the inactivation of E coli and P
aeruginosa using air as the carrier gas. Inactivation of both bacteria in 5 s
was observed. P aeruginosa was less susceptible but complete inactiva­
tion was achieved with E coli. These studies demonstrate that when
plasma treatment uses the carrier gas -air, and both reactive oxygen and
reactive nitrogen species are formed during water treatment, the plasma
system can achieve 100% inactivation of bacteria compared to using
noble gases [64].
Plasma technology was employed in the disinfection of water
contaminated with a virus by Lee et al. [62]. A submerged plasma
reactor equipped with arc discharge which produces a shockwave, UV
light, and reactive species, was employed. The result revealed 2.6 - and
4.2-log reductions in the virus titer of non-purified murine norovirus
after 1 min of treatment at 3 and 6 Hz underwater arc treatments,
respectively. The study demonstrates underwater arc plasma treatment
capable of inactivating waterborne noroviruses. A capillary discharge
plasma was used to kill bacteria in a typical saline solution and more
than 99.6% of the bacterial cells were killed in 8 s [65]. Hong et al.,
(2019) [66] designed a novel multihole dielectric barrier discharge
(MH-DBD) plasma system that was submerged in water to sterilize
aquaculture pathogens water. The plasma showed high performance of
sterilization of over 6.5 –7.5 log reduction for all the investigated mi­
crobes, which shows that plasma can be effective for water sterilization.
Agricultural products such as food crops are prone to contamination
from polluted water, which when consumed, may cause health issues or
outbreaks [67]. Chemical treatments are the usual route to increase
agricultural productivity, but this route always leaves residual toxic
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Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443
substances on the agricultural produce. The application of Plasma
activated water for disinfection can serve as an alternative to this
chemical and other toxic treatment routes for improving production in
agriculture. Plasma-activated water (PAW) enhanced seed germination
and plant growth. Xiang et al. [68] investigated the use of PAW for the
decontamination of mung bean sprouts. After 30 mins of exposure to
PAW, the bacteria and total yeast on the bean sprouts decreased by 2.32
- and 2.84- log10 CFU g− 1, respectively. It suggested that PAW could
inactivate yeast, bacteria, and mold on bean sprouts without resulting in
any physiochemical changes in the bean sprout. A schematic represen­
tation of the mechanism of bacteria inactivation with PAW is shown in
Fig. 6. Machado-Moreira et al. [69] presented the application of PAW
combined with ultrasound as an alternative decontamination sprouting
seeds. It was also found that using PAW will reduce the bacteria popu­
lation in mung bean and alfalfa seeds. They immersed the seeds in
bacteria suspension and discharged a plasma arc with compressed at­
mospheric air as feed gas to generate PAW. PAW showed a disinfecting
ability with a reduction of Log10 1.67 CFU/g and Log10 1.76 CFU/g for
alfalfa seeds and mung beans inoculated with E coli, respectively. After
the PAW was combined with ultrasound, the antimicrobial activity
increased by reducing Log10 3.48 cfu/g of S. Montevideo in mung bean
seed. Another study by Laurita et al. [70] investigated two different
methods for producing PAW as a possible control for plant diseases.
Using Sterile distilled and tap water, plasma-activated distilled and tap
water were generated. Tap water was employed to produce a large
volume of PAW to overcome the limitation of using nanosecond-pulsed
generators and sterile distilled for producing PAW. The PAW was used as
an alternative means to control phytoplasma-infected grapevines. The
results show that treatment with PAW increases the plant’s fitness and
enhances its defense mechanisms.
The rural dwellers in the most remote areas of developing countries
use surface water from rivers after a simple treatment with coagulation/
flocculation and sedimentation. While this treated water appears clear
with lower bacteria concentration, it still does not meet the standard
domestic water quality. The use of cold plasma for surface water treat­
ment is a viable option to refine this treated water to a more acceptable
quality for household use. A recent study by Van Nguyen et al. [71]
implemented a cold plasma technology to treat surface water to produce
potable water for 3 to 4 households. They tested two models – a
small-scale laboratory setup and a prototype capable of producing about
6 m3/d of clean water. The small-scale model was used to determine
optimum operation parameters and evaluate the efficiency of the
treatment process. This prototype was installed and tested in a house­
hold on an islet in Vinhlong province, Vietnam. Raw water from a river
is pumped to a reaction tank where, at the same time, a coagulant
(aluminum sulfate- Al2(SO4)3) is filled into this tank by a metering pump
with a predetermined concentration of 100 mg of Al2(SO4)3 per 1 liter of
water. The reaction tank is equipped with a propeller at the top to mix
Al2(SO4)3 with water thoroughly and promote the flocculation process.
The mixing time was 5 min. The flocs were allowed to sediment for a
predetermined time of 60 min. After flocculation and sedimentation,
water was forced through a sand filter at 20 L/min to remove some
suspended residues. Then filtered water is supplied at a flow rate of 7.5
L/min to three plasma treatment columns for removing bacteria. After
plasma treatment, clean water is stored in a stainless-steel tank for do­
mestic use. This prototype operates in a batch of 3 m3 of water. The
study demonstrates that using NTP technology for water disinfection is a
viable option even in the world’s most remote regions. Table 1 sum­
marizes some of the applications of plasma-mediated AOP employed for
the degradation of selected organic contaminants.
Plasma technology has already found great success in agriculture,
disinfection, and bacteria deactivation and is becoming widely inte­
grated into the industry. The community of plasma scientists believes
that research and more investigation will continue to foster innovations
and discoveries for the application of plasma and Nanoplasmons for
water purification processes [79] Although many laboratory
A. Yusuf et al.
Fig. 6. The mechanism for bacteria inactivation with the use of plasma-activated water.
experiments have demonstrated the application of plasma technology
for water purification processes, it is still faced with some scale-up
challenges.
Some plasma purifier ventures have been initiated to commercialize
plasma technology for water purification processes. Still, they are not
cost-effective in comparison to conventional treatment methods. Thus,
scale-up remains one of the biggest challenges in implementing plasma
technology for water purification [80]. In addition to scale-up, it is also
essential to emphasize the feasibility of treating real wastewater by
discharging plasma, due to the complexities of actual wastewater. The
turbidity, conductivity, and pollutants are higher in the actual waste­
water; therefore, developing highly efficient plasma technologies not
susceptible to the effects of impurities in water is essential for water
treatment [81]. Furthermore, if nano-catalysts are combined with
plasma, preventive measures such as installing additional filters should
be implemented to avoid secondary pollution from nano-catalyst
leakage into the water.
3.2.2. Removal of CECs in water
CECs (such as micropollutants, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, etc.)
found in trace amounts in water and water resources continue to gain
attention owing to their impending threat to human health and the
environment [80]. Several studies demonstrated the application of
plasma for decontamination of these emerging contaminants such as
pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, pesticides, and other organic compounds
[82]. Their removal has been investigated in different (waste)water
sources due to their recalcitrant nature. Qu et al. [83] investigated
phenol removal by combining corona pulsed discharge plasma with
adsorption using granular activated carbon (GAC). 1 g of the GAC was
added to the water (containing pollutant) between the high voltage
multi-needle electrode and ground plate electrode. The pulse peak
voltage used was 23.6 kV, and the volume of synthetic wastewater was
250 ml with a recirculating rate of 100 ml/min. The removal of phenol
in a pulsed corona discharge plasma system alone (PCDP), GAC system
alone, and combined PCDP/GAC system was investigated. An 87.3%
removal of phenol after 60 min in the PCDP/GAC system was achieved,
which was 1.2 times higher than the removal efficiency in the GAC
system alone. The removal efficiency for the PCDP system was 26.7%
after 60 mins. In the PCDP/GAC system, phenol was degraded to hy­
droxylated intermediates and organic acids by ˙OH radicals, H2O2 and
O3 .
In recent years, significant attention has been paid to the combined
effect of plasma and catalysts for treating polluted water. Table 2
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Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443
summarizes the synergistic effect of different plasma on some recent
studies in the plasma-catalysis process. The integration of catalysis with
plasma technology is driven by the synergy (Fig. 7) between the pro­
cesses involved in pollutant degradation. This synergy increases the
generation of oxidative species from heat, UV light, O3, OH, and H2O2 by
both participating processes. Integration of plasma and catalysis aims to
resolve a stand-alone plasma technology’s energy and environmental
challenges [78]. Zhang et al. [84] showed that adding CaO2 to dielectric
barrier discharge plasma (DBDP) improved the energy yield by a factor
of 1.4. This is due to the synergistic effect of the combined
plasma-catalytic treatment. Besides, the integrated process has been
reported to decrease by-product emissions, particularly NO2 [85]. Wang
et al. [86] combined DBDP with tungsten oxide (WO3) in the removal of
bisphenol A (BPA) in water. The authors achieved complete degradation
and mineralization of BPA due to the additional generation of ROS from
DBDP. The effect of the type of carrier gas such as air and oxygen on the
catalytic activity of WO3 was compared to the rate of ROS generation.
Oxygen as a carrier gas was shown to perform better due to the
continuous oxygen generation in the plasma reactor. In this system, WO3
reduced O3 concentration and improved H2O2 concentration leading to
improved BPA removal. Mao et al. [87] also employed DBDP to aid the
catalysis of WO3-modified graphene oxide. Graphene oxide has carrier
mobility benefits with improved surface properties, enhanced electrical
conductivity, increased activity, and augmented optical properties [88,
89]. Coupling graphene oxide with a semiconductor like WO3 in a DBDP
system can generate hydroxyl radicals from O3 generated in the plasma
reactor. Furthermore, combining graphene and carbon nanotubes can
establish a 3D material useful in water treatment applications when
coupled with DBDP. Xu et al. [90] developed a CNTs-G-Nifoam/plasma to
remove dye from wastewater. The plasma process modified and
contributed to the CNTs’ activation in the treatment process through
more radical generation. Pulse discharge plasma on the water surface
(WSPDP) is another plasma technology used with catalysts for water
treatment [91]. This plasma technology can alleviate the drawbacks of
high energy requirements, high solution conductivity, high discharge
voltage, and electrode corrosion in conventional corona or streamer
plasma discharge. Pulse discharge produces an additional amount of
ROS. Coupling pulse discharge plasma with bismuth oxide composites
resulted in an enhanced tetracycline hydrochloride degradation rate.
This enhanced performance was attributed to the synergistic effect of the
coupled system. In principle, the catalyst absorbed the discharged UV
photons emitted by the plasma, creating an electron-hole pair with a
longer life span. The electron-hole pair utilized the ozone generated by
A. Yusuf et al. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443

Table 1
Summary of recent studies on plasma application for sterilization and disinfection and removal of CECs.
Contaminants of emerging concern Ref
Reactor type Emerging contaminants Time Concentration Degradation Power/ Remarks
(Min) mg/L (%) Voltage

Dielectric Barrier Discharge DBD Dichlorvos 8 2 78.9 80 kV Plasma discharge contained Excited [72]
nitrogen, reactive oxygen species,
and OH radicals, and degradation of
dichlorvos followed the first-order
kinetics
Gliding arc Paracetamol 60 200 98 10 kV The Fenton process was initiated [73]
with plasma and had a high (>92%)
degree of mineralization compared
to when investigated separately
Gliding arc Perfluoroalkyl carboxylates 60 100 98 150 W The novel H2O submerged cold [74]
gliding arc plasma has the
advantage of the provision of a high
flux of atoms, radicals, and active
plasma specie, which enhances
PFAS destruction
Gliding arc anthraquinonic acid green 25 60 (80 µM) 50% 9KV The main species was OH radical, [75]
Gliding arc plasma assisted 2 g/L anthraquinonic acid green 25 60 (80 µM) 84% 9KV TiO2 catalyst decreased the time
TiO2 photocatalytic required for complete degradation
and increased the extent of
degradation
Bubble discharge Alizarin yellow 10 30.9 100 14.4 kV The novel microplasma bubble [76]
generated plasma discharged inside
a small bubble and efficiently
degraded all azo, heterocyclic, and
cationic dyes investigated. With
hydroxyl and superoxide anion
radicals playing the dominant role
in the degradation.
Bubbling gas Ibuprofen tetracycline 25 60 mg/L 82 11.6 kV Catalysts promoted the generation [77]
hydrochloride 200 mg/L 100 of OH radicals which enhanced the
Bubbling gas combined with g- Ibuprofen tetracycline 60 mg/L 11.6 kV treatment of pharmaceutical
C3N4 photocatalysis hydrochloride 200 mg/L additives.
Sterilization and Disinfection
Reactor type Microbe Time Concentration Degradation Power/ Remarks Ref
(Min) Mg/L (%) Voltage
multihole dielectric barrier Edwardsiella tarda, 5 2.8 × 108 cells/ 6.5–7.5 log 8.5 kv The novel multihole dielectric [66]
discharge (MH-DBD) Photobaaacterium damselae ml reduction barrier discharge was submerged in
subsp. damselae (formerly Vibrio water, and the plasma plumes
damsela), Strepcocuus directly contacted the water,
parauberis, Vibrio ichthyoenteri inactivating the investigated
microbes.
DBD murine norovirus 1 5 - 6 log PFU/m 4.2-log PFU/ 12 kV (6 Submerged plasma reactor [62]
ml Hz) generated shockwave, UV light,
reactive oxygen species, and
reactive nitrogen species to reduce
microbes and inactivation of water-
borne noroviruses.
Application of PAW
Reactor type Agriculture Microbes Time initial Final Power/ Remarks Ref
for Plant/seed population population Voltage
production
of PAW
Gliding arc Mung bean Bacteria yeast 30 6.38 log CFU/g 2.34 log CFU/ 5 kV PAW treatment had no significant [78]
sprouts 5.07 log CFU/g g effect on the antioxidant potential of
2.84 log CFU/ Mung beans, as shown by other
g treatment methods
Plasma arc Mung beans E-coli 10 7 Log10 CFU/ Log10 1.76 10 kV PAW demonstrated high [69]
discharge Alfalfa mL cfu/g disinfecting ability on sprouted
Log10 1.67 seeds but increased with the
cfu/g combination of PAW with
ultrasound

the plasma, leading to a higher hydroxyl radical generation rate. This parameters discussed are applied voltage, directly connected to plasma
subsequently hindered the adverse effect of recombination of the elec­ generation, catalyst dosage when a catalytic water treatment technology
tron and hole. is used, and pH.

3.2.3. Effect of process variables
To further evaluate the performance of NTP-assisted advanced water
treatment for the degradation of CECs, it is essential to consider the
influence of process parameters that are essential to the large-scale
deployment of these integrated water technologies. The main
3.2.3.1. Applied voltage. When plasma technology is integrated with
AOP for water treatment, the applied voltage is an important process
variable. Essentially, the applied voltage influences the amount of
ionized gas trapped in the plasma. High voltage also contributes to the
immersion of catalysts into the liquid phase. It leads to higher emissions

9
A. Yusuf et al. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443

Table 2
Summary of recent advances in plasma-assisted catalytic AOP.
Plasma/Catalyst Pollutant Operating conditions Performance Role of plasma REF

Dielectric barrier discharge
plasma/ (DBDP)GO-WO3
Dielectric barrier discharge
plasma/ (DBDP)WO3
Dielectric barrier discharge
plasma (DBDP)/rGO-WO3
Pulsed discharge plasma on the
water surface (WSPDP)
/CaFe2O4/Bi2O3
Dielectric barrier discharge
plasma (DBDP)/CNTs-G-
Nifoam
Dielectric barrier discharge
plasma (DBDP)/MnFe2O4
Underwater arc discharge
(UAD)/PMS
Fe2O3–CoFe2O4
Dielectric barrier discharge
plasma (DBDP)/CaO2
Bisphenol A (BPA) V = 5 kV, po= 20 mg/L, Co= DE= 78% • Faster production of ROS. [87]
40 mg/L, t = 60 min, Ql= EY= - • DBDP luminous effect can induce the WO3
0.5 L/min, SE= 1.78 photocatalytic effect.
Bisphenol A (BPA) Co=175 mg/ L, t = 30 min, DE= 100% • The plasma produced luminous and chemical [86]
1
Ql = 0.5 L/min, V = 5 kV, EY = 0.937 g (kWh)− effects, which increased OH concentration
pH = 6.9 SE= 1.31 leading to mineralization and degradation of
BPA.
Dimethyl phthalate V = 6 kV, Po = 10 mg/L, DE= 90.6%, • DBDP produces chemical effects such as O3, [92]
1
(DMP) Co= 40 mg/L, Ql = 0.5 L/ EY= 1.16 g(kWh)− H2O2, OH, UV light e.t.c
min, Ct, t = 60 min, pH = SE = 1.13
6.4
Tetracycline Co= 0.4 g/L, DE= 97.8% • WSPDP generates UV radiation and O3. [91]
hydrochloride (TTHC) V = 24.6 kV, f = 50 Hz, EY= - • The plasma also formed electron-hole pair in
pH=3, Ql= 2 L/min, t = 30 SE= 1.55 the system aiding the catalytic activity.
min
Alizarin green (AG) Po= 50 mg/L, pH = 2, P = DE=100% • DBDP produces more radicals through [90]
56 W EY= - chemical effects.
SE= 1.44,
4-fluorophenol (4-FP) t = 24 min, V = 16 kV, Po = DE=100% • DBDP generates radicals and can maintain [93]
20 mg/L, Co= 2.5 mg/L, P EY= 4444.75 mg reduced toxic by-product emissions.
= 4.27 W (kWh)− 1
SE= -
Phenols Co = 10 mg/L, pH = 7 DE = Phenol: 99.8%, 4- • Increased radical generation improved the [94]
p-chlorophenol, p-nitro CP: 98.4%, p-NCB: degradation efficiency of chlorinated organics
chlorobenzene 99.9%, 88.31%) and the removal rate of total organic carbon
EY = phenol: 109.78 mg (TOC).
(kWh)− 1
4-CP: 108.24 mg
(kWh)− 1, p-NCB:
109.89 mg (kWh)− 1
SE = -
Sulfamethoxazole t = 50 min, Co = 0.1 g/g P = DE= 96% • Generated RNS and ROS significantly [84]
(SMX) 64.5 W, EY = 5628 mg (kWh)− 1 enhanced SMX removal.
SE= 2.02 • Plasma discharge induced physical effects such
as UV and heat that can activate CaO2 to
generate more radicals

Fig. 7. Synergistic effect in plasma catalysis for water treatment.

of UV, which in turn enhances pollutant degradation rate. In an opti­
mum voltage, further increase of emission would not increase the
degradation. Wang et al. [93] revealed that 4-FP degradation increases
with increasing applied plasma voltage rate when treated with
DBDP/MnFe2O4. Increasing the applied voltage from 12 to 20 kV
steadily increases the discharge intensity. In the presence of the catalyst,
the degradation rate increased by 1.2-fold compared to the plasma
technology. The optimum voltage was found to be 16 kV with energy
yield for both the DBDP and DBDP/MnFe2O4 of 1891.17 mg/kWh and
2391.80 mg/kWh, respectively. It follows that a higher applied voltage
does not directly imply better overall performance, a trade-off must al­
ways be made.
3.2.3.2. Catalyst dosage. Catalyst dosage plays a significant role in the

10
A. Yusuf et al.
improvement of the plasma catalytic of AOP. It was established that an
increase in catalyst dosage, to some extent, increases the performance of
plasma catalytic AOP because a high catalyst leads to higher active sites
during the plasma catalytic process [95,96]. Increasing catalyst dosage
increases the removal rate of pollutants, but an optimum amount of
catalyst is always required to maintain high efficiency. Catalyst accu­
mulation and photon scattering in the reaction zone leads to light energy
loss and decreased luminous intensity. It was also revealed that beyond
optimum conditions, the agglomeration of the catalyst reduced the light
transmittance in the reactive zone [95].
3.2.3.3. pH. Solution pH is another crucial factor in pollutant degra­
dation. Changes in pH affect catalyst behavior and pollutants degrada­
tion mechanisms. Catalysts possess a point of zero charges (pHpzc) which
determines how the catalytic surfaces accept or release protons. In
practice, the catalyst’s surface is protonated in an acidic solution and is
deprotonated under a basic medium. It was reported that neutral cata­
lyst surfaces provide more active sites compared to acidic or alkaline
catalyst surfaces [97]. A recent investigation by Wang et al. [86] ach­
ieved the highest degradation rate at a neutral pH using the WO3/DBDP
system for BPA degradation. This was ascribed to the stability of WO3 in
neutral pH. However, Wang et al. [93] revealed a higher degradation
rate of 4-FP when MnFe2O4/DBDP was employed under higher pH
values. The authors ascribed higher performance under this condition to
the formation of an alkaline microenvironment on the MnFe2O4 surface.
This alkaline microenvironment, through the interaction of the posi­
tively charged MnFe2O4 and OH− can lead to more Hydroxyl radical
generation. Similar findings have been reported with CaO2 due to its
alkaline nature [98]. Concerning the effect of pH on degradation
mechanisms, it was established that low pH values promote the gener­
ation of reactive species in solutions [99,100]. For example, the strong
oxidant OH is favored under an acidic medium since the ozone gener­
ated during plasma discharge was decomposed to OH⋅ in solution at low
pH in an indirect pathway according to Eq. (16) [101].
OH .
O3 + H2 O ̅→ OH . + O2 + HO.2 (16)
4. Challenges of plasma treatment technologies
Even though research has been ongoing on the use of plasma for
water purification for the last three decades, it is still unclear when the
technology will be ready for large-scale water treatment. Some of the
main challenges are discussed in this section.
4.1. The complexity of multi-factor modelling
As a highly complex and multifaced technology, its performance is
dependent on various interrelated parameters e.g. energy input, gas
input, pH, reactor size, temperature, conductivity, electrode, etc. [102].
Insight into those interrelated parameters can only be provided by the
collaboration of experts in diverse fields. While the gas/liquid hydro­
dynamics, reactor configuration, and mass transfer kinetics require
chemical engineering background, electricity experts are needed to
provide information related to the electrical discharge types, power
input and output, voltage and frequency requirements, etc., and mate­
riologists deal with the construction of electrodes to meet the required
operating conditions. Previous studies have made the following deduc­
tion on how the various factors inter-relate to influence the overall ef­
ficiency of a plasma system, as highlighted below:
i The pH of the solution affects the chemical properties of the system
during plasma discharge processes [103,104].
ii The number of electrodes to be applied depends on the reactor
configuration and power input [104].
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Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443
iii The conductivity of liquids in the system influences the production of
reactive species and affects the characteristics of the plasma
discharge [104].
iv The type and quantity of reactive radicals produced depend on the
gas used to generate the plasma and the quantity of energy injected.
[105]
v The plasma discharge depends on the composition and characteris­
tics of the electrodes used, as well as the distance between the
electrodes. [106]
vi The efficiency of the treatment is affected by the feeding gas. [103,
107]
Certain studies have concluded that plasma-based water treatment
modeling requires choosing between pollution degradation efficiency or
energy efficiency, but not both [108]. More details about the multiple
factors affecting the efficiency of plasma treatment have been reviewed
by Jiang et al. [109]. and Moreau et al. [110]
4.2. High energy costs
The economic feasibility of any technology depends largely on the
cost of energy required for its operations. Most plasma-based water
treatment technologies depend on expensive electricity. Thus, a major
concern with these methods is the cost of power supply and the effi­
ciency of converting the power input into useful plasma discharge for
water treatment [111].
While energy cost is not a critical factor in other application areas of
plasma, energy plays a prominent role in the processing of large volumes
of water on an industrial scale. For the large-scale application of plasma-
based systems, the water treatment costs should be comparable to the
current cost of other conventional methods. It is important to note that
the energy required for the different contaminants is different, thus, it
may be preferable to select a type of contaminant for which the direct
plasma method is more energy-efficient.
However, plasma-based treatment is still desirable for water treat­
ment applications requiring high efficiency or the destruction of harmful
organic compounds. Jiang et al. reviewed the energy requirements of
different contaminants and different plasma discharge types [109].
Jiang et al. [109] showed that pulsed electrical discharge, DC pulseless
corona discharge, dielectric barrier discharge (DBD), gliding arc
discharge, DC glow discharge, and DC arc plasma for removal of
emerging contaminants would provide energy efficiency values of
0.13–13, 0.57–1.09, 0.56–2.6, 0.016–12.5, 0.12–1.06, up to 8.12
g/kWh, respectively. The variabilities of these energy efficiency values
are high, meaning that energy consumption would ultimately depend on
operating conditions including type and concentration of contaminant,
applied voltage, influent flow rate and residence time in reactor, reac­
tor/electrode configurations, discharge zone, and the desired contami­
nant removal efficiency.
For pulsed electrical (corona/streamer/spark) discharge, the reactor
is driven by a pulsed electric generator able to create very sharp high
voltage pulse with a nanosecond or microsecond range duration time.
Thus, in this discharge process, only free electrons gain high energy with
producing energetic electrons leading to non-thermal plasma genera­
tion. For DC pulseless corona discharge, a high flux of electrons is ob­
tained from DC electrical discharge in gasses or liquids, which supplies
active radical species for chemical oxidations. Contrary to pulsed elec­
trical corona, the advantage of the DC corona is that it can continuously
produce radical species. However, it consumes more energy because of
the continuous operation and is also significantly affected by water
conductivity. For DBD, at least one dielectric barrier (e.g., glass, quartz,
ceramics, mica and alumina, etc.) is used in the discharge gap between
two electrodes (that is, a high voltage electrode for plasma production
and a ground electrode for plasma collection) with time varying voltages
applied to the electrodes. The dielectric barrier prevents spark forma­
tion, eliminates electrode etching and corrosion, and distributes the
A. Yusuf et al.
discharge almost uniformly over the entire electrode area. Based on DBD
technology, ozone has been industrially generated with oxygen or air
feed, and applied for wastewater treatment. In gliding arc discharge
processes, high voltage is introduced between two or more thin ‘‘knife-
edge’’ divergent electrodes and the narrowest point is electrical break­
down resulting in arc discharge when the electric field reaches
approximately 3 kV/mm in air. As a high velocity gas flows through the
nozzle connected to the electrodes, the length of the arc (actually a
thermal plasma) increases and the temperature of the ionized gas de­
creases, so that it becomes a non-thermal quenched plasma upon
breaking into a plasma plume. For DC glow discharge, plasma is sus­
tained between an electrode and a surrounding electrolyte. A thin wire
anode is in contact with the surface of the electrolyte and the DC glow
discharge is initiated in a thin sheath film of gas/vapor covering the
electrode surface, like the glow in a fluorescent bulb. For DC arc plasma,
the contaminated solution is usually directly introduced into torch as a
plasma forming gas. When the arc is ignited, the aqueous solution can be
evaporated spontaneously to provide the generation of 100%-water
plasma due to enormous heat from an anode. This is a thermal plasma
[109].
4.3. The complexity of real-life pollutants
Most of the previous plasma applications for water treatment have
focused on wastewater pollutants with an emphasis on singular bio­
logical pollutants and degradable compounds. However, the composi­
tion of real-life wastewaters is more complex with their constituents
varying from high COD, high BOD, suspended solids, etc. Thus, the
development of large-scale plasma treatment to obtain high degradation
efficiency when dealing with all these real-life compositions may be
difficult [109]. Also, plasma treatment is not useful for treating solvents
and liquid waste oils, both of which may be present in real-life waste­
water. However, it is important to note that recent studies have begun to
address this challenge by using real-life wastewater in plasma-based
water purification studies [112].
5. Future trends of plasma-based water treatment technologies
5.1. Establishment of pilot plasma-based water treatment plants
Despite the challenges regarding the development of plasma tech­
nologies for water treatment on a large scale, there have been recent
developments to upscale the results of laboratory-scale studies into pilot
plants. Recently, Barillas designed a prototype of a plasma-based water
purification targeted at industrial wastewater using dielectric barrier
discharge [113]. Among such other attempts is the Aquapure technology
[114], which was based on the recommendations of Malik [115]. Two
contaminants, TCE, a toxic industrial solvent, and methyl tertiary butyl
ether (MTBE) were used for the piloting process at two wastewater
treatment facilities, namely Aerojet General Corporation, and the
Southern Nevada Water Authority. The piloting process successfully
treated a few gallons per minute and required less energy than the
UV-H2O2 oxidation method.
Also, a few companies now market small to medium-scale plasma-
based water treatment technologies. Symbios markets a plasma reactor
for water treatment that features a multiplicity of low-current arcs [116]
while Palagostar markets a plasma-based water purification system that
uses an electric arc to treat industrial and urban wastewater [117].
Eco-logic markets a cold-plasma technology that promises to disinfect
municipal wastewater [118].
5.2. Plasma treatment and catalysis
Even though plasma treatment for water remediation has been re­
ported to be very efficient, it has a few shortcomings which may hinder
industrial-scale applications. For instance, in the presence of ⋅OH
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Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443
radicals, other slower oxidation routes such as ozone and peroxide are
inhibited [109]. To improve the energy efficiency of plasma treatment
for the removal of organic pollutants and address this challenge, one of
the methods that have been attempted is the generation of plasma in the
presence of catalysts [119].
The common catalysts that have been reported are carbon-based
materials, metal oxides, metal ions, silica gel beads, zeolites, oyster
shell powder, etc. Oyster shell powder can be used in the plasma
treatment of surface waters for catalysis and acid control resulting in the
reduction of the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen
demand (BOD) [120]. Carbon has equally been reported as an efficient
catalyst to improve plasma systems for water treatment owing to its
excellent adsorption properties. Activated carbon fibers used as a cata­
lyst in plasma systems are more effective in the degradation of pollutants
as compared to stand-alone plasma systems [121].
When plasma is generated near photocatalysts, it results in the
simultaneous generation of reactive species and UV/Vis light. Photo­
catalytic ozonation has been reported to improve the degradation of
pollutants. Hao et al. investigated the effects of TiO2 on the degradation
of 4-chlorophenol in water in a pulsed-discharge plasma. The results
showed that the oxidation rate constant and energy consumption effi­
ciency were higher by 1.8 and 2.3 folds respectively in the presence of
TiO2 particles [122]. Lukes et al. [25] reported similar results when they
studied the effects of TiO2 on the degradation of phenol by a
plasma-induced oxidation system.
However, more studies are needed to understand the interaction of
these catalysts with various contaminants and plasma systems. Also, the
effects of the different types of plasma discharge on different catalysts
are not yet fully understood. To reduce costs, it will be interesting to put
into consideration possible ways to design hybrid systems to allow the
removal of catalysts immediately after use for recycling after each water
treatment.
5.3. Plasma treatment and biological degradation
Conventional biodegradation methods are popularly known to
remove pollutants from industrial wastewater (BOD5/COD (>0.3))
through the metabolism of living organisms. However, it is ineffective in
the treatment of biological undegradable contaminants in effluents. On
the other hand, plasma systems are effective in the abatement of these
undegradable pollutants through the reactive hydroxyl species. Based on
reported lab-scale studies, a combination of plasma with existing bio­
logical water-treatment methods may be more efficient and economical
than using plasma technology alone [123]. The combination of plasma
technologies and conventional biodegradation methods was first re­
ported by Ollis et al. who proposed the integration of both methods to
minimize the energy costs of plasma and optimize the efficiency of
biodegradation systems[124]. To synergize the two methods, effluents
are pretreated in plasma systems to convert the undegradable biological
or organic compounds into more biodegradable intermediates which
can afterward be degraded by regular inexpensive, and less
energy-intensive biological methods. Some studies have shown that
coupling plasma treatment and biological methods are more
cost-effective and efficient than using either method alone [124].
To optimize the advantages of this method, future studies need to
address how to minimize the plasma input and maximize the biological
degradation input [125].
5.4. Nanoplasmonics and water desalination systems
RO desalination technologies have been in operation for over four
decades and are responsible for about 44% of global desalination ca­
pacity and over 80% of the total number of desalination plants installed
in the world. While the cost of RO materials has been fairly economical
in the past, membrane fouling has been a major challenge and is thus
responsible for increased operating costs. Plasma pretreatment of RO
A. Yusuf et al.
desalination systems has become increasingly popular to reduce mem­
brane fouling; increase fouling resistance and flux. Previous studies have
shown evidence of a reduction in membrane fouling upon plasma
treatment. However, more studies need to investigate the effects of the
duration of the plasma treatment on fouling and the lifetime of plasma-
treated RO membranes [126].
Plasmonics and nanoplasmonics are increasingly popular due to their
unique elements and features, which allow a distinguished control of
light through surface plasmons. This innovation will create the possi­
bility to explore works that could only have been possible under extreme
conditions of temperature and pressure. A nanoplasmonic device that
can absorb energy from the sun and use the absorbed energy for steam
generation and water desalination has been recently introduced [127]
Zhou et al. formed the device from aluminum nanoparticles to float on
water surfaces for desalination that promises low-cost, effective water
desalination, and the possibility of easy scale-up. These claims have
since been questioned by Gordon et al. [128]. who argued that the
specific energy consumption (SEC) of the developed material is too high
for economic and feasibility evaluations. However, this technology may
be worth exploring further due to its portability and reliance on solar
energy which makes it very applicable to remote areas and developing
countries.
6. Conclusion
This review presents the recent advancements, challenges, and
future trends toward the industrial-scale commercialization of NTP
technologies for water purification. The application of NTP for advanced
materials fabrication and modification appears promising and wide­
spread. The use of NTP in water purification may avail the removal of
varieties of contaminants simultaneously due to its assorted generation
of reactive species. While laboratory-scale experiments have shown that
the NTP-based treatment technology is promising, the complexity of the
technology still requires major improvements before it can be used on a
large scale. There is a need for interdisciplinary collaborations to
develop accurate models of the various parameters involved in the
plasma treatment process to obtain the required parameters for effective
scale-up applications. More detailed quantitative data from experi­
mental studies as well as parameters from modeling results are still
required to advance in this topic. To minimize costs and maximize ef­
ficiency, the combination of plasma-based technology with other con­
ventional methods such as catalysis, biodegradation, and water
desalination may be more practical. Also, most studies have investigated
the use of popular reactive species such as ozone, hydrogen peroxide,
and hydroxyl radicals. However, it may be interesting to investigate the
role of other reactive species as well as identify the intermediates and
byproducts formed in future studies.
Funding information
No funding was received for this work.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, and McGill
13
Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 14 (2023) 100443
University, Montreal, Canada are appreciated for providing the library
platforms used in compiling this work.
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