Structure Analysis Gunung Benau Karst Area by Using

mSTA and FFD, North Kalimantan, Indonesia

Heriyanto1, E Haryono2, Mahajana3, P G Sabrain1, H Magdalena1, M D Balfas1,
Y Hidayatullah1, M F Habibah1, F R Qomariah1
1
Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mulawarman University, Indonesia
2
Karst Research Group, Faculty of Geography, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
3
ESDM Kaltara, North Kalimantan, Indonesia

hery.geo@ft.unmul.ac.id

Abstract. The formation of Gunung Benau is associated to the geological structural

process. This study uses remote sensing using DEMNAS data resampled at 10 meters.
The DEMNAS data will be modeled using the modified Segment Tracing Algorithm
(mSTA) and Fault Fracture Density  (FFD) approaches. Surface geological mapping
methods involve observations, descriptions, direct measurements, and field data
recording of data appearances and geological conditions on the Gunung Benau. The
structure which found in Gunung Benau is a shear joint with syncline and anticline
folds and nine faults identified. The mSTA's main lineament directions, Northeast-
Southwest and Southeast-Northwest, are consistent with the area's geological
structure. The FFD shows that the highest density values occur in the central region of
Gunung Benau, where faults are extensively exposed.

1. Introduction
Karst is a type of environment that is generally consisting of limestone generated by dissolved
rock and mineral formations such as dolomite, gypsum, and anhydrite and is characterized by
subsurface drainage, caves, and closed basins [1]. Karst formations have low porosity and temporary
water storage due to their geological properties. As a result, water flows through the cavities and
fissures in the rock. The presence of soil above the karst allows for longer water storage. The Gunung
Benau karst area is one of the karst zones in North and East Kalimantan. Gunung Benau serves two
primary functions: conservation and development. Gunung  Benau is a karstified area with exokarst
and endokarst,  which acts as a research area (cultural and geological heritage), groundwater
catchment regions, natural water storage (aquifers), and permanent springs, and also has an
underground river flowing through the caves
Gunung Benau's formation is intimately tied to the geological structural process. This study
employs remote sensing techniques with DEMNAS data. The DEMNAS data will then be surface-
modelled using the Modified Segment Tracing Algorithm (mSTA) and Fault Fracture Density (FFD)
approaches.
DEM data applications have been utilized for the interpretation of geological formations,
temperature distribution, geological hazard modeling, and the potential of natural resources, among
others. Compared to DEM data from other products, DEMNAS data is frequently utilized in
Indonesia. This is due to a number of advantages held by DEMNAS, including the fact that free
downloads for the entirety of Indonesia with a spatial resolution of less than 10 meters are accessible
to the public [2].

2. Study Area
Gunung Benau is a karst mountain located between Bulungan, North Kalimantan, and Berau, East
Kalimantan. The highest peak in the Gunung Benau karst mountain range is 634.6 meters high and has
an extended shape. The tectonic history of the Gunung Benau Karst cannot be distinguished from the
creation of the Mangkalihat Peninsula and the Tarakan Basin, which are components of the subduction
of the southward-subducting South China Sea Proto-Sea microplate [3]. Gunung Benau is situated in
the Berau subbasin contact zone between the Sembakung and Birang Formations. The first post-rift
sediment unconformably overlies the Sembakung Formation. These sediments are classified into three
lithostratigraphic units: the Birang Formation (the most ancient), the Tabalar Formation, and the Latah
Formation (the youngest). These post-rift strata are characterized by Oligocene to Lower Miocene
transgression carbonate and marine shale units [4].

Figure 1. Location of the study area of the Gunung Benau Karst area. Banckgroung map is DEMNAS image and
the limestone outcrop is from field observation.

3. Methods

3.1 Investigation of geological structures through DEMNAS

The Indonesian Geospatial Information Agency provided publicly available digital elevation data
(DEMNAS) for this investigation (BIG). DEMNAS is available for all of Indonesia, with a spatial
resolution of 0.27 arcseconds, or approximately 8.3 meters. To determine the geological structure of
Gunung Benua in East Kalimantan, the DEMNAS interpretation is carried out using Arcgis software.
Field studies are also used in this study to evaluate the relationships of geological structures, including
geomorphic features. DEMNAS data were coupled with field observations to create a model of the
actual structure at Gunung Benau in East Kalimantan.
3.2 Automatic lineament identification
The mSTA (modified Segment Tracing Algorithm) is a computer-based automatic lineage
extraction method that uses a non-filtering methodology to consider continuous straight valleys in
satellite data. This method works by analyzing local variations in the gray level of a digital image to
find lines of pixels that are read as vector elements. DEMNAS was utilized in this work to determine
the pattern of lineaments using the mSTA approach. The SRTM DEM data is converted into a
hillshade by specifying a solar irradiation angle of 180 o-360o for ascending and 0o-180o for
descending. Variations in the angle of illumination function, allow all slopes to be visible from
various angles. The altitude is chosen at a 45o angle in order to cast the same amount of shadow as
the object exposed to the light. Topographical examination of the earth's surface reveals fault scours
and fractures. The following steps [5], can describe the algorithm:

1) Step 1. A window is set to a specific size (say 1111) to determine if the window's center is a line
element or not. To examine for local differences in gray level, a line of 16 directions at 11.25 o in-
tervals was drawn through the middle of the window (Figure 2). Calculate the deviation from
the center pixel along the scan line defined by the equation below to determine the orientation:

(1)
where Z* is the grayscale degree in the center of the window, wi is the weight for the grayscale
difference between the center pixel and its neighboring pixels, and a = 5. The kmin sign denotes
the direction with the lowest value ε , which is believed to be a straight line.

Figure 2. Ilustrasi ukuran window pada Segment Tracing Algorithm (Koike dkk., 1995).

2) Step 2. It is examined along the perpendicular direction of kmin, namely kmax, using the follow-
ing equation:
(2)
 is used to generate dynamic thresholds that have a lower threshold level for line elements
placed closer to the brightness azimuth of the satellite image(s). The mean and standard deviation
are m and , and the threshold (T) is defined as follows:

(3)

where denotes the angle formed by s and kmax, 1 is a constant. If 0 ≥ T then the lineaments
element is the window's center pixel.
3) Step 3. To determine whether the central pixel is a ridge or a valley along the scan line from the
direction of kmax, calculate and mark the sum of the gray levels at i = -a, ..., -1 and i = l, ..., a are
calculated and denoted by 1and 2, respectively. n. If  1  2, it is presumed that the center
pixel is dispersed in the valley (potential pixels).
4) Step 4: Connect the line elements created in the previous steps. A central pixel (e.g., p) with a
kmin direction is connected to another central pixel within the kmin -11.25o to kmin +11.25o direction
limit. The distance (D) between p and the other potential pixels is within the D formula:
(4)
where * is the angle formed by s and kmin, and 2 and 3 are constants. The line elements, p and
the farthest potential pixel locations in the distance range D are connected. If no potential pixels
are found within the distance range D, then p is removed.
5) Step 5: If many potential pixels are stacked along the same valley, the valley may be made up of
several line elements running in the same direction or intersecting each other. Step 5 employs
Principal Component Analysis to convert complex line elements and curved valleys into straight
lines.

3.3 Lineament density

The research area is divided into several grids of 0.5x0.5 km size to compute FFD (Fault Fractures
Density). The lineaments interpretation results are then calculated by dividing the total length of
lineaments in the grid by the area of the grid. This value is placed in the grid's center for future FFD
contour maps.
n

∑ Ln (5)
i=1
FFD=
(Luas area)

The length of the line n is denoted by Ln. A rose diagram is used to characterize the distribution of
lineament directions, which shows the directional frequency of the extracted lineaments with the
lineament frequency (number of lineaments per total number) in each sector of 10°. Lineament density
is divided into five levels, with the lowest being very low and the highest being very high.

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Geological Structure from DEMNAS

The research location for GunungBenau is located in the Tarakan Basin and Berau Basin, which
are administratively located in Bulungan Regency, North Kalimantan Province, and Berau Regency,
East Kalimantan. From the interpretation of DEMNAS data and field observations, the geological
structure of the study area consists of joints, folds, and faults, as follows:
a. Joint
Tension joints and shear joints are the two types of joint structures found. The dominant tension
joint is oriented in the direction of N 105°E, and the dominant shear joint is oriented in the directions
of N 155°E and N 60°E, so the force acting is oriented in the direction of N 110°E, or from Southeast
to Northwest. Joints in tributary limestones tend to erode and form irregular blocks (Figure 1).
Meanwhile, the cave joint is a fracture line that is traversed by water on the cave's roof, creating
stalactites at the cave's top.

Figure 3. Eroded shear joint the in stream, with photo direction N110°E. The photograph is courtesy of personal
collection

b. Fold
Claystone with a position of N 305°E was discovered in the northern part of the river from
Gunung Benau, and claystone with a position of N 215°E was discovered only 750 meters to the
northeast. Based on the field data, there is also a syncline with a gentle rock slope in the northern part
because the area is the syncline's axis. Furthermore, the cross-section of Gunung Benau with a west-
east orientation shows an increasing topography on the left and right sides based on the interpretation
of the next syncline. The presence of an anticline can be interpreted by looking at the appearance of
mountains on DEMNAS, which shows a straight line with nearly the same left and right sides. This
anticline appears to dip to the north and then vanish, while the anticline's crest erodes and forms a
valley morphology.
Figure 4. Cross-section on the North and South sides of Gunung Benau, with a West-East direction showing the
Syncline
c. Fault
1) Masawi normal fault
The naming of this fault is based on its location through Liang Masawi, where the Liang is a
location used as a temporary residence by the nomadic Punan Batu Tribe. The Masawi reverse
fault is a first-order fault that runs almost north-south on the west side of Gunung Benau. A
younger Payau Dextral fault cuts through this fault. This fault was identified based on topographic
alignment on Gunung Benau's west side and the appearance of the fault scarp in a north-south
direction. The alignment of the cave that extends in a north-south direction and is found in Benau
Cave's deepest part is proof of this fault in the field. Furthermore, many springs can be found on
Gunung Benau's west side. This fault lifts limestone on the east and other rocks on the west,
particularly metasediment from the Batu Ahaq River.
2) Benau dextral strike-slip fault
This fault was named after the location of the fault that extends through Benau cave. This strike-
slip fault is a fault of the first order that occurs on the north side of Gunung Benau in an almost
northeast-southwest direction. This fault intersects parallel to the previously formed syncline.
There are numerous caves in the fault zone of this fault. The lineament pattern in the northern part
of Gunung Benau, which leads to N 50°E, was used to identify this fault. The alignment of the
cave in the Benau cave, which extends north-south, is proof of the fault in the field.
3) Irirom dextral strike-slip fault
The direction of the fault that cuts the Irirom River became the name of this fault. This fault,
which has a northeast-southwest trend, formed at the same time as the Benau dextral strike-slip
fault. This fault intersects with the preexisting syncline.
4) Payau dextral strike-slip fault
This fault was named after the direction of the fault that cuts the Payau cave. This fault, which has
a northeast-southwest trend, formed at the same time as the Benau dextral strike-slip fault on the
middle side of Gunung Benau. This fault intersects with the preexisting syncline.
5) Marusung dextral strike-slip fault
The fault's name is also derived from the Marusung cave, through which it passes. This fault
formed concurrently with the Benau and Payau dextral strike-slip fault. This fault extends
northeast-southwest through the middle of Gunung Benau. This fault intersects the previously
formed syncline. The same fault alignment can be found in the southern part of Gunung Benau.
6) Ngasudip dextral strike-slip fault
This fault was named after the direction of the fault that passes through Liang Ngasudip. This
fault, which has a northeast-southwest trend, formed at the same time as the Benau dextral strike-
slip on the middle side of Gunung Benau. This fault intersects with the previously formed
syncline.
7) Batu Berukir dextral strike-slip fault
This fault was named after the direction of the fault, which passes through the Batu Berukir
location. This fault, which has a northeast-southwest trend, formed at the same time as the Benau
dextral strike-slip on the middle side of Gunung Benau. This fault  intersects the previously
formed syncline.
8) Batu Berukir normal fault
The Batu Berukir normal fault is formed after the formation of a fault in the first order, when the
pressure discontinues, which causes the earth's gravity to be more dominant, resulting in a
deformation in the existing rock. The naming of this fault is based on its location close to the Batu
Berukir. This fault is oriented east-west with the appearance of a fault escarpment which also has
an east-west direction in the south of Gunung Benau.
9) Benau sinistral strike-slip fault
After the formation of the Masawi sinistral strike-slip fault and the Batu Berukir reverse fault of
the first order, the Benau sinistral strike-slip of the second order was formed in the direction of
northeast-southwest on the middle side of Gunung Benau. The naming of this fault is determined
by the fault's direction as it passes through the Benau cave. This fault intersects the preexisting
syncline.
 Figure 5. Geological structure of Gunung Benau. Base map was generated from DEMNAS.
4.2 Lineament and lineament density
The lineaments associated with existing structures in the Gunung Benau region are obtained using
the mSTA method (Figure 6). In the form of river lineaments, valley lineaments, fault structures, and
fractures, the lineament is a reflection of the topography. In the region of Gunung Benau, the total
lineament results from the STA for ascending (red) and descending (blue) are 1493 and 1578,
respectively. 706 lineaments derive from the combination direction (green). This combination
direction compensates for shortcomings in the ascending and descending  directions, such as the
shadowed lineament that cannot be identified. With the primary direction of ascending, descending,
and combined radiation being Northeast-Southwest and Southeast-Northwest, respectively. This is
consistent with the northeast-southwest orientation of the Gunung Benau fault structure (Figure 5),
which is dominated by this orientation. Meanwhile, the predominant orientation of regional geological
structures in the Berau Basin is southeast-northwest [6, 7, 8, 9]. This region is also surrounded by the
southeast-northwest trending Maratua and Mangkulihat Faults. Therefore, based on the above details,
the results of this lineament can describe the general structure of Gunung Benau.
 Figure 6. The result of lineaments and rose diagram (showing the main direction of straightness) of mSTA,
ascending (red), descending (blue), and combination (green).

The dynamics of sedimentation in the Berau basin began in the Eocene age. The Kuching highland
experienced weathering and erosion until it was transported far into the Berau basin, which is a
shallow sea area. These materials form limestone with the insertion of claystone and sandstone into the
Sembakung Formation. In the late Miocene, the Kuching highland was uplifted due to the subduction
of the Proto-South China Sea plate to the south, thus lifting the northern part of the Tarakan basin.
Then there was volcanic activity, and volcanic ash material from the eruption was deposited in the
Berau basin to form tuff, limestone, and claystone. These rocks are included in the Birang Formation,
which was formed during the Late Miocene-Early Eocene. Tectonic processes continued until the Plio-
Pleistocene, which caused strong fault folding throughout the Berau basin, with most of the fold axes
in the Berau basin oriented to the Southeast-Northwest. Gunung Benau, which used to be in a shallow
marine environment, also underwent a process of uplift up to an altitude of 600 meters above the
earth's surface with a geological structure oriented northeast-southwest. Furthermore, there has been a
lot of weathering and erosion to form the morphology as it is today. This is what causes the direction
of the structure on Gunung Benau to be different from its surroundings.
 Figure 7. Lineament density from FFD

In general, areas of high-density anomalies usually represent areas of fault or fold development,
whereas regions of low density anomalies usually represent relatively stable tectonic blocks. High,
medium, and low density areas with plane distributions have a corresponding relationship with certain
lithological zones. According to the direction of expansion of the density gradient zone, the
development position and zoning of the main linear structures in the area can be determined. The high
density values are mainly concentrated in the central part of the west-side Gunung Benau area, where
the faults and hydrological manifestations are well exposed (Figure 7). This is in agreement with
geological observations and provides a solid basis for the interpretation of hidden faults in this area. A
comprehensive density analysis shows that the lineament extraction results are in accordance with the
observed geological phenomena.
5 Conclusion
There is folding along the syncline and the anticline in the joint structure that forms. The Masawi
reverse faults, the Benau dextral strike-slip fault, the Irirom dextral strike-slip fault, the Payau dextral
strike-slip fault, the Marusung dextral strike-slip fault, the Ngasudip dextral strike-slip fault, the Batu
Berukir dextral strike-slip fault, the Batu Berukir normal fault, and the Benau sinistral strike-slip fault
are the fault structures According to the local geological structure, the main directions of the
lineaments for ascending, descending, and combined, are northeast-southwest and southeast-
northwest. The middle part of the Gunung Benau area, where the faults are clearly visible, where the
high density values are primarily concentrated.

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