Fee 7

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering 2019 G.
C
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CHAPTER SEVEN
SINGLE-PHASE A.C CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
7.1 Contents of the Chapter
The contents of this chapter are:
 Objective of the chapter

 Introduction
 Alternating voltage and current
 Generation of alternating voltage and currents
 Important A.C terminology
 Phasor relationships for circuit elements
 Impedance and admittance
 A.C circuit analysis
 A.C power
 Series and parallel A.C circuits
7.2 Objective of the Chapter
The objectives of this chapter are:
 Introducing students with alternating voltage and current.

 Making students understand how alternating voltage and currents are generated.
 Introducing some important A.C terminologies.
 Introducing students with phasor relationships, impedance and admittance
 Exercising the analysis of power types in A.C circuits.
 Exercising analysis of A.C circuits with different topology.
7.3 Introduction
In an a.c system, the voltage acting in the circuit changes polarity at regular intervals of time and the
resulting current (called alternating current) changes direction accordingly. The a.c system has offered so
many advantages that at present electrical energy is universally generated, transmitted and used in the
form of alternating current. Even, when d.c energy is necessary, it is a common practice to convert a.c
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into d.c by means of rotary converters or rectifiers. Three principal advantages are claimed for a.c system
over the d.c system:
(i) Alternating voltages can be stepped up or stepped down efficiently by means of a transformer.
(ii) a.c motors (induction motors) are cheaper and simpler in construction than d.c motors.
(iii) The switchgear (e.g. switches, circuit breakers etc.) for a.c system is simpler than the d.c system.
7.4 Alternating Voltage and Current
A voltage which changes its polarity at regular intervals of time is called an alternating voltage. When
an alternating voltage is applied in a circuit, the current flows first in one direction and then in the
opposite direction; the direction of current at any instant depends upon the polarity of the voltage. Fig. 7.1
shows an alternating voltage source connected to a resistor R.
Figure 7.1: Alternating voltage
7.5 Sinusoidal Alternating Voltage and Current

Commercial alternators produce sinusoidal alternating voltage i.e. alternating voltage is a sine wave. A
sinusoidal alternating voltage can be produced by rotating a coil with a constant angular velocity in a
uniform magnetic field. The sinusoidal alternating voltage can be expressed by the equation:
Sinusoidal voltages always produce sinusoidal currents, unless the circuit is non-linear. Therefore, a
sinusoidal current can be expressed in the same way as voltage i.e. i = Im sin ꞷt. Note that sinusoidal
voltage or current not only changes direction at regular intervals but the magnitude is also changing
continuously.
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Figure 7.2: Alternating voltage and current

Note that an alternating current can also be represented as a cosine function of time viz. i = Im cos ꞷt.
Similarly, alternating voltage can be represented as v = Vm cos ꞷt.
Why Sine Waveform?
Although it is possible to produce alternating voltages and currents with an endless variety of waveforms
(e.g., square waves, triangular waves, rectangular waves etc.), yet the engineers choose to adopt sine
waveform. The following are the technical and economic advantages of producing sinusoidal alternating
voltages and currents:
(i) The sine waveform produces the least disturbance in the electrical circuit and is the smoothest
and efficient waveform.
(ii) The use of sinusoidal voltages applied to appropriately designed coils results in a revolving
magnetic field which has the capacity to do work.
(iii) The mathematical computations, connected with alternating current work, are much simpler with
this waveform.
(iv) By means of Fourier series analysis, it is possible to represent any periodic function of whatever
waveform in terms of sinusoids. This is a notable advantage in the mathematical sense because
non-sinusoidal waves can be analyzed in terms of sinusoids.
Due to above advantages, electric supply companies all over the world generate sinusoidal alternating
voltages and currents. It may be noted that alternating voltage and current mean sinusoidal alternating
voltage and current unless stated otherwise.
Note:
Incidentally, sine curve occurs very commonly in nature. In any natural object which has a periodic
motion such as a swinging pendulum, a vibrating string or the rippling surface of a body of water, we find
this form of wave. The sine curve is apparently nature’s standard.
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7.6 Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents
An alternating voltage may be generated:
(i) By rotating a coil at constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig.
7.3(a). Or
(ii) By rotating a magnetic field at a constant angular velocity within a stationary coil as shown in
Fig. 7.3(b).
Figure 7.3: Generation of a.c voltage and current
Consider a rectangular coil of n turns rotating in anticlockwise direction with an angular velocity of ꞷ
rad/sec in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig. 7.4. The e.m.f. induced in the coil will be sinusoidal.
Let the time be measured from the instant the plane of the coil coincides with OX-axis. In this
position of the coil [See Fig. 7.4 (a)], the flux linking with the coil has its maximum value ϕmax. Let the
coil turn through an angle θ (= ꞷt) in anticlockwise direction in t seconds and assumes the position shown
in Fig. 7.4 (b). In this position, the maximum flux ϕmax acting vertically downward can be resolved into
two perpendicular components:
(i) Component ϕmax sin ꞷt parallel to the plane of the coil. This component induces no e.m.f. in the
coil.
(ii) Component ϕmax cos ꞷt perpendicular to the plane of the coil. This component induces e.m.f. in
the coil.
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Figure 7.4: Generation of a.c voltage and current

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, the e.m.f. induced in a coil is equal to the rate
of change of flux linkages of the coil. Hence, the e.m.f. v at the considered instant is given by;
The value of v will be maximum (call it Vm) when sin ꞷt = 1 i.e., when the coil has turned through 90º in
anticlockwise direction from the reference axis (i.e., OX-axis).
Thus a coil rotating with a constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field produces a sinusoidal
alternating e.m.f. If this alternating voltage (v = Vm sin ꞷt) is applied across a load, alternating current
flows through the circuit which would also vary sinusoidally which can be written as
Note that if at t = 0, θ is measured from the position of the coil when its plane is perpendicular to the
direction of magnetic field, then, v = Vm sin θ. If θ (i.e., at t = 0) is measured from the position of the coil
when its plane makes an angle ϕ with the normal to the direction of field, then, v = Vm sin (θ + ϕ). If ϕ =
90° (i.e., at t = 0, the plane of the coil is parallel to the field), then v = Vm sin (θ + 90°) = Vm cos ꞷ i.e., v =
Vm cos ꞷt.
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7.7 Important A.C Terminology
Wave Form: The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of voltage or current
as ordinate against time as abscissa is called its waveform or waveshape. Fig. 7.5 shows the waveform of
an alternating voltage varying sinusoidally.
Instantaneous Value: The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called instantaneous value.
The instantaneous values of alternating voltage and current are represented by v and i respectively.
Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is known as a cycle.
Figure 7.5: Terminologies of a.c voltage

A cycle can also be defined in terms of angular measure. One cycle corresponds to 360º electrical or 2π
radians. The voltage or current generated in a conductor will span 360º electrical (or complete one cycle)
when the conductor moves past successive north and south poles.
Alternation: One-half cycle of an alternating quantity is called an alternation. An alternation spans 180º
electrical. Thus in Fig. 7.5, the positive or negative half of alternating voltage is the alternation.
Time Period: The time taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity is called its
time period. It is generally represented by T.
Frequency: The number of cycles that occur in one second is called the frequency (f) of the alternating
quantity. It is measured in cycles/sec (C/s) or Hertz (Hz). One Hertz is equal to 1C/s. The frequency of
power system is low; the most common being 50 C/s or 50 Hz. It means that alternating voltage or current
completes 50 cycles in one second. The 50 Hz frequency is the most popular because it gives the best
results when used for operating both lights and machinery.
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Amplitude: The maximum value (positive or negative) attained by an alternating quantity is called its
amplitude or peak value. The amplitude of an alternating voltage or current is designated by Vm (or Em) or
Im.
7.7.1 Important Relations
Time Period and Frequency: an alternating quantity having a frequency of f C/s and time period T
second.
Angular velocity and frequency: The time taken to complete one cycle is the time period T of the
alternating voltage.
Frequency and speed: Consider a coil rotating at a speed of N r.p.m. in the field of P poles. As the coil
moves past successive north and south poles, one complete cycle is generated. Obviously, in one
revolution of the coil, P/2 cycles will be generated.
For example, an a.c generator having 10 poles and running at 600 r.p.m. will generate alternating voltage
and current whose frequency is:
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Example 7.1
The maximum current in a sinusoidal a.c circuit is 10A. What is the instantaneous current at 45º?
Solution:
Example 7.2
Write the mathematical expression for a 50 Hz sinusoidal voltage of peak value 80 V. Sketch the
waveform versus time t.
Solution:
Figure 7.6: Solution for Example 7.2
In order to sketch the waveform versus time t, we first find the time period T of the wave. Now,
Since time period corresponds to 360º and the waveform reaches its peak value at 90º, the instant of time
at which the peak occurs = (90/360) × (20) = 5 ms. Similarly, the waveform passes through zero at t =
(180/360) × 20 = 10 ms and it reaches its negative peak value at t = (270/360) × 20 = 15 ms. The
waveform is shown in Fig. 7.6.
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7.7.2 Different Forms of Alternating Voltage

The standard form of an alternating voltage is given by;
Which of the above form of equations is to be used will depend upon the given data. The following points
may be noted carefully:
For example, suppose the equation of an alternating voltage is given by v = 100 sin 314 t. Then the
maximum value of voltage, Vm = 100 V; frequency, f = 314/2π = 50 Hz and time period, T = 1/f = 1/50 =
0·02 second.
Example 7.3
Solution:
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Practice 7.1
An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum value of 120 A.
(i) Write down the equation for the instantaneous value.
(ii) Reckoning time from the instant the current is zero and becoming positive, find the instantaneous
value after 1/360 second.
(iii) Time taken to reach 96 A for the first time.
7.8 Values of Alternating Voltage and Current

Peak Value: It is the maximum value attained by an
alternating quantity. The peak or maximum value of an
alternating voltage or current is represented by Vm or Im.
The knowledge of peak value is important in case of
testing materials. However, peak value is not used to
specify the magnitude of alternating voltage or current.
Instead, we generally use r.m.s values to specify
alternating voltages and currents.
Average Value: The average value of a waveform is the
average of all its values over a period of time. In perform- Figure 7.7: An alternating quantity
ing such a computation, we regard the area above the time axis as positive area and area below the time
axis as negative area. The time interval over which the net area is computed is the period T of the
waveform.
(i) In case of symmetrical waves (e.g. sinusoidal voltage or current), the average value over one
cycle is zero. It is because the positive half is exactly equal to the negative half of so that the
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net area is zero. However, the average value of positive or negative half is not zero. Hence in case of
symmetrical waves, average value means the average value of half-cycle or one alternation.
(ii) In case of unsymmetrical waves (e.g. half-wave rectified voltage etc.), the average value is taken
over the full cycle.
The average value of a waveform is also called its d.c value. In fact, when a waveform is measured with a
d.c instrument (d.c ammeter or d.c voltmeter), it is the average value of the waveform that is indicated by
the instrument.
Average Value of Sinusoidal Current: Average value of alternating current (or voltage) means half-
cycle average value unless stated otherwise.
The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoidally is given by;
Consider an elementary strip of thickness dθ in the first half-

cycle of current wave as shown in Fig. 7.8. Let i be the mid-
ordinate of this strip.
Figure 7.8: Calculating average value of

sinusoidal current
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Similarly, it can be proved that for alternating voltage varying sinusoidally, Vav = 0·637 Vm.
Practice 7.2
Find the average value of the waveform shown in Fig. 7.9.
R.M.S. or Effective Value: The effective or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is that steady
current (d.c) which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount
of heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same resistance for the same
time.
For example, when we say that the r.m.s. or effective value of an alternating current is 5A, it means
that the alternating current will do work (or produce heat) at the same rate as 5A direct current under
similar conditions. Consider the half-cycle of a non-sinusoidal alternating current i [See Fig. 7.10].
Suppose the heating effect produced by current i in R is the same as produced by some direct current I
flowing through the resistance R for the same time t. Then direct current I is the r.m.s. or effective value
of alternating current i.
The heating effect of various components of alternating current will be i12Rt/n......in2Rt/n joules.
Since the alternating current is varying, the heating effect will also vary.
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The following points may be noted:

(i) For symmetrical waves, the r.m.s. or effective value can be found by considering half-cycle or
full-cycle. However, for unsymmetrical waves, full-cycle should be considered.
(ii) The r.m.s. value of symmetrical wave can also be expressed as :
(iii) The r.m.s. or effective value of an alternating voltage can similarly be expressed as :
R.M.S. Value of Sinusoidal Current: The equation of the alternating current varying sinusoidally is
given by;
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Consider an elementary strip of thickness dθ in first

half-cycle of the squared current wave (shown dotted
in Fig. 7.11). Let i2 be the mid-ordinate of this strip.
Area of half-cycle of the squared wave
Figure 7.11: R.M.S value of sinusoidal current
Similarly, it can be proved that for alternating voltage varying sinusoidally, Vr.m.s. = 0·707 Vm.
Form Factor: It is the ratio of r.m.s. value to the average value of an alternating quantity. i.e.
The value of form factor depends upon the waveform of the alternating quantity.
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Peak Factor: It is the ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity. i.e.
The value of peak factor also depends upon the waveform of the alternating quantity.
The peak factor is of much greater importance because it indicates the maximum voltage being applied to
the various parts of the apparatus.
Example 7.4
An alternating current, when passed through a resistor immersed in water for 5 minutes, just raised the
temperature of water to boiling point. When a direct current of 4 A was passed through the same resistor
under identical conditions, it took 8 minutes to boil the water. Find the r.m.s. value of the alternating
current.
Solution:
Example 7.5
Find the average value, r.m.s. value, form factor and peak factor for (i) half-wave rectified alternating
current and (ii) full-wave rectified alternating current.
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Solution:
Practice 7.3
Determine (i) the average value and (ii) r.m.s.
value of the current wave shown in Fig. 7.14.
Figure 7.14: For Practice 7.3

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Practice 7.4
For the waveform in Fig. 7.15, find
(i) the average value and

(ii) (ii) r.m.s. value
Practice 7.5
Determine the form factor and peak factor for the
unshaded waveform in Fig. 7.16.
7.9 Sinusoids
Consider the sinusoidal voltage
The sinusoid is shown in Fig. 7.17(a) as a function of its argument and in Fig. 7.17(b) as a function of
time. It is evident that the sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds; thus, T is called the period of the
sinusoid. From the two plots in Fig. 7.17, we observe that ꞷT = 2ℼ.
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Figure 7.17: A sketch of Vm sin ꞷt: (a) as a function of ꞷt, (b) as a function of t.
For v(t) repeats itself every T seconds,
Hence
That is v has the same value at t + T as it does at t and v(t) is said to be periodic. In general a periodic
function is one that satisfies f(t) = f(t + nT), for all t and for all integers n. The reciprocal of the period T is
the number of cycles per second, known as the cyclic frequency f of the sinusoid. Thus,
and it is clear that
Let us now consider a more general expression for the sinusoid,
where (ꞷt + ϕ) is the argument and ϕ is the phase. Both argument and phase can be in radians or degrees.
Let us examine the two sinusoids
shown in Fig. 7.18. From Fig. 7.18, we say that v2 leads v1 by ϕ or v1 lags v2 by ϕ. If ϕ ≠ 0, we also say
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that v1 and v2 are out of phase. If ϕ = 0, then, v1 and v2 are said to be in phase; they reach their minima and
maxima at exactly the same time. We can compare v1 and v2 in this manner because they operate at the
same frequency; they do not need to have the same amplitude.
Figure 7.18: Two sinusoids with different phases.
A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form. When comparing two sinusoids, it is expedient
to express both as either sine or cosine with positive amplitudes. This is achieved by using the following
trigonometric identities:
With these identities, it is easy to show that
Using these relationships, we can transform a sinusoid from sine form to cosine form or vice versa. And,
Where
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For example, we may add 3cosꞷt and -4sinꞷt as shown in Fig. 7.19(b).
Example 7.8
Solution:
Method I: In order to compare and we must express them in the same form.
and
Therefore, it can be deduces that the phase difference between v1 and v2 is 300. We can write v2 as
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Method II: Alternatively, we may express v1 in sine form:
Comparing the two shows that v1 lags v2 by 300.
Method III: We may regard v1 as simply -10cosꞷt

with a phase shift of +500. Hence v1 is shown in Fig.
7.20. Similarly, v2 is 12sinꞷt with a phase shift of −100
as shown in Fig. 7.20. It is easy to see from Fig. 7.20 that
v2 leads v1 by 300, that is 900 – 500 – 100.
Figure 7.20: For Example 7.8
Practice 7.8
7.10 Phasors
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid. A complex number z
can be written in rectangular form as
In this context, the variables x and y do not represent a location as in two-dimensional vector analysis but
rather the real and imaginary parts of z in the complex plane.
The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential form as
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where r is the magnitude of z, and ϕ is the phase of z. We notice that z can be represented in three ways:
The relationship between the rectangular form and the polar

form is shown in Fig. 7.21,
On the other hand, if we know r and ϕ, we can obtain x and y

as
Thus, z may be written as
Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are

better performed in rectangular form; multiplication and
division are better done in polar form. Given the complex
numbers
The following operations are important.
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The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity. In general,
which shows that we may regard cosϕ and sinϕ as the real and imaginary parts of ejϕ. We may write
where Re and Im stand for the real part of and the imaginary part of.
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V is thus the phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t).
Note that in Eq. (7.19) the frequency (or time) factor ejꞷt is suppressed, and the frequency is not
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explicitly shown in the phasor domain representation because ꞷ is constant. However, the response
depends on ꞷ. For this reason, the phasor domain is also known as the frequency domain. From equations
above,
So that
This shows that the derivative v(t) is transformed to the phasor domain as jꞷV
Similarly, the integral of v(t) is transformed to the phasor domain as V/jꞷ
Besides time differentiation and integration, another important use of phasors is found in summing
sinusoids of the same frequency.
The differences between v(t) and V should be emphasized:
1. v(t) is the instantaneous or time domain representation, while V is the frequency or phasor
domain representation.
2. v(t) is time dependent, while V is not.
3. v(t) is always real with no complex term, while is V generally complex.
Finally, we should bear in mind that phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant; it applies in
manipulating two or more sinusoidal signals only if they are of the same frequency.
Example 7.9
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Solution:
Practice 7.9
Example 7.10
Solution:
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Example 7.11
Solution:
Practice 7.10
Example 7.12
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Solution:
Practice 7.11
7.11 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements

We begin with the resistor. If the current through a
resistor R is
the voltage across it is given by Ohm’s law as
The phasor form of this voltage is
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The phasor form of this voltage is
showing that the voltage-current relation for the resistor in Figure 7.24: Phasor diagram for the resistor.
the phasor domain continues to be Ohm’s law, as in the
time domain. We should note from Eq. (7.23) that voltage
and current are in phase, as illustrated in the phasor
diagram in Fig. 7.24.
For the inductor L, assume the current through it is
Figure 7.25: Voltage-current relations for an

inductor in the: (a) time domain, (b)
frequency domain.
which transforms to the phasor
Figure 7.26: Phasor diagram for the

inductor; I lags V.
showing that the voltage and current are 900 out of phase.
Specifically, the current lags the voltage by 900.
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For the capacitor C, assume the voltage across it is v = Vm cos(ꞷt + ϕ). The current through the capacitor
is
By following the same steps as we took for the inductor, we obtain
showing that the current and voltage are 900 out of phase. To be specific, the current leads the voltage by
900.
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Example 7.13
Solution:
Practice 7.12
7.12 Impedance and Admittance
In the preceding section, we obtained the voltage-current relations for the three passive elements as
These equations may be written in terms of the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current as
From these three expressions, we obtain Ohm’s law in phasor form for any type of element as
where Z is a frequency-dependent quantity known as impedance, measured in ohms.
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Therefore we can define impedance as follows.
The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I, measured in
ohms (Ω).
Although the impedance is the ratio of two phasors, it is
not a phasor, because it does not correspond to a
sinusoidally varying quantity.
As a complex quantity, the impedance may be

expressed in rectangular form as
Therefore,
Figure 7.29: Equivalent circuits at dc and

high frequencies: (a) inductor, (b)
capacitor.
It is sometimes convenient to work with the reciprocal of impedance, known as admittance, Y defined as
the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S).
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As a complex quantity, we may write Y as
By rationalization,
Equating the real and imaginary parts gives
Example 7.14
Solution:
Figure 7.30: For Example 7.14
Hence the current

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Converting I and V to the time domain, we get
Practice 7.13
Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain

We cannot do circuit analysis in the frequency domain without Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws.
Therefore, we need to express them in the frequency domain.
For KVL, let v1, v2… vn be the voltages around a closed loop. Then
In the sinusoidal steady state, each voltage may be written in cosine form, so that
This can be written as
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Or
indicating that Kirchhoff’s voltage law holds for phasors.

By following a similar procedure, we can show that Kirchhoff’s current law holds for phasors. If
we let i1, i2…in be the current leaving or entering a closed surface in a network at time t, then
which is Kirchhoff’s current law in the frequency domain.

Once we have shown that both KVL and KCL hold in the frequency domain, it is easy to do many
things, such as impedance combination, nodal and mesh analyses, superposition, and source
transformation.
Impedance Combinations
For N series-connected impedances, shown in Fig. 7.32
Figure 7.32: N impedances in series

The equivalent impedance at the input terminals is
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Or
If N = 2, the current through the impedances is
In similar manner, for N parallel-connected impedances shown in Fig. 7.33, the voltage across
each of the impedances is the same.
Figure 7.33: N impedances in parallel

Applying KCL at the top node,
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For N = 2, he equivalent impedance becomes
The delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta

transformations that we applied to resistive
circuits are also valid for impedances.
Figure 7.34: Superimposed Y and ∆ networks.
A delta or wye circuit is said to be balanced if it has equal impedances in all three branches. So,
for a balanced delta or wye circuit
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Practice 7.14
7.13 A.C Circuit Analysis
Analyzing ac circuits usually requires three steps.
Step 1 is not necessary if the problem is specified in the frequency domain. In step 2, the analysis is
performed in the same manner as dc circuit analysis except that complex numbers are involved. We
follow the same approach for all theorems and analysis techniques. Let us see some examples.
Example 7.15
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Solution:
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Practice 7.15
Example 7.16
Determine current I0 in the circuit in Fig. 7.39 using mesh analysis.
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Solution:
Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain
For mesh 2,
For mesh 3, I3 = 5. Substituting this in Eqs. (7.16.1)

and (7.16.2), we get Figure 7.39: For Example 7.16
Putting in matrix form,
Practice 7.16
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7.14 R-L Series A.C Circuit

This is the most general case met in practice as nearly all a.c circuits contain both resistance and
inductance. Consider Fig. 7.41.
The applied voltage V is the phasor sum of the two drops. i.e.
Phase Angle: The value of phase angle ϕ can be determined from the phasor diagram.
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Impedance: In R-L series circuit,
Admittance (Y): Admittance of an a.c circuit is

the reciprocal of its impedance i.e.
Figure 7.42: Phasor diagram of v and i

Power:
7.14.1 Impedance Triangle: The phasor diagram of a R-L series circuit is shown in Fig. 7.43.
Dividing each side of the phasor diagram by the same factor I, we get a triangle whose sides represent R,
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XL and Z. Such a triangle is known as impedance triangle (See Fig. 7.44). Just as in Fig. 7.43, the
impedance triangle is also a right-angled triangle.
7.14.2 Apparent, True and Reactive Powers

Consider an inductive circuit in which its phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 7.45(a). The current I can be
resolved into two rectangular components:
(i) Apparent Power: The total power that appears to be transferred between the source and load is
called apparent power.
It is measured in volt-ampers (VA).

Apparent power has two components named true power and reactive power.
(a) True Power: The power which is actually consumed in the circuit is called true power or active
power. We know that power is consumed in resistance only.
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It is measured in watts (W). It may be noted that it is the true power which is used for producing torque in
motors and supply heat, light etc. It is used up in the circuit and cannot be recovered.
(b) Reactive Power: The component of apparent power which is neither consumed nor does any useful
work in the circuit is called reactive power. The power consumed (or true power) in L and C is zero
because all the power received from the source in one quarter-cycle is returned to the source in the next
quarter-cycle.
It is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR). It does no useful work in the circuit and merely flows
back and forth in both directions in the circuit. A wattmeter does not measure the reactive power.
Power Triangle: If we multiply each of the current phasors in Fig. 7.45(a) by V, we get the power
triangle shown in Fig. 7.45(b). It indicates the relation among apparent power, true power and reactive
power. It reveals the following facts about the circuit:
Illustration - Suppose a circuit draws a current of 10 A at a voltage of 200 V and its p.f. is 0.8 lagging.
Then,
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The circuit receives an apparent power of 2000 VA and is able to convert only 1600 watts into true
power. The reactive power of 1200 VAR does no useful work; it merely flows into and out of the circuit
periodically. In fact, reactive power is a liability on the source because the source has to supply the
additional current (i.e. I sin ϕ) to provide for this power.
7.14.3 Power Factor
For example, in a resistor, the current and voltage are in phase i.e. ϕ = 0°. Therefore, power factor of a
pure resistive circuit is cos 0° = 1. Similarly, phase difference between voltage and current in a pure
inductance or capacitance is 90°. Hence power factor of pure L or C is zero. This is the reason that power
consumed by pure L or C is zero. It may be noted that power factor can never have a value greater than 1.
Example 7.17
A coil having a resistance of 7 Ω and an inductance of 31·8 mH is connected to 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate (i) the circuit current, (ii) phase angle, (iii) power factor, (iv) power consumed and (v) voltage
drop across resistor and inductor.
Solution:
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Practice 7.17
An inductor coil is connected to a supply of 250 V at 50 Hz and takes a current of 5 A. The coil dissipates
750 W. Calculate (i) power factor (ii) resistance of coil and (iii) inductance of coil.
Example 7.18
A pure inductance of 318 mH is connected in series with a pure resistance of 75 Ω. The circuit is supplied
from 50 Hz source and the voltage across 75 Ω resistor is found to be 150 V. Calculate the supply voltage
and the phase angle.
Solution:
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Practice 7.18
A coil when connected across a 100 V d.c supply dissipates 500 W of power. When connected across a
100 V a.c supply of frequency 50 Hz, it dissipates 200 W. Calculate the values of resistance and
inductance of the coil.
Example 7.19
Two coils A and B are connected in series across a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. The resistance of A is 5 Ω and
the inductance of B is 0.015H. If the input from the supply is 3 kW and 2 kVAR, find the inductance of A
and the resistance of B. Calculate the voltage across each coil.
Solution:
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Practice 7.19
When a resistor and inductor in series are connected to a 240 V supply, a current of 3A flows, lagging
37° behind the supply voltage while the voltage across the inductor is 171 V. Find the resistance of the
resistor and the resistance and reactance of inductor.
7.15 R-C Series A.C Circuit

Fig. 7.48 shows a resistance of R ohms connected in series with a capacitor of C farad.
The voltage drop VR (= IR) is in phase with current and is represented in magnitude and direction by the
phasor OA. The voltage drop VC (= IXC) lags behind the current by 90° and is represented in magnitude
and direction by the phasor AB. The applied voltage V is the phasor sum of these two drops i.e.
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Therefore,
(i) Phase angle:
Since current is taken as the reference phasor, negative phase angle implies that voltage lags behind the
current. This is the same thing as current leads the voltage.
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(ii) Power:
Example 7.20
A capacitor of capacitance 79·5 μ F is connected in series with a non-inductive resistance of 30 Ω across
100 V, 50 Hz supply. Find (i) impedance, (ii) current, (iii) phase angle and (iv) equation for the
instantaneous value of current.
Solution:
Practice 7.20
A 10 Ω resistor and 400 μF capacitor are connected in series to a 60-V sinusoidal supply. The circuit
current is 5 A. Calculate the supply frequency and phase angle between the current and voltage.
Example 7.21
A two-element series circuit consumes 700 W and has a p.f. of 0·707 leading. If the applied
voltage is v = 141.1 sin (314t + 30°), find the circuit constants.
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Solution:
Practice 7.21
It is desired to operate a 100W, 120V electric lamp at its current rating from a 240V, 50 Hz supply. Give
details of the simplest manner in which this could be done using (i) a resistor, (ii) a capacitor and (iii) an
inductor having resistance of 10 Ω. What power factor would be presented to the supply in each case and
which method is the most economical of power?
7.16 R-L-C Series A.C Circuit

Consider the circuit in Fig. 7.52 showing R, L and C connected in series across a supply voltage V
(r.m.s.). The resulting circuit current is I (r.m.s.).
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Example 7.22
A 230 V, 50 Hz a.c supply is applied to a coil of 0.06 H inductance and 2.5 Ω resistance connected in
series with a 6·8 μF capacitor. Calculate (i) impedance, (ii) current, (iii) phase angle between current
and voltage, (iv) power factor and (v) power consumed.
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Solution:
Fig. 7.54(a) shows the conditions of the problem.
The negative sign with f shows that current is leading the voltage [See the phasor diagram in Fig. 7.54
(b)].
Practice 7.22
A coil of p.f. 0.8 is connected in series with a 110 μF capacitor. The supply frequency is 50 Hz. The p.d.
across the coil is found to be equal to the p.d. across the capacitor. Calculate the resistance and
inductance of the coil.
Figure 7.55: For Practice 7.22.
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Example 7.23
A coil of resistance 8Ω and inductance 0·03 H is connected to an a.c supply at 240 V, 50 Hz. Calculate:
Solution:
(ii) To maintain the same current and power, the impedance of the circuit should remain unchanged. Thus
the value of capacitance in the series circuit should be such so as to cause the current to lead by the same
angle as it previously lagged. This can be achieved if the series capacitor has a capacitive reactance equal
to twice the inductive reactance [see Fig. 7.56].
Therefore,
Practice 7.23
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7.17 Parallel AC Circuits

Parallel circuits are used more frequently in electrical
systems than are the series circuits. For example,
electrical devices and equipment are connected in
parallel across a.c mains. There are two principal
reasons for it. First, the operation of each device
becomes independent of the other. Therefore, it is
possible to turn on or off any device without disturbing
the operation of other devices. Secondly, most of the
electrical appliances requiring different currents at the Figure 7.57: Parallel a.c circuit
same voltage are to be connected to the same power
source. In parallel a.c circuit the total line current supplied to the circuit is the phasor sum of the branch
currents.
7.17.1 Methods of Solving Parallel A.C Circuits

While analyzing a parallel a.c circuit, two important points must be kept in mind. First, a parallel circuit,
in fact, consists of two or more series circuits connected in parallel. Therefore, each branch of the circuit
can be analysed separately as a series circuit and then the effect of the separate branches can be
combined. Secondly, alternating voltages and currents are phasor quantities. This implies that both
magnitudes and phase angles must be taken into account while carrying out circuit calculations. There are
four principal methods of solving parallel a.c circuits, namely;
(i) By phasor diagram (ii) By phasor algebra
(iii) Equivalent impedance method (iv) Admittance method
(i) By Phasor Diagram
In this method, we find the magnitude and phase angle of each branch current. We then draw the phasor
diagram taking voltage as the reference phasor. The circuit or line current is the phasor sum of the branch
currents and can be determined either (i) by parallelogram method or (ii) by the method of components.
The second method is preferred because it yields quick results.
Consider a parallel circuit consisting of two branches as shown in Fig. 7.58(a).
The current I1 in branch 1 leads the applied voltage V by ϕ10 as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig.
7.58(b).
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The current I2 in branch 2 lags behind the applied voltage V by ϕ20 as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig.
7.58(b).
Figure 7.58: (a) Parallel a.c circuit (b) its phasor diagram
The line current I is the phasor sum of I1 and I2. Suppose its phase angle is ϕ0 as shown in Fig. 7.58(b).
The values of I and ϕ can be determined by resolving the currents into rectangular components.
The phasor diagram method is suitable only when the parallel circuit is simple and contains two branches.
However, for complex circuits with more than two branches, phasor algebra method is recommended.
(ii) By Phasor Algebra
In this method, voltages, currents and impedances are expressed in the complex form i.e. either in the
rectangular or polar form. This eliminates the need of phasor diagram. Referring back to the parallel
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circuit shown in Fig. 7.58(b), we have,
The solution of I can be obtained in the standard form a ± jb by using the rules of phasor algebra. Then it
is an easy task to find the magnitude and phase angle of I.
It may be noted that the phase angle of any current is the conjugate of its impedance angle.
(iii) Equivalent Impedance Method

In this method, we find the equivalent or total impedance of the parallel circuit. The line current is equal
to the applied voltage divided by the equivalent impedance. Consider several impedances connected in
parallel as shown in Figure below.
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Note that relation (i) compares with that for parallel resistors but with one important difference. Here each
impedance is in complex form and takes care of magnitude as well as impedance angle. Therefore, all
algebraic operations (e.g. addition, division, subtraction etc.) must be in complex form.
(iv) Admittance (Y)
We define the following terms:
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Fig. 7.60(b) shows the components G and BL of Y. Here, G is the in-phase component of Y while BL is the
quadrature component of Y. Note that G (conductance) is positive and BL (inductive susceptance) is
negative.
Fig. 7.61(b) shows the components G and BC of Y. Here, G is the in-phase component of Y while BC is
the quadrature component of Y. Note that G (conductance) is positive and BC (capacitive susceptance) is
also positive.
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Note: Conductance G is always positive. However, BL (inductive susceptance) is negative while BC

(capacitive susceptance) is positive.
Example 7.24
A capacitor of 50 μF is connected in parallel with a coil that has a resistance of 20 Ω and inductance of
0·05 H. If this parallel combination is connected across 200 V, 50 Hz supply, calculate
(i) the line current
(ii) power factor and
(iii) power consumed.
Solution:
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The current I1 leads the applied voltage by ϕ1 = 90° as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig. 7.62(b).
Practice 7.24
An inductive coil is connected in parallel with a pure resistor of 30 Ω and this parallel circuit is
connected to a 50 Hz supply. The total current taken from the circuit is 8 A while the current in the
resistor is 4 A and that in inductive coil is 6 A. Calculate:
(i) resistance and inductance of the coil
(ii) power factor of the circuit and
(iii) power taken by the circuit.
Practice 7.25
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7.18 Revision Questions
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Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering 2019 G.

SINGLE-PHASE A.C CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

7.1 Contents of the Chapter

The contents of this chapter are:

 Objective of the chapter

7.2 Objective of the Chapter

The objectives of this chapter are:

 Introducing students with alternating voltage and current.

7.4 Alternating Voltage and Current

Figure 7.1: Alternating voltage

7.5 Sinusoidal Alternating Voltage and Current

Figure 7.2: Alternating voltage and current

7.6 Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents

An alternating voltage may be generated:

Figure 7.3: Generation of a.c voltage and current

Figure 7.4: Generation of a.c voltage and current

7.7 Important A.C Terminology

Figure 7.5: Terminologies of a.c voltage

7.7.1 Important Relations

Figure 7.6: Solution for Example 7.2

7.7.2 Different Forms of Alternating Voltage

7.8 Values of Alternating Voltage and Current

Consider an elementary strip of thickness dθ in the first half-

Figure 7.8: Calculating average value of

The following points may be noted:

Consider an elementary strip of thickness dθ in first

Area of half-cycle of the squared wave

Figure 7.11: R.M.S value of sinusoidal current

Figure 7.14: For Practice 7.3

(i) the average value and

Figure 7.15: For Practice 7.4

Figure 7.16: For Practice 7.5

For v(t) repeats itself every T seconds,

and it is clear that

Let us now consider a more general expression for the sinusoid,

Figure 7.18: Two sinusoids with different phases.

With these identities, it is easy to show that

Method II: Alternatively, we may express v1 in sine form:

Comparing the two shows that v1 lags v2 by 300.

Method III: We may regard v1 as simply -10cosꞷt

Figure 7.20: For Example 7.8

The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential form as

The relationship between the rectangular form and the polar

On the other hand, if we know r and ϕ, we can obtain x and y

Thus, z may be written as

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are

The following operations are important.

The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity. In general,

V is thus the phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t).

Similarly, the integral of v(t) is transformed to the phasor domain as V/jꞷ

The differences between v(t) and V should be emphasized:

7.11 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements

the voltage across it is given by Ohm’s law as

The phasor form of this voltage is

The phasor form of this voltage is

For the inductor L, assume the current through it is

Figure 7.25: Voltage-current relations for an

which transforms to the phasor

Figure 7.26: Phasor diagram for the

By following the same steps as we took for the inductor, we obtain

7.12 Impedance and Admittance

where Z is a frequency-dependent quantity known as impedance, measured in ohms.