Counseling means consultation,
deliberation, exchange of ideas and
process of decision-making. It
involves a person-to-person
relationship in which one person
(counselor) helps another (client) to
resolve areas of conflict that have not
hitherto been resolved. Counseling
services include educational
counseling, vocational counseling
and personal-social counseling.
Psychotherapy has several
definitions but for this course, we
shall adopt the following definition.
Psychotherapy is the treatment of
problems of emotional nature or
mental illness through psychological
means by a trained person (therapist)
with the aim of promoting positive
personality growth and development.
Counseling and psychotherapy
are both professional activities that
utilize interpersonal relationships to
enable people to develop self-
understanding and to make changes
in their lives. Counseling and
psychotherapy overlap but there are
recognized differences between
them.
Counseling deals with normal clients
who are within the normal range of
functioning. Psychotherapy on the
other hand is more concerned with
restructuring of personality or self
and development of insight. In other
words, psychotherapy deals with
individuals whose behaviors are
neurotic.
Psychotherapy operates in a medical
setting whereas counseling operates
in a non-medical setting.
Psychotherapy is deeper in scope, it
is typically more intense, longer in
duration and there are more attempts
to gain insight into the past or long-
standing psychological problems
whereas counseling is broader in
scope and it deals more with current
situations. A counselor cannot be a
psychotherapist; a psychotherapist
can be a counselor.
ATTENDING SKILLS NONVERBAL
Eyes – direct contact with natural
blinks to convey attentiveness
Posture – trunk slightly inclined
toward C to show interest
Head – nod every now and then to
convey “I am listening.”
Space – diagonal sitting position with
distance enough for the C to see the
face and upper body of CL
Speech tone/rate – non-
monotonous and appropriate to the
topic
Time – varies; some like to talk and
extend, others are bottom-line type
and want to finish fast
Facial Expression – match C’s
mood; smile or laugh when C does’
serious when C is serious
Tone or affect – match with that of
the C
ATTENDING SKILLS VERBAL
Open Question (Q) – gather
information through a question which
requires elaboration
Closed Q – ask Qs answerable by
“yes” or “no to obtain specific data
quickly and directly or to regulate
overtalkative Cs
Encourager – repeat a few of C’s
words to encourage more specific
and concrete explanation on content
shared. Ex: “Can you tell me more?”
Paraphrase – repeat the main points
presented by C through combining
own words with C’s main words
Clarification – ask questions or
restate wrong interpretation to force
C to explain further Ex: “When did
this happen?”
Empathic communication – state
the unstated feelings observed from
the C’s language, paralanguage and
behaviors and link them to some
possible sources to show
understanding of what the C is really
going through (Reflection of Feelings)
Summarizing – organize the facts,
thoughts and feelings presented by C
to clarify what the problem is, what
factors are operational, and if already
discussed, the decisions or solutions
arrived at. Ex: “These seem to be the
key ideas you have expressed ….”
Validation – acknowledge the value
of C’s issues and feelings and show
appreciation for C’s efforts and
actions in order to acknowledge C’s
worthiness. Ex: “I appreciate your
willingness to resolve this matter.”
C. Influencing Skills(Directive
Leads and Responses)
Interpretation – present another
frame of reference from which C may
view the situation and produce
changes in feelings, thoughts,
behaviors.
Directive – present a single
suggestion on the action that may be
taken to give C a starting point
Advice – instruct or prescribe
homework on how to think or act to
help indecisive or confused Cs to do
something concrete and helpful
Information – give an explanation or
more information that can be used as
a basis for decisions and actions
Self-Disclosure – share a related
past personal experience or present
reactions to C’s input
Feedback – share your own
perception of the C to enable C to
see C in another light
Logical Consequences – explain
the logical outcome of the C’s
thinking and behavior to enable C to
see their effects on C and C’s
progress
Influencing Summary – synthesize
what has happened in the session,
with special focus on what the CL
has said to ensure generalization to
real life
case conceptualization is a process
and cognitive map for understanding
and explaining a client’s presenting
issues and for guiding the counseling
process. Case conceptualizations
provide counselors with a coherent
plan for focusing treatment
interventions, including the
therapeutic alliance, to increase the
likelihood of achieving treatment
goals. method and clinical strategy
for obtaining and organizing
information about a client,
understanding and explaining the
client’s situation
Biopsychosocial Model and Case
Formulation (also known as the
Biopsychosocial Formulation) in
psychiatry is a way of understanding
a patient as more than a diagnostic
label. Hypotheses are generated
about the origins and causes of a
patient's symptoms. The most
common and clinically practical way
to formulate is through the
biopsychosocial approach, first
described in 1980 by George Engel.
Presenting problem(s) - Initial signs,
symptoms or other difficulties that
are clinically important for the young
person. (e.g. low mood)
Predisposing factors Aspects of the
person’s background that make
him/her susceptible to presenting
with the given problems (e.g. history
of mental illness in family)
Precipitating factors Immediate
issues or events that have caused
the young person to present with or
experience these problems or
symptoms at this time (e.g. recent life
experiences/stressors, bullying etc.)
Perpetuating factors Factors that
cause the young person’s
symptoms/problems to continue or to
progressively get worse (e.g. conflict
in home, low social support, poor
coping strategies, bullying)
Protective factors Factors that help
to improve the young person’s
situation or symptoms (e.g.
supportive relationships, friendships
and strengths)
mental status examination (MSE)
is a component of all medical exams
and may be viewed as the
psychological equivalent of the
physical exam. It is especially
important in neurologic and
psychiatric evaluations. The purpose
is to evaluate, quantitatively and
qualitatively, a range of mental
functions and behaviors at a specific
point in time. The MSE provides
important information for diagnosis
and for assessment of the disorder’s
course and response to treatment.
 PSYCHOANALYTIC THERAPY
(SIGMUND FREUD)
TECHNIQUES OF
PSYCHOTHERAPY
Seven Key Features of
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
(shedler, 2010)
Encourages patients to focus on
affect and the expression of emotion.
Helps people explore their attempts
to avoid distressing thoughts and
feelings.
Identifies and focuses on recurring
themes and patterns in patients'
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Helps patients discuss how past
experiences affect their current
relationships, feelings, and behavior.
Focuses on interpersonal
relationships and interpersonal
experience.
Focuses on the current therapy
relationship.
Encourages patients to explore
fantasy life (e.g., uncensored
thoughts, feelings, dreams).
THERAPEUTIC GOALS
Make the unconscious conscious
Strengthen the ego
Explore the past to increase self-
understanding and gain insight.
Successful analysis > modification of
the individual's personality.
THERAPIST'S FUNCTION AND
ROLE
Little self-disclosure to foster a
transference relationship
Help clients to achieve self-
awareness, deal with anxiety, gain
control, make unconscious conscious,
and understand "why" for their
symptoms
Building relationship, listening,
interpretation, and paying attention
on resistances
The role of clients' readiness to
change
THERAPEUTIC RELATIONSHIP
Working though the transference
relationship
Understanding the old pattern,
connecting to current issues, and
making new choices
Reactions is not equal
transferences
Countertransference reaction as a
therapeutic tool to understand the
world of the clients
TECHNIQUES
PSYCHOTHERAPY
Free Association
Patient must say everything that
comes to mind without censoring
Believed to shed light
unconscious thoughts and urges
Dream analysis
Reveal nature. of the unconscious
Manifest content: what actually
happens in a dream
Latent content: symbolic meaning of
a dream; can be used to discover
unconscious wishes
Resistances: behaviors that prevent
unconscious material from reaching
consciousness
Less engagement
Omitting/ censoring information
Canceling or arriving to appointments
late
Acting out
Intellectualization: patient
experiences of their emotional
content/
Transference: patient reacts as if
therapist represents an important
figure from childhood
Positive or negative feelings
Provides clues about nature of
patient's problems
Form of resistance
The client reacts to the therapist as
he did to an earlier significant other
This allows the client to experience
feelings that would otherwise be
inaccessible
ANALYSIS OF TRANSFERENCE -
allows the client to achieve insight
into the influence of the past
Countertransference - The reaction
of the therapist toward the client that
may interfere with objectivity
Interpretation: method by which the
unconscious meaning of thoughts
and behavior is revealed; most
technique
Designed to open up the patient to
new ways of viewing things
Interpretations offered to patient over
time by building upon his or her own
comments
Less is more; don't want to
overwhelm patient, small dosages
are best
to Therapist points out, explains, and
teaches the meanings of whatever is
revealed
Guidelines:
Close to conscious awareness
OF Go only as deep as the client is able
to go
Point out resistance or defense
before interpreting the emotion or
conflict that lies beneath t
on Analysis of Resistance
Helps client become aware of the
reasons for the resistance (e.g.,
avoiding pain or anxiety)
Helps the client to see that canceling
appointments, fleeing from therapy
prematurely. etc, are ways of
defending against anxiety
These acts interfere with the ability to
accept changes which could lead to
a more satisfying life.
 ADLERIAN THERAPY
(ALFRED ADLER)
THERAPEUTIC GOALS
Collaborative Relationship
strips Develop sense of belonging
Encouragement is the most powerful
method available for changing a
person's beliefs
Helps build self-confidence and
stimulates courage
Discouragement is the basic
condition that prevents people from
functioning
Clients are encouraged to recognize
that they have the power to choose
and to act differently
THERAPIST'S FUNCTION AND
ROLE
Help to identify major mistakes
Lack of confidence, mistrust...
Gathering information through family
constellation, early recollections, or
lifestyle assessment.
Understanding, challenging, and
changing their life story and develop
an alternative story
CLIENT'S EXPERIENCE
THERAPY
Do not recognize the basic mistake
or private logic
Views of self, others, and life based
on a person's lifestyle
Help to discover the motivation of
basic mistake
Do not know what to do differently
Fear of letting go the old patterns for
unpredictable new alternative options
Cling to old patterns even though it is
unsuccessful
RELATIONSHIP B/W THERAPIST
AND CLIENT
Cooperation, mutual trust, respect
Making a contract with clients
Detail what they (clients) want
How they plan
What is preventing them from
reaching goals
How to change unproductive
behavior into constructive behavior
How to make use of their strengths
THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES AND
PROCEDURES
Establishing the relationship
Collaborative relationship, deep
caring and involvement
Identity personal issues
Focus on person not the problem
Increase the awareness of strengths
Focus on subjective experiences and
core patterns
Exploring the individual's
dynamics
Client tells his or her story; clients as
experts
The motivation behind coping
strategies
Therapist is like a lifestyle
investigator
Family Constellation
Early Recollections
Personality priorities
Integration and summary
FAMILY CONSTELLATION
Who are the favorite child?
What was your father's relationship
with their children? Your mother's?
Which child was most life your father?
Your mother? In what respects? etc.,
EARLY RECOLLECTIONS
Three earliest memory
What part does the person take in
the memory? Is the person an
observer or a participant?
Who else is in the memory? What
position do others take in relation to
the person?
What are the dominant themes and
overall patterns of the memories?
IN PERSONALITY PRIORITIES
Superiority (or significance)
Control
Comfort
Pleasing
INTEGRATION AND SUMMARY
Five basic mistake
Overgeneralizations
Impossible goals
Misperceptions of life and life's
demands
Minimization or denial of one's basic
worth
Faulty values
Encouraging self-understanding
and insight
Insight: an understanding of
motivations that operate in a client's
life
Disclosure and interpretations are
techniques that facilitate the process
of gaining insight.
Helping with reorientation
Putting insights into practice
Useful side of life
Sense of belonging and being valued
Useless side of life
Withdrawal from life tasks or self-
protection
Encouragement
No intervention is more important
than encouragement
Help clients identify self-defeating
patterns
Make use of assets, strengths, and
resources
Search for new possibilities
Making a difference
ASKING "THE QUESTION"
"How would your life be different and
what would you do differently, if you
did not have this problem
Used to determine whether the
client's problem is physical or
psychological.
Example: If I had a magic pill that
would eliminate the symptoms of
your problem immediately, how
would you be different?
Physical basis: "I would feel better,
like 1 wouldn't Want to drive a
railroad spike through my forehead to
release-pressure"
Psychological basis: "I would feel
better and wouldn't wind turning my
visits with Jerry into constant
nightmares.
TECHNIQUES
Subjective interview Counselor
helps client tell her story as
completely as possible
The Family ConstellationGoal is to
elicit client's perception of self and
others, of development &
experiences impacting development
Early Recollections Assessment of
strengths, coping, convictions and
expectations
Personality Priorities Building upon
awareness that priorities become
pathways for relating to others
Immediacy - the patient expressing
the experience of what is happening
at the moment in the therapy, which
relates to the goals of the therapy.
Paradoxical Intention - To
decrease involuntary fear's control
on client's life
Acting as if - This technique helps
the palientake an action she may be
afraid of, often because the patient
believes that the action may fail.
Spitting in the client’s soup -
Spoiling a dysfunctional attitude,
behavior or thought, through
confrontation - point of out what is
not working and make it less
appealing to the client to do it
Catching oneself - In this technique,
patients learn to notice that they are
performing behaviors they wish to
change. When they catch
themselves, they may have an Aha
response.
Creating images - The techniques
to form a mental picture of doing
something, which can have more
impact than reminding oneself
mentally.
Avoiding the tar baby - Although
the term tar baby has come to have
racial and other meanings, Adler
used tar baby to refer to the therapist
being careful when discussing a
sticky (tar) issue that is both
significant for the patient and causes
problems for the patient. This way
the therapist does not fall into a trap
that the patient sets by using faulty
assumptions.
For example, a patient who feels
worthless may act in annoying ways
so that the therapist may be annoyed
and thus confirm her perception that
she is worthless.
Push Button - Used for clients who
believe their emotions can control
them. Technique involves the client
alternately picture pleasant and
unpleasant experiences and note the
feelings that accompany the
experiences.
Recognizing entrapment - Client
carries perceptions on life into
sessions (anger, discouragement,
seductiveness, martyrdom, etc.) and
sets traps for the unwary counselor
as the client resists change…
Task Setting & Commitment
Terminating & Summarizing
 EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
(Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich
Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre
and Viktor Frankl)
THERAPEUTIC GOALS
To expand self-awareness
To increase potential choices
To help client accept the
responsibility for their choice
To help the client experience
authentic existence
THERAPIST'S FUNCTION AND
ROLE
Understand the client's subjective
world
Encourage clients to accept personal
responsibility
When clients blame others, therapist
is likely to ask them how they
contributed to their situation
CLIENT'S EXPERIENCE IN
THERAPY
They are challenged to take
responsibility for how they now
choose to be, decide how they want
to be different, and take actions.
Major themes in therapy sessions
are anxiety, freedom and
responsibility, isolation, death, and
the search for meaning.
Assist clients in facing life with
courage, hope, and a willingness to
find meaning in life.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THERAPIST AND CLIENT
Therapy is a journey taken by
therapist and client
The person-to-person relationship is
key
The relationship demands that
therapists be in contact with their
own world
The core of the therapeutic
relationship
Respect and faith in the clients'
potential to cope and discover
alternative ways of being
Therapists share their reactions to
dients with genuine concern and
empathy as one way of deepening
the therapeutic relationship.
THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES
AND PROCEDURES
It is not technique-oriented
The interventions are based on
philosophical views about the nature
of human existence
Free for draw techniques from other
orientations
The use of therapist self is the core
of therapy
HUMANISTIC EXISTENTIAL
MOVEMENT
Logotherapy
Search for meaning in the
meaningless
Present and future outlook
Paradoxical intention: technique in
which the client is told to consciously
attempt to perform the very behavior
or response that is the object of
anxiety and concern
De-reflection: instructs the client to
ignore a troublesome behavior or
symptom
 PERSON-CENTERED
THERAPY (CARL ROGERS)
THERAPEUTIC GOALS
helping a person become a fully
functioning person
Clients have the capacity to define
their goals
an openness to experience
A trust in themselves
An internal source of evaluation
A willingness to continue growing
THERAPIST'S FUNCTION AND
ROLE
Function: to be present and
accessible to clients, to focus on
immediate experience, to be real in
the relationship with clients
Through the therapist's attitude of
genuine caring, respect, acceptance,
and understanding, clients become is
defensive and more open to their
experience and facilitate the personal
growth
Role: Therapists attitude and belief in
the inner resources of the client, not
in techniques, facilitate personal
change in the client
Use of self as an instrument of
change
Focuses on the quality of the
therapeutic relationship
Serves as a model of a human being
struggling toward greater realness
Is genuine, integrated, and authentic
Can openly express feelings and
attitudes that are present in the
relationship with the client
CLIENT'S EXPERIENCE IN
THERAPY
Incongruence; discrepancy between
self perception and experience in
reality -> anxiety-> motivation to help
As clients (feel understood and
accepted, their defensiveness is less
necessary and they bécome more
open to their experiences
Therapeutic relationship activate
clients' self-healing capacities
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THERAPIST AND CLIENT
Emphasizes the attitudes, and
personal characteristics of the
therapist and the quality of
therapeutic relationships.
Therapist listening in an accepting
way to their clients, they learn how to
listen-/acceptinaly to themselves
Congruence - genuineness or
realness
Unconditional positive regard-
acceptance and caring, but not
approval of all behavior
Accurate empathic understanding -
an ability to deeply grasp the client's
subjective world
Helper attitudes are more important
than knowledge
THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES AND
PROCEDURES
It is not technique-oriented
A misunderstanding--this approach is
simply to restate what the client just
said or the technique of reflection of
feelings (It is incorrect).
The therapeutic relationship is the
primary agent of growth in the client
Therapist's presence; being
completely engaged in the
relationship with clients.
The best source of knowledge about
the client is the individual client
CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY
Principal condition
Complete absence of threat to self Less emphasis on the past emotional feelings that may interfere
Rationale for atmosphere of client- Shorter durations with a client's present feelings.
centered therapy Emphasis on research in therapeutic Contact and Resistances to
Warm ,Accepting, Permitting process, contact- it is important for change
FEATURES OF CLIENT- and growth to happen to have
CENTERED THERAPY  Gestalt Therapy Founders contact. Effective contact is when a
Empathy Fritz Perls and Laura Perls client is able to interact with nature
Understanding Key concepts View of human nature, and other people without losing
Genuine, deep regard some principles of Gestalt therapy sense of themselves (p. 217).
Basis for therapeutic relationship theory, the now, unfinished business, Resistance which is often a way a
Unconditional positive regard contact and resistances to contact, client may deal with certain issues or
Respect as a human being and energy and blocks to energy problems but can oftentimes prevent
Complete lack of judgment View of human nature us from experiencing the present the
Congruence According to Perls he strongly way they should.
Expression of behavior, feelings, or believed that clients needed to be Energy and blocks to energy-
attitudes stimulated by client independent and deal with their own where energy is located in a client is
Clients respond favorably to life problems themselves (p. 213). very important especially how it may
genuineness His therapy deals with two personal be used and how it can be blocked.
Open honesty agendas: 1. taking a client from the Energy can be expressed through a
Attitude vs. technique environmental support to self-support client's posture, body appearing tight,
State of mind, not a set of techniques and bring back in the parts of a not deep breathing, and looking
Non-directive, allow for client self client's personality that had been away and avoiding contact (p. 218).
discovery forgotten about (p. 213). Perls Sometimes a client is not always
Self-fulfillment and health believed that clients should be able aware of their or where it is located.
emphasized over destructive nature to regulate themselves when they Therapeutic goals- in gestalt
Experience over empirical know what is happening in the therapy most often it is not goal
Therapeutic process IS environment around them. oriented. Some major goals in gestalt
Acceptance, Recognition Some principles of Gestalt therapy therapy includes moving forward and
Clarification ,Structuring theory increase awareness, taking
7 STAGES OF CLIENT-CENTERED Basic principles include: holism, field ownership in their experience instead
THERAPY theory, figure-formation process, and of making it someone else fault,
Stage 1 Unwillingness to reveal self organismic self-regulation (p. 214). adapting skills and values that will
Rigid constructs First being holism in which is the idea allow them to satisfy their own needs
Stage 2 Some description of feelings of unified or being complete. With the without violating the rights of
Still remote from self Gestalt therapy concept being the someone else, become more aware
Stage 3 Free flow expression of self idea of the whole person the of all their senses, accept
Questioning of construct validity therapist does not usually like to deal responsibility and consequences for
Stage 4 Free description of feeling of with aspects of the individual. their actions, and be comfortable with
self Loosening of personal constructs Second principle is field theory which asking and receiving help from
Beginnings of self responsibility is the idea that it is important to see a others (p. 220). Being an
Stage 5 Free expression & client in their environment because it independent client is a big goal in
acceptanc Desire to be what one is is usually in constant change. Third gestalt and being able to control
Stage 6 Acceptance of feelings, no principle is the figure-formation one's own self and their own
denial Risking relationships & process which describes how a client behaviors.
acceptance may deal with experiences from time Techniques- gestalt therapy are
Stage 7 Experiencing self fully Little to time. Fourth principle organismic considered experiments in which as
incongruence Checking validity of self-regulation is a process that deals a therapist you suggest ideas to a
experience with a client's equilibrium in which it client and say see if this works and if
Diagnosis is disturbed by a need, sensation, or so how (p. 224). It is very important
Deemphasized/avoided an interest of the client (Corey, 2012). with a new client to explain the
Impedes autonomy and self- The now- the present moment is an difference in exercises (techniques)
actualization important factor in Gestalt therapy. and experiments. Exercise is a
This assumption needs scientific The past and future is sometimes a ready-made technique that you may
support. Focused on feelings client's way of not dealing with the want to use if you are wanting to get
themselves, not whether feelings are present. The reason that sometimes to a certain point in a session or
correct the past can come up in the present make a client go somewhere in the
Positives of client centered is because oftentimes the clients feel session that they may not on their
therapy that the past is incomplete. own. Experiments are more of an
Self determination over biological Unfinished business- this concept over time process in which a
determination deals with having unexpressed therapist will suggest something and
Freedom of choice feelings usually of the past. This can the client will try and they together
Equal client/therapist standing sometimes leave unnecessary will determine if it works or not.

 Behavior Therapy Founders
B.F. Skinner, Albert Bandura,
and Arnold Lazarus (Corey,
2012).
Key concepts View of human nature,
basic characteristics and
assumptions (Corey, 2012).
View of human nature- this concept
is that clients are not products of
their sociocultural but rather products
and producers of their own
environment (Corey, 2012). Behavior
therapy is about giving control and
freedom to clients. It encourages
clients to increase their people skills
so that they have better social skills
in response to different things and
are not restricted or limited to
choices. Behavior therapy increases
freedom in clients by allowing them
to explore other options.
Basic characteristics and
assumptions- there are seven
main characteristics in behavior
therapy:
-behavior therapy is based on
principles of the scientific method
(Corey, 2012). The goal is to help
clients change their maladaptive
behaviors.
-behavior is not just about the things
we can observe on a client but can
also include beliefs, emotions,
images, and cognition (Corey, 2012).
-behavior therapy is more concerned
with current problems instead of past
problems. What behaviors can be
changed to fix the problems now, not
what behavior that could change the
past.
-clients are expected to be active
and make changes that are needed
in behavior therapy.
-In behavior therapy it is an
understanding that changes need to
happen without understanding of
where the problem begins.
-assessment in behavior therapy
clients is an ongoing process of
observing the client by identifying the
problem and evaluating the change
(Corey, 2012).
-behavioral therapy is specific to
each person depending on the
problem of a specific client.
Therapeutic goals- the main goal in
behavior therapy is to increase
freedom and personal choice and to
create new learning conditions for
the client (Corey, 2012). It is very
important that the client and the
therapist together come up with
specific goals and ways to help the
client be more independent and
achieve those goals.
Techniques- using specific
procedures and them prove to be
effective is important in behavior
therapy. A behavioral therapist
should include anything that can be
shown to positively and effectively
show changes in a client's behavior.
In behavior therapy it is more specific
techniques for each client rather than
just random samples for each and all
techniques. Behavior therapy is more
specific to clients than any other
therapy cause it's very unusual that
any two clients are behaving in the
exact same way because of the
exact same reasons so therefore the
therapist has to deal with the
individual needs of the individual
client.
 Rational Emotive Behavior
Therapy and Cognitive
Therapy (Cognitive Behavior
Therapy)
Founders Albert Ellis, Aaron T.
Beck, Judith S. Beck, and Donald
Meichenbaum (Corey, 2012).
View of human nature, view of
emotional disturbance, and A-B-C
framework (Corey, 2012).
View of human nature- behavior
therapy is based on the idea that
humans are born with both straight
and crooked thinking (Corey, 2012).
People can be loving, caring, and
self-preservation but yet also can be
self-destructive, repetitive mistakes,
and not caring.
View of emotional disturbance-
REBT is the idea that is based that
we learn our bad or crooked beliefs
from other people in our life during
our childhood and continue to re-
create these beliefs throughout the
rest of our life (Corey, 2012).
Humans are constantly reinforcing
our self-defeating behavior in which
we are constantly making the same
choices and decisions over and over
so therefore it shows consistency
with our beliefs. Ellis believes that
even though everybody wants and
desires to be loved that people truly
do not need this. There are three
basic irrational beliefs that lead to
self-defeat:
-I must always have the approval of
others or otherwise I am not any
good for anything,
- others must treat me the way I think
they should treat me and if they don't
then they are not any good and need
punishment, and
- I must have everything I want when
I want it or life is not any good and I
can't stand it (Corey, 2012).
A-B-C framework- a=activating
event, b=belief, and c=emotional and
behavioral consequence (Corey,
2012). The reaction can be healthy
or unhealthy for the client (Corey,
2012). A client's belief about A can
have a great impact on C. It may not
be the actual event that happens to
the client that causes the emotional
response but may be the client's
beliefs about the event that causes
all the problems.
Therapeutic goals- According to
Ellis we not only rate ourselves as
being good or bad but we rate it as
our total self based on our
performances (Corey, 2012). These
ratings can greatly influence our
emotional state that a client is in. It is
very important to teach a client in
cognitive therapy to separate how
they evaluate themselves versus
how they accept themselves even if
they are not perfect.
Techniques- rational emotive
behavior therapists like to be very
integrative in which they start with
the disturbing feelings of a client and
then start by exploring these feelings
with the client (Corey, 2012).
Cognitive methods are usually
presented to a client in a persuasive
manner. A therapist usually teaches
them how to deal with reality. A few
different cognitive methods include
disputing irrational beliefs, doing
cognitive homework, bibliotherapy,
changing one's language, and
psychoeducational methods (Corey,
2012).
Disrupting irrational beliefs- it is
very important for a therapist to show
a client how to self challenge
themselves with irrational beliefs.
Doing cognitive homework- it is
important for a therapist to have a
client make a list of their problems
and also list their beliefs and dispute
those beliefs.
Bibliotherapy- this is usually used
as an adjunctive type of treatment
usually because of cost issues.
Changing one's language- clients
need to learn to replace some of the
negative words such as ought with
more positive words.
Psychoeducational- this is the idea
of introducing clients to more
educational resources to help them
with their problems. A few different
emotive techniques include rational
emotive imagery, using humor, role
playing, and shame-attacking
exercises (Corey, 2012).
Rational emotive imagery- this is a
way to help a client form new
emotional patterns by asking the
client to imagine the worst thing that
has happened to them.
Using humor- humor sometimes
helps a client put things in life in
more perspective and helps bring
about change.
Role playing- this is when a
therapist interrupts to show the client
what the client is really telling
themselves to create a different way
of thinking so the client is thinking
unhealthy.
Shame-attack exercise- it is
important to help clients develop
techniques to reduce their feelings of
shame and guilt about their life.
behavioral technique- those that
are used in real life situations are the
most important. This is usually done
by giving clients homework.
 Choice Theory/Reality Therapy
- William Glasser and Robert
Wubbolding (Corey, 2012).
View of human nature, choice
theory explanation of behavior, and
characteristics of reality therapy
(Corey, 2012).
View of human nature- this concept
says that we are not born with a
blank slate waiting to be motivated
by the world around us but that we
are born with five basic needs of
survival, love, belonging, power, and
freedom (Corey, 2012). Our brain is
the control center in which we
continually monitor our feelings and
what we are doing to satisfy our five
basic needs (Corey, 2012). This
therapy reminds us that other people
are very important in the quality of
our life and that is who we will most
likely connect with.
Choice theory explanation of
behavior- this theory says that from
birth to death all we ever do in life is
behave and everything we do is
chosen (Corey, 2012). People
usually try to do whatever it takes to
be on their best behavior at least
until they get what they want.
According to Glasser he believes that
complaining is sometimes related to
wanting to take lack of responsibility
for something.
Characteristics of reality therapy-
reality therapy deals with what is not
very satisfying in a relationship a
client has or the lack of a relationship
in which this is often where the
problem is for the client. Five
underlying characteristics of reality
therapy include emphasizing choice
and responsibility, rejecting
transference, keeping the therapy in
the present, avoiding focusing on
symptoms, and challenging
traditional views of mental illness.
emphasize choice and
responsibility- this concept is just
that we are free to choose what we
do but yet we must take
responsibility for whatever the
consequences may be.
reject transference- it is important
that a therapist be themselves and
by doing so this helps clients with
other people in their lives.
keep the therapy in the present- it is
important to keep a client focused on
the present and not so much of
whatever has happened in the past.
avoid focusing on symptoms- in
reality therapy focusing on the past
and symptoms are very much alike
because the client then does not
focus on present and the here and
now which is what reality therapy is
for.
challenge traditional views of mental
illness- in reality therapy it is more
common to reject the theory that
someone has a mental illness
because they are receiving therapy.
Five Basic Needs
Reality therapy says that all
people are born with five basic
needs that are fixed at birth.
These five basic needs are what
give people their different
personalities.
Belonging - loving and being loved;
having contact, connections,
interactions, and relationships with
people
Power/achievement - feelings of
accomplishment and competence,
self-esteem, success, and control
over one's own life
Fun/enjoyment - pleasure; the
ability to laugh, play, and appreciate
being human
Freedom/independence - the ability
to make choices; to love without
excessive and unnecessary limits or
constraints
Survival - the essentials of life,
including good health, food, air,
shelter, safety, security, and physical
comfort
Therapeutic goals- reality therapy
main goal is to help clients to get
connected or to reconnect to those in
whom they place value. It's about
having clients reconnect with the
present and not so much worry about
the past. This is usually a therapy
that clients will choose to come to on
their own.
Techniques- the best techniques are
the cycle of counseling in which has
two parts: creating a counseling
environment and implementing
specific changes that can help with
better behavior (Corey, 2012).
Counseling environment- a
supportive environment helps clients
begin to make positive life changes.
Procedures that lead to change-
clients are usually most likely to
change when the way they are doing
things are not satisfying their needs
and wants. Another important
technique that was formed by
Wubbolding is the WDEP system.
This system helps clients explore
their wants, possible things they can
do, opportunities for self-evaluation,
and design plans for improvement
(Corey, 2012).
WDEP System
W: Wants - reality therapists explore
clients' wants and the pictures in
their quality world, focusing on what
they are getting, what they want that
they are not getting, and what they
are getting that they do not want
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014).
Reality therapists can work with
clients to recognize that some wants
are unrealistic or unreasonable, while
others can be helpful to the
establishment of interpersonal
relationships and the recovery
process.
D: Direction and Doing - therapists
devote considerable attention to
exploring people's total behavior
which includes actions, thoughts,
emotions, and physiology. It is
integral to treatment to help people
describe their total behavior as
specifically as possible, including
their goals and the impact of those
behaviors. The focus of reality
therapy is on what people are doing,
not why they are acting certain ways
E: Evaluation - Clients are
encouraged to evaluate their goals,
their actions, their perceptions, and
the consequences of these.
Evaluation is based on whether
behaviors and perceptions are
realistic and helpful to clients as well
as to others (Seligman & personality development- gender-
Reichenberg, 2014). The discussion
of doing an the evaluation process
both focus primarily on the present
and emphasize positive and
successful aspects of people's lives.
The past is only discussed in terms
of its impact on the present
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014).
P: Planning - Planning is essential
and it encourages people to have
long-range plans and goals that are
subdivided into a series of short-term,
realistic plans (Seligman & gender in the society we live in even
Reichenberg, 2014). Plans should
evolve from self-evaluation and
reflect desired changes in wants and
total behavior. Plans should be
simple, attainable, measurable,
immediate, involving the clinician,
controlled by the client, client's
commitment to change, and
reflecting consistent changes in
behavior (Seligman & Reichenberg,
2014). Feelings do not need to be
addressed directly, although they can
be important sources of information
on wants and perceptions. If actions
change, emotions will
correspondingly change (Seligman &
Reichenberg, 2014). The primary
goals of planning are to help people
make better choices and take more
control of their lives. If people can
make bad choices, they are capable
of making better ones (Seligman &
Reichenberg, 2014)
 Feminist Therapy Jean Baker
Miller, Carol Zerbe Enns, Oliva
M. Espin, and Laura S. Brown
(Corey, 2012).
View of human nature
Feminist is different than most other
therapies because it was thought that
most therapies came from historical
period in which most social
arrangements in which were
assumed to be rooted in a person's
biologically based gender (Corey,
2012). Men have always been
perceived to be the norm up until
recently and men and women would
always choose different things and
paths in life. Men and women behave
differently in life so therefore their
actions and reactions to things will be
very different. Most therapist
consider feminist therapy to be
gender fair and flexible-multicultural
(Corey, 2012).
Feminist perspective on
role expectations greatly influence a
person's identity from throughout rest
of their life and also influences
personality as an adult (Corey, 2012).
Gender affects how we see
ourselves whether it be boy or girl
throughout our entire lives (Corey,
2012). It is still shown throughout
many cultures throughout the world
that the gender stereotypes of
women are still common. Men are
still looked at to be the dominant
still today but less common than it
was a few years ago. Personal
development for man and women
start at birth and go throughout their
entire life.
Principles of feminist therapy
The personal is political- this is the
idea that a problem that a person will
bring to a therapy session starts with
political or society in which that is in.
Commitment to social change-
this is the concept of where a
therapist aims to change not only the
individual but also for social changes
also (Corey, 2012). It is very
important when counseling a female
client to recognize that they are still
stereotyped and that this can play a
role in what and how a therapist will
approach a female client.
Women's and girl's voices and
ways of knowing are valued and
their experiences- this concept says
that a female's perspective is
considered central in understanding
their distress (Corey, 2012). It also
explains that in all situations in life
men and women are forced to go
separate ways in almost all aspects
of human experiences in society.
The counseling relationship in
egalitarian- attention is power in
feminist therapy (Corey, 2012). An
egalitarian relationship which is the
concept as a therapist to remember
that the client is more of an expert on
their own lives so a therapist can
recognize the power imbalance.
A focus on strengths and a
reformulated definition of
psychological distress- this
concept says that psychological
distress is nit a disease but a
communication about unjust systems
(Corey, 2012). Feminist therapist
most often talk about problems with
the attitude of dealing with them
rather than them being a pathology.
All types of oppression are
recognized- clients are often
understood better with having a
knowledge of their social
environment and what it is like. It is
thought that both a person's political
and social environment has a
negative effect on a client.
Therapeutic goals
Some of the main goals in feminist
therapy include empowerment, going
for change rather than adjusting to
what the problem is, social change,
valuing diversity, and knowing and
keeping independence and
interdependence separated (Corey,
2012). It is very important in feminist
therapy to help both male and female
clients recognize their personal
power. Feminist therapist work
especially with female clients to help
them get away from the stereotype
that they have been use to their
entire life.
Techniques
Feminist therapist do not follow the
DSM manual. The feminist therapist
do think that race, culture, and
gender influences symptoms a client
may have (Corey, 2012). Making
sure different approaches are used
based on what gender you are giving
counseling to. Often times
depression is diagnosed in females
more than males but feminist
therapist believe this is because
women have more reasons to be
depressed then males. Feminist
therapist do not use a specific set of
techniques but use client specific
techniques depending on each
client's needs.
 Postmodern Approaches
Insoo Kim Berg, Steve de
Shazer, Michael White, and
David Epston (Corey, 2012).
Solution-Focused Brief Therapy-
unique focus of SFBT, positive
orientation, looking for what is
working, and basic assumptions
guiding practice, Narrative
Therapy- focus of narrative
therapy, the role of stories, and
listening with an open mind (Corey,
2012).
Solution-focused brief therapy
Unique focus of SFBT- this therapy
is different than most other therapies
because it avoids dealing with the
past more than the present or future.
The main idea of this approach is
only to focus on what is possible, not
the impossible (Corey, 2012). It is not
important to know the cause and has
no benefit in helping with finding the
solution.
Positive orientation- this approach
deals with the concept of the
assumption of people being positive
and having the ability to come up
with their own solutions to problems.
Looking for what is working-
finding what techniques are working
is very important in SFBT. It is
important for a therapist to figure out
what is working with clients and
helping them solve problems in a
shorter amount of time.
Basic assumptions guiding
practice- some of the important
assumptions to make about SFBT
are that individual that come to
therapy know how to behave, having
advantages on positive outlook on
the future, exceptions to every
problem, clients usually only show
one side of themselves in therapy, no
problem is constant, clients want to
change and are doing whatever it
takes to change, and client should be
trusted with their intentions to solve
their own problems (Corey, 2012).
Some therapists are trying to move
away from the idea of therapy and
make it feel more like a personal
consultation (Corey, 2012).
Therapeutic goals SFBT is about
making changes and reaching goals
(Corey, 2012). This approach
believes that most people have what
it takes to solve most of their own
problems and reach personal goals
with their own means. Solution-
focused therapists definitely start
with small, realistic, and achievable
goals that are easy for a client to do
on their own and teaches them how
to think more positively. Changing
the view of the problem and making
resources more strong and available
to clients are important.
Techniques There are eight
techniques that can be helpful:
pretherapy change, exception
questions, the miracle question,
scaling question, formula first
session task, therapist feedback to
clients, terminating, and application
to group counseling (Corey, 2021).
pretherapy change- simply by
calling a therapist can cause the
thought of change to come to a
clients mind even before the first
session and sometimes clients will
begin to start thinking of what and
how they can change the problems.
exception questions- the exception
question is the idea of when clients
have a problem that was not always
a problem in their life. It is important
to ask the client direct questions
about when the problem or before it
existed.
the miracle question- this is the
technique that a therapist often uses
to ask a client that if a miracle
happened and the problem was gone
overnight and how that would make
things different.
scaling questions- sometimes a
therapist will use scaling questions
when a client's emotions are not
showing up as you would like as a
therapist.
formula first session task- this is the
idea that a therapist may give a client
something to do or research between
their first and second session.
therapist feedback to clients-
during a therapy session a therapist
will often take a few minute break to
write some notes on a message they
want to give as feedback to the client.
terminating- from the very first
session a therapist's goal is to
always be working toward getting the
client stable enough to make positive
good decisions on their own and to
deal with problems quicker and more
effectively.
application to group counseling-
solution-focused therapists believes
that people can be more effective if
they are in an atmosphere that they
can communicate with others.
Narrative therapy
focus of narrative therapy- it is
very important for a therapist to listen
to clients and take notes of the times
when clients had more healthy
lifestyles.
the role of stories- clients and all
people live their lives by stories and
from stories and these stories can
shape reality as in what we see, feel,
and do (Corey, 2012).
listening with an open mind- it is
always important to listen to clients
problems and concerns with an open
mind without having any judgment on
the client.
Therapeutic goals Goals in
narrative therapy are to get clients to
explain their experiences in a new
positive language.
Techniques An important technique
with narrative therapy is greatly
dependent on a therapist's attitude
than on the actual technique (Corey,
2012). A narrative therapist is also
encouraged to get clients to see their
story or problem from a different
more positive perspective.
 Family System Therapy
In the early times the approach of
choice and that was most common
was family therapy. The family
systems perspective is that we are
born free and independent
individuals of choice and yet most of
our entire lives we are attached to
family in one form or another (Corey,
2012). It is sometimes best to try to
understand a client by their
interaction with their family. Specific
symptoms of a client are often known
as a set of habits within a family
(Corey, 2012). Sometimes the best
way to try to help a client is to work
with the entire family as a group.
Actions of each individual family
member can affect all the other
family members in the group also.
There are two different approaches
called the systemic and the individual
approach. Individualism is more
about just the client and their
problem and systemic more family
based and learning how the family
plays a part or influences the
problem.
Development of family systems
therapy
Family systems have really grown
over the past several years. Alfred
Adler was an important key founder
with him being the first psychologist
of the modern time to do family
therapy (Corey, 2012). With Adlerian
family therapy Adler was very quick
to notice that family and specifically
birth order played an important role
in many clients. In which it is very
clear that both children and parents
get very used to being negative and
it begins to affect both child and
parent.
Rudolf Dreikurs came along behind
Adler and created a more organized
type of family therapy in which
Adlerian family therapy begins with
forming a respectful relationship as
you would do even with an individual
client Multigenerational family
therapy was the therapy that was
developed by Murray Bowen (Corey,
2012). Which deals with the idea and
interest of patterns across many
generations. Human validation
process model was the idea of
Virginia Satir in which she
emphasized family connection (Cory,
2012). In her therapy process she
outlined four communication stances
that people tend to use under stress
in which they are blaming, placating,
super reasonable, and irrelevant
(Corey). Experiential family
therapy in which was developed by
Carl Whitaker. In which he expressed
the idea of freedom, choice, self
determination, growth, and
actualization (Corey, 2012).
Structural-strategic family therapy in
which was developed by Salvador
Minuchin with the idea that individual
symptoms are best understood from
the point of patterns within the family
(Corey, 2012). Multilayered
process of family therapy- families
are considered multilayered in which
is affected by larger systems in which
they are within (Corey, 2012).
Forming a relationship which begins
from the minute of meeting the client.
Conducting an assessment usually
by starting with a map of the family
history.
 An Integrative Perspective An
integrative counselor believes
there isn’t just one therapeutic
approach that can help a client
in all situations. Instead, they
take into account you as an
individual and your
circumstances, and use
elements of different
approaches to help you explore
and cope with your problems.
Kate Megase, an integrative
therapist based in Croydon, says:
“Every client who walks through the
door is different. What works for one
person might not work for another. As
an integrative therapist, you can
choose the right approach for the
individual. I generally use a bit of
everything. It’s all round support and
makes therapy unique for that
person.”
What does an integrative
counselor do? The integrative
approach may include elements of
person-centered therapy. This
focuses on you rather than the
counselor being the expert on
yourself, and aims to help you reach
your full potential. Your therapist will
help you achieve that by accepting
and valuing you, being honest and
transparent with you and offering you
unconditional positive regard.
Your therapist may draw on
psychodynamic therapy. This
involves helping you to bring your
subconscious - what is just below
the surface of your awareness - into
your conscious mind. It helps you
become more aware of what’s in
your subconscious, such as difficult
memories and experiences, so you
can understand how these deep-
rooted feelings impact on you in the
present and how you can learn to
cope with them.
The therapist might bring in elements
of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
(CBT). This looks at your thoughts,
feelings and behaviors and helps you
to change some of these where they
are unhelpful using a variety of
practical strategies and tools, such
as journaling.
Integrative Therapy individualized,
holistic approach to therapy that
combines ideas and techniques from
different therapeutic schools of
thought depending on the unique
needs of a given client. As such, it is
sometimes seen more as a
movement within the practice of
psychotherapy than a form of therapy
in and of itself. In practice, by
merging elements of different
psychological theories or modifying
standard treatments, integrative
therapists can often offer a more
flexible and inclusive approach to
treatment than those who practice
singular forms of psychotherapy.
holistic therapy because it aspires to
consider an individual’s mental,
physical, and emotional health in a
unified way. Ideally, therapist and
client will work together to
understand the sources of the latter’s
anxiety, unhappiness, physical
discomfort, or unhealthy behavior
patterns. People who seek to have a
voice in the direction of their therapy,
and who view the therapeutic
relationship as a partnership, may be
especially receptive to an integrative
approach Integrative psychotherapy
approaches can be incorporated into
almost any type of long-term or
short-term therapeutic work with
children, adolescents, and adults,
whether one-on-one, with couples,
with families, or in group settings. An
integrative approach can be used to
treat a range of psychological
concerns, including depression,
anxiety, personality disorders, grief,
low self-esteem, self-harm, trauma
and PTSD, relationship issues, sleep
concerns, sexual challenges,
substance use disorders, and eating
disorders.
How It Works There are more than
400 types of psychotherapy,
differentiated by their approach, the
clients they best serve, and how long
and how often the therapist and
client will meet. Research shows that
even as these approaches vary,
many or all can result in similar, and
similarly successful, outcomes. But
because a single approach to
therapy does not always deliver the
best benefit to the client, therapists
who may have been trained in one
particular model will often use tools,
language, techniques, or exercises
borrowed from other therapies to
come up with a distinct, and
hopefully effective, form of treatment
suitable for a particular client. An
integrative therapist will regularly
evaluate a client’s progress with
whatever modality is currently being
tried, and be ready to pivot to a
different approach when it becomes
clear that they are not benefiting, or
no longer benefiting, from it. Typically,
though, such shifts are discussed by
client and provider before being put
into action.