Polyester Fiber:

Polyester fiber is a “manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is any long
chain synthetic polymer composed at least 85% by weight of an ester of a dihydric alcohol
(HOROH) and terephthalic acid (p-HOOC-C6H4COOH)”. The most widely used polyester
fiber is made from the linear polymer poly (ethylene terephthalate), and this polyester class is
generally referred to simply as PET. High strength, high modulus, low shrinkage, heat set
stability, light fastness, and chemical resistance account for the great versatility of PET. In
1926, United States-based E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. began research into very large
molecules and synthetic fibers. This early research, headed by W.H. Carothers, centered on
what became nylon, the first synthetic fiber Soon after, in the years 1939-41, British research
chemists took interest in the du Pont studies and conducted their own research in the
laboratories of Calico Printers Association Ltd. This work resulted in the creation of the
polyester fiber known in England as Terylene.

Raw Materials:
Polyethylene terephthalate is made by the condensation of terephthalic acid, or a derivative
such as dimethyl terephthalate, with ethylene glycol.

Ethylene Glycol: It is made by the catalytic oxidation of ethylene, which is obtained from
petroleum cracking. Ethylene oxide is produced1. Hydration of this yields ethylene glycol2.

Terephthalic Acid; Dimethyl Terephthalate: Para-xylene obtained from petroleum is

oxidized, for example with nitric acid or with air in the presence of a catalyst. Terephthalic
acid is esterified with methyl alcohol to form dimethyl terephthalate.

Polymerization: Polyethylene terephthalate is made by condensing ethylene glycol with

either terephthalic acid itself or with dimethyl terephthalate.

Polymerization process:

1. Esterification:
First of all terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol are added to an autoclave. A catalyst
is used to accelerate the polymerization process. Magnesium acetate and antimony
oxide are used as a catalyst. The process is conducted at a temperature of 190 – 200
degrees C for 3 -6 hrs. the polymerization is done in nitrogen atm.

2. Polycondensation:
In this process polyester polymer is treated at a temperature of 280 0 C. the objective
of polycondensation is to make a high molecular weight polyester polymer. This
reaction is done in an inert atmosphere. The resulting chemical, a monomer (single,
non-repeating molecule) alcohol, is combined with terephthalic acid and raised to a
 temperature of 472°F (280°C). TiO2 is added as a delustering agent in the
polycondensation. During this process, ethylene glycol is eliminated as a by-product
of the reaction. Newly-formed polyester, which is clear and molten, is extruded
through a slot to form long ribbons. These ribbons are converted into chips. Polymer
chips have a molecular weight of 8000- 10000. In condensation polymerization,
during the joining of monomers together a small molecule is eliminated. “A polyester
is made by a reaction involving an acid with two -COOH groups, and an alcohol with
two -OH groups”. The reaction follows below chemical equation:

This reaction takes place in two main stages, a pre-polymerisation stage and the other actual
polymerisation. In the first stage, before polymerization takes place, a fairly simple ester is
results between the acid and two molecules of ethane-1,2-diol.

In the actual polymerisation stage, this is heated. The temperature of about 260°C gets
achieved. The pressure is kept very low (almost vacuum) during actual polymerization. A
catalyst is used to accelerate the speed of the reaction. Antimony oxide is used as a catalyst in
this reaction. The polyester polymer is formed. Half of the ethane-1,2-diol is also
regenerated. This is removed and recycled.

Melt spinning

Polymer chips are melted at 500-518°F (260-270°C) to form a syrup-like solution. The
solution is put in a metal container called a spinneret and forced through its tiny holes, which
are usually round, but may be pentagonal or any other shape to produce special fibers. The
number of holes in the spinneret determines the size of the yarn, as the emerging fibers are
brought together to form a single strand. At the spinning stage, other chemicals may be added
to the solution to make the resulting material flame retardant, antistatic, or easier to dye.

Drawing the fiber

6. When polyester emerges from the spinneret, it is soft and easily elongated up to five times
its original length. The stretching forces the random polyester molecules to align in a parallel
formation. This increases the strength, tenacity, and resilience of the fiber. This time, when
the filaments dry, the fibers become solid and strong instead of brittle.

7. Drawn fibers may vary greatly in diameter and length, depending on the characteristics
desired of the finished material. Also, as the fibers are drawn, they may be textured or twisted
to create softer or duller fabrics.

Winding
8. After the polyester yarn is drawn, it is wound on large bobbins or flat-wound packages,
ready to be woven into material.

Manufacturing Staple Fiber:

In making polyester staple fiber, polymerization, drying, and melt spinning (steps 1-4 above)
are much the same as in the manufacture of filament yarn. However, in the melt spinning
process, the spinneret has many more holes when the product is staple fiber. The rope-like
bundles of polyester that emerge are called tow.

Polyester Fiber Production Flow Chart:

Figure: Polyester fiber production flow chart

Polymer Formation:
Polyethylene Teraphthalate (PET) is a condensation polymer and is
industrially produced by either terephthalic acid or dimethyl terephthalate
with ethylene glycol. Other polyester fibers of interest to the nonwovens field
include:

Figure 2: Production of polyethylene terephthalate

a. Terephthalic Acid (PTA), produced directly from p-xylene with
bromide-controlled oxidation.
b. Dimethyl Terephthalate (DMT), made in the early stages by
esterification of terephthalic acid. However, a different process
involving two oxidation and esterification stages now accounts for
most DMT.
c. Ethylene Glycol (EG) initially generated as an intermediate product
by oxidation of ethylene. Further ethylene glycol is obtained by
reaction of ethylene oxide with water.

Synthesis of Polymer:
Linear Polyesters: A representative linear polyester, PET is polymerized by
one of the following two ways: Ester Interchange: Monomers are diethyl
terephtalate and ethylene glycol.

Direct Etherification: Monomers are terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol.

Both ester interchange and direct esterification processes are combined with
polycondensation steps either batch-wise or continuously. Batch-wise systems
need two-reaction vessels- one for esterification or ester interchange, the other
for polymerization. Continuous systems need at least three vessels – one for
esterification or shear interchange, another for reducing excess glycols, the
other for polymerization.

Another way to produce PET is solid-phase polycondensation. In the process,

a melt polycondensation is continued until the pre-polymer has an Intrinsic
Viscosity of 1.0-1.4, at which point the polymer is cast into a solid firm. The
pre-crystallization is carried out by heating (above 200oC) until the desirable
molecular weight is obtained. Later the particulate polymer is melted for
spinning. This process is not popular for textile PET fibers but is used for some
industrial fibers.

Branched and Crosslinked Polyesters: If glycerol is allowed to react with

a diacid or its anhydride each glycerol will generate one branch point. Such
molecules can grow to very high molecular weight. If internal coupling occurs
(reaction of a hydroxyl group and an acid function from branches of the same
or different molecule), the polymer will become crosslinked. Rigidly
crosslinked polymers are totally unaffected by solvents.

Fiber Formation:
The sequences for production of PET fibers and yarns depend on the different
ways of polymerization (continuous, batch-wise, and solid-phase) and
spinning (low or high windup speed) processes.

The Manufacturing Process:

Polyester is manufactured by one of several methods. The one used depends
on the form the finished polyester will take. The four basic forms are filament,
staple, tow, and fiberfill. In the filament form, each individual strand of
polyester fiber is continuous in length, producing smooth-surfaced fabrics. In
staple form, filaments are cut to short, predetermined lengths. In this form
polyester is easier to blend with other fibers. Tow is a form in which
continuous filaments are drawn loosely together. Fiberfill is the voluminous
form used in the manufacture of quilts, pillows, and outerwear. The two forms
used most frequently are filament and staple.

Manufacturing Filament Yarn:

Polymerization
1. To form polyester, dimethyl terephthalate is first reacted with ethylene
glycol in the presence of a catalyst at a temperature of 302-410°F (150-210°C).

2. The resulting chemical, a monomer (single, non-repeating molecule)

alcohol, is combined with terephthalic acid and raised to a temperature of
472°F (280°C). Newly-formed polyester, which is clear and molten, is
extruded through a slot to form long ribbons.

Drying

3. After the polyester emerges from polymerization, the long molten ribbons
are allowed to cool until they become brittle. The material is cut into tiny chips
and completely dried to prevent irregularities in consistency.

Melt spinning

4. Polymer chips are melted at 500-518°F (260-270°C) to form a syrup-like

solution. The solution is put in a metal container called a spinneret and forced
through its tiny holes, which are usually round, but may be pentagonal or any
other shape to produce special fibers. The number of holes in the spinneret
determines the size of the yarn, as the emerging fibers are brought together to
form a single strand.

5. At the spinning stage, other chemicals may be added to the solution to make
the resulting material flame retardant, antistatic, or easier to dye.

Drawing the fiber

6. When polyester emerges from the spinneret, it is soft and easily elongated
up to five times its original length. The stretching forces the random polyester
molecules to align in a parallel formation. This increases the strength, tenacity,
and resilience of the fiber. This time, when the filaments dry, the fibers
become solid and strong instead of brittle.

7. Drawn fibers may vary greatly in diameter and length, depending on the
characteristics desired of the finished material. Also, as the fibers are drawn,
they may be textured or twisted to create softer or duller fabrics.

Winding

8. After the polyester yarn is drawn, it is wound on large bobbins or flat-

wound packages, ready to be woven into material.

Manufacturing Staple Fiber:

In making polyester staple fiber, polymerization, drying, and melt
spinning (steps 1-4 above) are much the same as in the manufacture of
filament yarn. However, in the melt spinning process, the spinneret has many
more holes when the product is staple fiber. The rope-like bundles of polyester
that emerge are called tow.

Drawing tow

1. Newly-formed tow is quickly cooled in cans that gather the thick fibers.
Several lengths of tow are gathered and then drawn on heated rollers to three
or four times their original length.

Crimping

2. Drawn tow is then fed into compression boxes, which force the fibers to fold
like an accordion, at a rate of 9-15 crimps per inch (3-6 per cm). This process
helps the fiber hold together during the later manufacturing stages.

Setting

3. After the tow is crimped, it is heated at 212-302°F (100-150°C) to

completely dry the fibers and set the crimp. Some of the crimp will
unavoidably be pulled out of the fibers during the following processes.

Cutting

4. Following heat setting, tow is cut into shorter lengths. Polyester that will be
blended with cotton is cut in 1.25-1.50 inch (3.2-3.8 cm) pieces; for rayon
blends, 2 inch (5 cm) lengths are cut. For heavier fabrics, such as carpet,
polyester filaments are cut into 6 inch (15 cm) lengths.

Spinning Process:
The degree of polymerization of PET is controlled, depending on its end-uses.
PET for industrial fibers has a higher degree of polymerization, higher
molecular weight and higher viscosity. The normal molecular weight range lies
between 15,000 and 20,000. With the normal extrusion temperature (280-
290oC), it has a low shear viscosity is 1000-3000 poise. Low molecular weight
PET is spun at 265oC, whereas ultrahigh molecular weigh PET is spun at
300oC or above. The degree of orientation is generally proportional to the
wind-up speeds in the spinning process. Theoretically, the maximum
orientation along with increase in productivity is obtained at a wind-up speed
of 10,000m/min. Although due to a voided skin, adverse effects may appear at
wind-up speeds above 7000m/min.

Drawing Process:
To produce uniform PET, the drawing process is carried out at temperature
above the glass transition temperature (80-90oC). Since the drawing process
gives additional orientation to products, the draw ratios (3:1-6:1) vary
according to the final end-uses. For higher tenacities, the higher draw ratios
are required. In addition to orientation, crystallinity may be developed during
the drawing at the temperature range of 140-220oC.

Polyester Fiber Production Flow Chart:

Figure 3: Polyester fiber production flow chart

The latest Polyester production (Research Method):

Dr Boncella and Dr Wagner at The University of Florida are two scientists
involved with the study to reveal a method for manufacturing polyester from
two inexpensive gases: carbon monoxide and ethylene oxide. The polyester
most commonly used today is referred to as PET or polyethylene terephtalate.
Scientists have been successful in producing low molecular weight polyester
using carbon monoxide and ethylene oxide, but researchers still lack the
catalyst – a substance that speeds up chemical reactions – needed to make the
reaction work more efficiently. They are looking for the chemical compound
that will take molecules of low DP and create 1arger ones. Although they have
had success in the research so far, they have yet to produce commercially
useable polyester from the inexpensive gases. If this is successful, then these
research findings can be used to replace the current polyester product, getting
the same performance for a lower price. Finally, we all know that research
requires patience and a long-term effort.

Structural Composition of PET:

The one of the distinguishing characteristics of PET is attributed to the
benzene rings in the polymer chain. The aromatic character leads to chain
stiffness, preventing the deformation of disordered regions, which results in
weak van der Waals interaction forces between chains. Due to this, PET is
difficult to be crystallized. Polyester fiber may be considered to be composed
of crystalline, oriented semi crystalline and noncrystalline (amorphous)
regions. The aromatic, carboxyl and aliphatic molecular groups are nearly
planar in configuration and exist in a side-by-side arrangement. Stabilization
distances between atoms in neighboring molecules are usually van der Waals
contact distances, and there is no structural evidence of any abnormally strong
forces among the molecules. The unusually high melting point of PET
(compared to aliphatic polyesters) is not the result of any unusual
intermolecular forces, but is attributed to ester linkages. The cohesion of PET
chains is a result of hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions, caused by
dipole interaction, induction and dispersion forces among the chains. The
capacity to form useful fibers and the tendency to crystallize depend on these
forces of attraction.

The interactive forces create inflexible tight packing among macromolecules,

showing high modulus, strength, and resistance to moisture, dyestuffs and
solvents. The limited flexibility in the macromolecule is mainly due to the
ethylene group. The extended quenched fiber does not show any early
development of crystallinity; the growth of crystals starts to occur upon
drawing. A number of basic structural models are required to represent the
different states of the fiber: amorphous (no orientation) after extrusion,
amorphous (no orientation) after cold drawing, crystalline orientation after
thermal treatment and after hot drawing, stretching and annealing. The
crystalline oriented form can also be obtained by high stress (high-speed)
spinning.

Differential Scanning Calorimerty (DSC) can measure crystallinity and

molecular orientation within the fibers. This type of analysis is based on
distinctly different values of the heats of fusion for crystalline and
noncrystalline forms of the polymer. The heat of fusion of the sample is
compared with a calibration standard. The crystallinity is determined by the
following relationship.

% Crystallinity = ΔHf/ΔH*f

Where, H*f  is the heat of fusion of a 100% crystalline polymer, reported in the

literature to be about 33.45 cal/g (equal to 140 J/g). The Tg (glass transition
temperature) and Tm (melting point) of the fibers can also be determined by
DSC analysis. The results of the density and DSC measurements are shown in
Table 1.

Table 1: Crystallinity of Polyester Fiber

Density Gradient DSC Measurements

 Fiber Type Base Density Crystallinity Tg Tm ∆H Crystallinity
Fibers (g/cc) (%) (oC) (oC) (Cal/g) (%)

A 1.3803 41.22 154.3 251.3 17.19 51.38

B 1.3584 45.80 161.7 254.6 16.61 49.65

C 1.3809 41.73 152.9 255.8 15.29 45.73

D 1.3871 47.34 161.0 255.5 15.40 46.03

E 1.3825 43.71 175.9 257.4 16.41 49.05

Tg – Glass transition temperature.

Tm – Melting temperature.
∆H – heat of fusion.

The rapid quenched PET without drawing is amorphous. The temperature

range of crystallization for PET is From 10oC below the melting point to the
temperature a little higher than the glass transition temperature, 250-100 oC.
Typical PET has 50% crystallinity. The repeat unit of PET is 1.075 nm and is
slightly shorter than the length of a fully extended chain (1.09 nm). Therefore,
the chains are nearly planar. The crystal unit cell is triclinic with dimensions a
= 0.456nm, b = 0.594nm, c = 1.075nm. PET crystal structure is illustrated in
below Fig 4. Another factor for crystallization is the position of the benzene
rings. If benzene rings are placed on the chain axis (c), then close packing of
the molecular chains eases polymer crystallization.
 Figure 4: Crystal Structure of PET

General Polyester Fiber Characteristics:

1. Strong
2. Resistant to stretching and shrinking
3. Resistant to most chemicals
4. Quick drying
5. Crisp and resilient
6. Wrinkle resistant
7. Mildew resistant
8. Abrasion resistant
9. Retains heat-set pleats and crease
10.Easily washed

Physical Properties of Polyester Fiber:

1. Thickness : 1.2D, 1.5D , 2.0D

2. Color : white
3. Length : Variable cut lengths
4. Density : 1.39 g/cc
5. Tenacity : high, 40 to 80 cN/tex
6. Moisture regain : 0.4 % (at 65% R.H and 20°C)
7. Elongation : high, 15 to 45%
8. Flame reaction : melts, shrinks, black fumes
9. Melting point : 260°C

Melt-Blown Process of Polyester:

The IV (intrinsic viscosity) and crystallinity levels of a melt-blown polyester
determine the performance of the finished product. A higher IV leads to an
increased level of crystallinity, which improves the barrier properties of the
polyester melt-blown structure. However, it significantly reduces modulus,
toughness and elongation. The advantage of using polyester over such
polymers as polyolefins is its heat resistance and greater chemical resistance.
Polyesters also offer a moderate oxygen barrier.

Relationship between Structure, Properties and Processing

Parameters of PET Fibers:
Properties of polyester fibers are strongly affected by fiber structure. The fiber
structure, which has a strong influence on the applicability of the fiber,
depends heavily on the process parameters of fiber formation such as spinning
speed (threadlike stress), hot drawing (stretching), stress relaxation and heat
setting (stabilization) speed.

As the stress in the spinning threadlike is increased by higher wind-up speed,

the PET molecules are extended, resulting in better as-spun uniformity, lower
elongation and higher strength, greater orientation and high crystallinity. Hot
drawing accomplishes the same effect and allows even higher degrees of
orientation and crystallinity. Relaxation is the releasing of strains and stresses
of the extended molecules, which results in reduced shrinkage in drawn fibers.
Heat stabilization is the treatment to “set” the molecular structure, enabling
the fibers to resist further dimensional changes. Final fiber structure depends
considerably on the temperature, rate of stretching; draw ratio (degree of
stretch), relaxation ratio and heat setting condition. The crystalline and
noncrystalline orientation and the percentage of crystallinity can be adjusted
significantly in response to these process parameters.

Mechanical Properties: As the degree of fiber stretch is increased (yielding

higher crystallinity and molecular orientation), so are properties such as
tensile strength and initial Young’s modulus. At the same time, ultimate
extensibility, i.e., elongation is usually reduced. An increase of molecular
weight further increases the tensile properties, modulus, and elongation.
Typical physical and mechanical properties of PET fibers are given in Table 2.
And stress-strain curves in Fig. 5. It can be seen that the filament represented
by curve C has a much higher initial modulus than the regular tenacity staple
shown in curve D. On the other hand, the latter exhibits a greater tenacity and
elongation. High tenacity filament and staple (curve A and B) have very high
breaking strengths and moduli, but relatively low elongations. Partially
oriented yarn (POY) and spun filament yarns, exhibit low strength but very
high elongation (curve E). When exposing PET fiber to repeated compression
(for example, repeated bending), so-called kink bands start to form, finally
resulting in breakage of the kink band into a crack. It has been shown in that
the compressibility stability of PET is superior to that of nylons.

Table 2: Physical Properties of Polyester Fiber

Filament yarn Staple and tow

 Regular High Regular High
Property
tenacitya tenacityb tenacityc tenacityd

0.62- 0.35- 0.48-

breaking tenacity,e N/tex 0.35-0.5
0.85 0.47 0.61

breaking elongation 24-50 10-20 35-60 17-40

elastic recovery at 5% elongation,% 88-93 90 75-85 75-85

10.2-
initial modulus, N/texf 6.6-8.8 2.2-3.5 4.0-4.9
10.6

specific gravity 1.38 1.39 1.38 1.38

Moisture regian, % 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Melting temperature, oC 258-263 258-263 258-263 258-263

a
Textile-filament yarns for woven and knit fabrics. bTire cord and high
strength, high modulus industrial yarns.
c
Regular staple for 100% polyester fabrics, carpet yarn, fiberfill, and blends
with cellulosic blends or wool.
d
High strength, high modulus staple for industrial applications, sewing thread,
and cellulosic blends.
e
Standard measurements are conducted in air at 65% RH and 22 oC. fTo convert
N/text to ge/den, multiply by 11.33. gThe equilibrium moisture content of the
fibers at 21oC and 65% RH.
 Figure 5: Typical stress strain curve for PET
fibers. (A-High tenacity filament, B-High tenacity staple, C-Regular tenacity filament, D-
Regular tenacity staple, E-POY filament)

Shrinkage varies with the mode of treatment. If relaxation of stress and strain
in the oriented fiber is allowed to occur through shrinkage during fiber
manufacture, then shrinkage at the textile processing stage is reduced and
initial modulus is lowered. Polyester yarns held to a fixed length under tension
during heat treatment are less affected with change in modulus, and reduced
shrinkage values can still be obtained. This is very important in fiber
stabilization. PET shows nonlinear and time-dependent elastic behavior. It
recovers well from stretch, compression, bending, and shear because of its
relatively high initial modulus. Extensional creep occurs under load, with
subsequent delay in recovery upon removal of the load. But compared with
other melt-spun fibers, the creep is small.

The formation of small fuzz balls of entangled fibers (pills) on the fabric
surface can be a serious problem. Fuzz formation may be affected by friction,
stiffness, breaking strength and abrasion resistance. Shape, fineness, stiffness,
recovery, friction and elongation influence entanglement of fibers. After the
pills have been formed, their rate of wear-off can affect the fabric appearance.
Wear-off is a function of fiber breaking strength and flex life. Reducing the
molecular weight, which affects the abrasion resistance; flex life, and breaking
strength, results in a decrease in pilling tendency of PET fiber. However,
spinning low molecular weight linear PET fiber is difficult. As the molecular
weight is reduced, the melt viscosity decreases and a uniform fiber with
satisfactory continuity of spinning cannot be produced. Melt viscosity can be
raised by the addition of a cross-linking compound, which is prone to hydroxyl
groups. Another property, important especially to the apparel industry, is
crimp stability or crimp compression. Generally, the tighter the packing of
molecular chains, the stiffer and more mechanically resistant the fiber is.
Crimp stability of the fiber can be improved with an increase in heating
temperature. In addition, crimp compression of the fiber can be decreased by
increasing draw ratio when the fiber is produced.

Chemical Properties:
Polyester fibers have good resistance to weak mineral acids, even at boiling
temperature, and to most strong acids at room temperature, but are dissolved
with partial decomposition by concentrated sulfuric acid. Hydrolysis is highly
dependent on temperature. Thus conventional PET fibers soaked in water at
70oC for several weeks do not show a measurable loss in strength, but after one
week at 100oC, the strength is reduced by approximately 20%.

Polyesters are highly sensitive to bases such as sodium hydroxide and

methylamine, which serve as catalysts in the hydrolysis reaction. Methylamine
penetrates the structure initially through noncrystalline regions, causing the
degradation of the ester linkages and, thereby, loss in physical properties. This
susceptibility to alkaline attack is sometimes used to modify the fabric
aesthetics during the finishing process. The porous structures produced on the
fiber surface by this technique contribute to higher wettability and better wear
properties.

Polyester displays excellent resistance to oxidizing agents, such as

conventional textile bleaches, and is resistant to cleaning solvents and
surfactants. Also, PET is insoluble in most solvents except for some
polyhalogenated acetic acids and phenols. Concentrated solutions of benzoic
acid and o-phenylphenol have a swelling effect.

PET is both hydrophobic and oleophilic. The hydrophobic nature imparts

water repellency and rapid drying. But because of the oleophilic property,
removal of oil stains is difficult. Under normal conditions, polyester fibers
have a low moisture regain of around 0.4%, which contributes to good
electrical insulating properties even at high temperatures. The tensile
properties of the wet fiber are similar to those of dry fiber. The low moisture
content, however, can lead to static problems that affect fabric processing and
soiling.

Optical Properties:
PET has optical characteristics of many thermoplastics, providing bright,
shiny effects desirable for some end uses, such as silk-like apparel. Recently
developed polyester microfiber with a linear density of less than 1.0 denier per
filament (dpf), achieves the feel and luster of natural silk.
Thermal Properties: The thermal properties of PET fibers depend on the
method of manufacture. The DTA (Fig. 6.) and TMA (Fig. 7) data for fibers
spun at different speeds show peaks corresponding to glass transition,
crystallization, and melting regions. Their contours depend on the amorphous
and crystalline content. The curves shown for 600 m/min and above are
characteristic of drawn fiber. The glass transition range is usually in the range
of 75oC; crystallization and melting ranges are around 130oC and 260oC,
respectively.

Figure 6: TDA curves of PET yarns spun at different

spinning speeds [m/min], A-2000, B-3000, C-4000, D-4500, E-5000, F-6000.

Figure 7: TMA curve (shrinkage) of spun yarn at different

spinning speeds [m/mn]
A-less than 1000, B-1000-2000, C-2000-5000, D- greater than 6000.The thermal
degradation of PET proceeds by a molecular mechanism with random chain
scission at ester linkages, although a radical mechanism has also been
proposed. A chain-scission scheme is shown below:

The degradation products can undergo further changes, but at ordinary

processing temperatures a certain proportion of carboxyl groups is introduced
into the polymer structure. Color formation upon degradation has been
attributed to the formation of polyenaldehydes from acetaldehyde and from a
further breakdown of poly (vinyl ester)s.

Dyeing Properties:
Because of its rigid structure, well-developed crystallinity and lack of reactive
dyesites, PET absorbs very little dye in conventional dye systems. This is
particularly true for the highly crystalline (highly drawn), high tenacity-high
modulus fibers. Polyester fibers are therefore dyed almost exclusively with
disperse dyes.

A considerable amount of research work has been done to improve the

dyeability of PET fibers. Polymerizing a third monomer, such as dimethyl
ester, has successfully produced a cationic dyeable polyester fiber into the
macro-molecular chain. This third monomer has introduced functional groups
as the sites to which the cationic dyes can be attached. The third monomer
also contributes to disturbing the regularity of PET polymer chains, so as to
make the structure of cationic dyeable polyester less compact than that of
normal PET fibers. The disturbed structure is good for the penetration of dyes
into the fiber. The disadvantage of adding a third monomer is the decrease of
the tensile strength.

A new dyeing process for polyester fiber at low temperature (40 0C and below)
has been reported. This method employs a disperse dye in a microemulsion of
a small proportion of alkyl halogen and phosphoglyceride. The main
advantage of this method is low temperature processing, but there remains the
environmental problem that is produced by using toxic carriers.

Another approach has been introduced by Saus. The textile industry uses large
amounts of water in dyeing processes emitting organic compounds into the
environment. Due to this problem a dying process for polyester fiber was
developed, in which supercritical CO2 is used as a transfer medium. This gives
an option avoiding water discharge. It is low in cost, non-toxic, non-flammable
and recyclable. When dyed in an aqueous medium, reduction clearing is to be
carried out to stabilize color intensity, which produces more wastewater.
Reduction clearing is not carried out following supercritical dyeing. Other
advantages are better control of the dying process and better quality of
application achieved.

Spun bond PET nonwoven webs have been treated by (SO 2+O2) plasma and
(N2+H2+He) plasma at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. The research
results show that spun bond PET nonwovens web can be colored by
conventional water-soluble acid dyes. Plasma techniques open new avenues
for coloring PET fabrics and are sure to be more evident in the coloring of
polyester fiber in the future.

Spin Finish Properties:

Several types of spin finishes are available. There are only few spin finish
manufacturers – Takemoto, Matsumoto, Kao from Japan, Henkel, Schill &
Scheilacher, Zimmer & Schwarz and Hoechst from Germany and George A.
Goulston from USA. It is only by a mill trial that the effectiveness of a spin
finish can be established.

A spin finish is supposed to give high fibre to fibre friction of 0.4 to 0.45, so as
to control fibre movement particularly at selvedges, low fibre-metal friction of
0.2 to 0.15 to enable lower tensions in ring spinning and provide adequate
static protection at whatever speed the textile machine are running and
provide enough cohesion to control fly and lapping tendencies and lubrication
to enable smoother drafting.

Spin finish as used normally consists of 2 components – one that gives

lubrication / cohesion and other that gives static protection. Each of these
components have upto 18 different components to give desired properties plus
anti fungus, antibacterial anti foaming and stabilisers.

Most fibre producers offer 2 levels of spin finishes. Lower level finish for
cotton blends and 100% polyester processing and the higher level finish for
viscose blend. The reason being that viscose has a tendecy to rob polyester of
its finish. However in most of the mills even lower spin finish works better for
low production levels and if the production level is high, high level spin finish
is required if it is mixed with viscose.

For OE spinning where rotor speeds are around 55000 to 60000 rpm
standard spin finish is ok, but if a mill has new OE spinning machines having
rotors running @80000 rpm, then a totally different spin finish which has a
significantly lower fibre – fibre and fibre – metal friction gave very good
results. The need to clean rotors was extended from 8 hours to 24 hours and
breaks dropped to 1/3rd.
In conclusion it must be stated that though the amount of spin finish on the
fibre is only in the range 0.105 to 0.160, it decides the fate of the fibre as the
runnability of the fibre is controlled by spin finish, so it is the most important
component of the fibre

Effectiveness of spin finish is not easy to measure in a fibre plant. Dupont uses
an instrument to measure static behavior and measures Log R which gives a
good idea of static cover. Also, there is s Japanese instrument Honest
Staticmeter, where a bundle of well conditioned fibre is rotated at high speed
in a static field of 10000 volts. The instrument measures the charge picked up
by the fibre sample, when the charge reaches its maximum value, same is
recorded and machine switched off. Then the time required for the charge to
leak to half of its maximum value is noted. In general with this instrument, for
fibre to work well, maximum charge should be around 2000 volts and half life
decay time less than 40 sec. If the maximum charge of 5000 and half life decay
time of 3 min is used , it would be difficult to card the fibre , especially on a
high production card.

Cut-Length Properties:
Cut lengths available are 32, 38, 44, 51 and 64mm for cotton type spinning and
a blend of 76, 88 and 102 mm – average cut length of 88m for worsted
spinning. The most common cut length is 38 mm.

For blending with other manmade fibres, spinners preferred 51mm to get

higher productivity, because T.M. will be as low as 2.7 to 2.8 as against 3.4 to
3.5 for 38mm fibre. If the fibre legnth is more, the nepping tendency is also
more , so a crompromise cut-length is 44 mm. With this cut length the T.M.
will be around 2.9 to 3.0 and yarns with 35 to 40% lower imperfections can be
achieved compared a to similar yarn with 51 mm fibre. In the future spinners
will standardize for 38 mm fibre when the ring spinning speed reaches
25000 rpm for synthetic yarns.

For OE spinning, 32 mm fibre is preferred as it enables smaller dia rotor(of

38mm) to be used which can be run at 80000 to 100000 rpm. Air jet system
uses 38 mm fibre.

Tensile Properties:
Polyester fibers are available in 4 tenacity levels.
Low pill fibres- usually in 2.0 / 3.0 D for suiting end use with tenacities of 3.0
to 3.5 gpd (grams per denier). These fibres are generally used on worsted
system and 1.4D for knitting

Medium Tenacity – 4.8 to 5.0 gpd

High Tenacity – 6.0 to 6.4 gpd range and
Super high tenacity – 7.0 gpd and above
Both medium and high tenacity fibres are used for apparel end use. Currently
most fibre producers offer only high tenacity fibres. Spinners prefer them
since their use enables ring frames to run at high speeds, but then the
dyeablity of these fibres is 20 to 25% poorer, also have lower yield on wet
processing, have tendency to form pills and generally give harsher feel.

The super high tenacity fibres are used essentially for spinning 100% polyester
sewing threads and other industrial yarns. The higher tenacities are obtained
by using higher draw ratios and higher annealer temperatures upto 225 to 230
degree C and a slight additional pull of 2% or so at the last zone in annealing.

Elongation is inversely proportional to tenacity e.g

—————    Tenacity—–Elongation at Break——T10 Values

 Low Pill—-3.0-3.5——–45-55%——————–1.0-1.5
 Medium—-4.8-5.0——–25-30%——————–3.5-4.0
 High——–6.0-6.4——–16-20%——————–5.2-5.5
 Super Hi—-7.0 plus——-12-14%——————–6.0 plus

The T10 or tenacity @ 10% elongation is important in blend spinning and is

directly related to blend yarn strength. While spinning 100% polyester yarns it
has no significance. Tenacity at break is the deciding factor.

Other Properties:
Polyester fibers display good resistance to sunlight but long-term degradation
appears to be initiated by ultraviolet radiation. However, if protected from
daylight by glass, PET fiber gives excellent performance, when enhanced by an
UV stabilizer, in curtains and automobile interiors. Although PET is
flammable, the fabric usually melts and drops away instead of spreading the
flame. PET fiber will burn, however, in blends with cotton, which supports
combustion.

Polyester has good oxidative and thermal resistance. Color forming species are
produced and carboxyl end groups are increased. The resistance to both
oxidative and thermal degradation may be improved by antioxidants.
Mechanical properties are not affected by moderate doses of high-energy
radiation. At doses of more than 0.5Mgy (Mrad), the tensile strength and
ultimate elongation decrease, and deteriorate rapidly at 1-5 Mgy (100-
500Mrad). Finally the resistance of polyester fibers to mildew, aging and
abrasion is excellent. Molds, mildew and fungus may grow on some of the
lubricants or finishes, but do not attack the fiber.
End Usage Of Polyester
PET polyester is used in different ways for its various properties. Some of them discussed
bellow:

Apparel Fabrics:PET is used alone or blended with wool, cotton, flax and other fibres
provides an extensive range of hard-wearing, comfortable, easily-looked-after garments with
high dimensional stability and wrinkle resistance.
Curtains:The good resistance to sunlight which is a feature of PET polyester fibres,
especially behind the glass, has enable these fibres to establish an important outlet in the
curtain trade. The fast dyes used in dyeing PET polyester fabrics have contributed generally
to success in this field.
Floor Coverage: It is also used for floor coverage, notably in the production of sliver knit
rugs and tufted carpeting.
Laundry Equipment: PET polyester fibre has heat resistance property, so for this reason
PET is used as laundry equipment.
Conveyor Belt:PET polyester fibres are friction resistance, strong and soft properties, that's
why it is used for conveyor belt.
Ropes, Net, Sailcloth:PET polyester fibres can take a large amount of load and have drape
properties. For this reason it is used to produce ropes, net, sailcloth. 
Filling:PET polyester staple is used as filling in pillow, mattrace, quilts etc. for it soft feeling
property.
Sewing Thread:PET polyester fibre is used as core of core-spun yarns for its strength and
the outer layer of cotton is used. But the comfort remains like cotton.
Electrical Insulation:PET polyester has great heat and electric resistance power, also has the
resistance to outer weather. That is why it is used for insulation.
Tyres:PET polyester has great property of rubbing fastness and to heat. It also remains in
shape for long time. For this reason it is used as raw material of tyres.