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Trudgill: Differentiation OF
Trudgill: Differentiation OF
P. J. Trudgill
-
«L« Jones und J«Y» Pathcrt £or tho h©lpf advic© and
financial help*
d.A# GRiuia, who road the entire thesis and nrw© uor o
Professor a , .
llalliday, Professor •£• »c -*avid, to
whom I owe especial thanks# s.F* Sanderson# F.M* Tilling#
three years*
Summary (ill)
characteristics.
Norwich English, although a dialect of the South-
stylistic variation.
change*
CONTESTS
Parre
Section At Introduction
Chapter 2» Norwich 11
Chapter 3» The Sample b5
Chapter 4t Social Zndleeo 6b
Chapter 3* Social Context and the
Questionnaire 86
Kotos 328
Bibliography 368
bi.CTION* A ( INV;v>» yCTIOtf
1
they have most often ignored the advances that have boon
sociological Dialectology
dialectolo.jy.
Urban -'ialectolory
sequences.
Lin-rnlgtic diversity
ways*
and wti.it aro its alias? On© of the nost obvious results
15
linguistic problems, ■* In exactly the saroo way, socio¬
probleru *
change*
work that has been carried out in liritain has left th©
know* often for the first tir*o, the exact nature of the
from the surrounding rural areas for much of' its history,
from awro rural a peach forms over the years • Ons can
Metropolitan London)
hinterland)
the very old* very rural speaker*** to Include Nfk and* say,
areas.
16
Coaraurfteatlona
erly of the four main EAn centres, suffers most from this
Other rail links are not good, a fact which has recently
(the A1). Of the main trunk roads leading from London into
links from I,A to tho seat of tho country are poor and
t f.
patterns In parts of the U.S.4. In fact« it is tempting
shown for the King's Lynn - Neh route, A47* but, as mention¬
ed above, these figure® may not be typical for any whole year.
(in any ease, the Nch » Ipswich road, the AlkO, is not a
21.
trunk road. ) This is indicated by a much heavier
traffic flow inte Neh along the All from the direction
frost London, and that although traffic along the Ak5 from
Cambridge to Newmarket towards Nch is also heavy, much of
the Vest.
ftmsijgratipn
Table 1
Figures for Nch for the sane period show a similar trend,
Table 2
Population
and Vales (11*7 per cent) and had risen since 1951 (12*6
per cent). The population of Nfk increased at a rate of
0*23 per cent a year between 1951 and 1961, compared with
0,44 per cent a year between 1931 and 1951* This places
Nfk forty-second in a list of sixty-two administrative
age.
falls eight per cent below the UK average, and has the
figures were i
UK £1,003 P.a.
EA £950 p. a.
fffk £913 P. a.
27
Norwich
Flemish. towns, with its large open market , and the open
set la, and the city depended, throughout the 19th eentury,
today*
and Wales»2^
Population
of these areas has risen by ovor 300 per cent* (We have
30
Year Population
1321 120,661
1931 126,236
1939 121,700
1931 121,236
1961 120,096
1966 116,350
1967 118,610
TnbX* 4
Table 5
The comparable figure for Ncli was 71*3 por oent (Nfk
76.3 per oent).
Table 631
Variable Position
Population 43
Per cent population aged 65 or over 34
Illegitimate births 1930-52 26
Illegitimate births 1955-57 31
Per cent overcrowded households 123
Per cent one-person households 43
Per cent households in shared dwellings 192
New housing rate 1945-53 27
New Local Authority housing rate 1945-53 14
LA per oent of total houses built 1945-53 47
Per cent employed in finance 3
Job ratio 14
Per capita retail sales 1950 20
5 i
I
J
* I 8 cf «
f ch
f
'« *
i
.fi 81
3£9
w *rt£
1 ! iM N
BJ h• e 94 9 h •*
©£
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2*
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tf ©
si g *
94 k
94 £S »4 © r
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at
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n
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!
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sail
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I* 94 s I 94 tf e s© )ef © Gj o 94 £ *4 94 8k o a
ak o a 1H »4 ti ©a &C 4>• £ 94 s* 8 w © £o a o t* «4 X
35
the net outflow of workers the smaller the ratio, and vies
Industry
3U
the oloth industry* Clothing, however* remains the
Ponsln,-
Internal r Ifforcntlation
did not affect all areas of the city equally, as the map
sent), Hollosdon ami Catton are two of the four outer wards
than one and a half persons per room is given as still only
a © © C\ I
9 1 < © 9
ft ss ♦
■0
♦*
"Vj
£
»
4 ©© ? r ? 9
t Cv
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w
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e*
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H
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9 I
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t #
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Sr
<*
(♦»<* '/mf
ct 5r
<$■ Sr
»*
*<
40
cent), Town Close {*13,2 per cent) and Lakenham {*9,6 per
holt of terraced houses near the city centre, off City Road
low |
into the centre of the city. Thie is, in fact, & e&se of
that the older area of Croms (left blank en the nap. Hap
wards (see Map 7) forts a broad band across the city* but
again Eaton, Town Close, St* Stephen and Nelson are in¬
south to the north and from the west to the east of the
(Maps 10,11, 12), which show Baton, Kelson and Town Close
that this area lies on and around the approach roads from
London, the All and the AlkO.^ Thio bias to the south
the north and east, such as Thorpe St, Andrew and Catten.
Chi the other hand, esse does want to ensure that the
and who were willing to help her. In faet, her four sain
10
koine in sieh gooChiosson® kinhoit mehr", but the
11
carried out in Detroit, Hero a considerable amount of
the U.S.A.
X$ 1 31 ii 8( »«* 5 *K
1I ♦* 2 m *4 85 4>< h 3^ 2 55< t
11 O 4* »»■ »* 5 »4 O ? t 4* eI 1e ©i
HV 8© .> « ©H I S* i »4 s ex 'C *h © 1
'
8© 5 »5
< SI 0 Wtfi £■ © 3 © i©
-:s ©SMZ 9 *0 8
Iv SJ © | §© % Ie » ©0 !
ip
©
I
! •
« 4•
S£ 0J
| I 85 € © "0 *4 t© * et2i
S rf
i8
©a
&
111 -8
C
'
s©
»4 © 4* K!
H 0 t »4 »
:a © t ©
8 3« I © 4^ ©& I 8s
88 e »%" © 3 © !« *4 s c 1 4« 1> 8» 94 « « o• f* I I I w 0 *S X $i
i4*
I !
.»■© |
* *1 " 0© S 1 © 4% 94 £ © & 3 © P< *t © a
! 2 5 I2 §• S n 1 I 4« »4 1 8 © »4 © e s>
-'
1 s io © *< i ©© © ©u 0• £ 4"« *
52
Justified by the argument that the list" (in this ease the
variation.
3'#, kk, 5k, 6k, 7k, and 8k, giving a total of 9 in all,
Tho sample for tho h'eh survey was not drawn from the
area of Nch#
Table 719
% Workers
Social socio- Per A/to —
©£ i a »* ! *« © : i 34 »4 © : t£ § 4*< £ I
contacted.
53
were not from *ich, five had moved, three had died, and
of the population*
Schoolchildren
in the city# The sample was drawn from this type of school
since they are th© only local schools which have the entire
that the fact that tooth schools were grammar schools would
bias tho sample towards the higher end of the social scale#
26
This# however# was not the ease (so© Chapter Four)•
&>■
20-
!©•
M za-SJi
40-
SB
2d
Ib
© UIOUWK!
-#- -*.-i
I'tv,v£ if Ill & vi
kutp^dfew iA'u p
63
age of those aged over fifteen# ire oxtre- sely close. *h©
chapter.
% (%«&«& u* dj^tr&A'k 'iWfcu&A.C Giucfi^oiv A^5-5rao?^
iw Mtk. &% rtPofi^k U\ lU<
C&nSos, owt\A t*.
loo- UA^vi^it S«rv^ Scuvfle,
%
<&
76
% 4&
&
So
<ZO
16
Social Stratification
castes.
as parameters*
different indices.
31
validity, The problems of index construction, for the
in Ncli,
37
on linguistic behaviour.'" It is also known that "father's
0 to 30.
Occupation
Classification.
I2222Z2S
married women did not know how much their husbands earned•
I ducation
41
city can to some extent be measured objectively. In
Bousing
again being equal* the newer the house, the higher the
vers combined, and the total was taken as his social class
index*
S&cicd cks$
I© II iV SsV
Table 1
Index Score
X Groups 3, k. 5
XX Groups 1, 2, 13* k
XXX Groups 5, 6. 3
XV Groups 8, 9, 12, l*t. 2
VI Group 11. 0
■£. 2
(jlsaa
i€ 20
I*
H
on fO'
11,
•"3
J *
4
2-
0
Z3-2-? 30-31 40-41 &>"& &£<><» 1©+
*s- Oreop-
Table 2
Index of Incorae
Index Score
G £2*000 ♦ ) 5
F £1,000 • £1,993 { (annual salary) k
£ £999- ) 3
D £20+ > 3
C £15 - £19
J (usual weekly 2
Tabid 3
Index of Education
Index Score
Table k
Index of Locality
Index Score
V Hellesdon 1
VI tfeatwiok 0
Table 5
0 0 1 0 1 2
1 2 3
pre-1939 2 I 2 1 £ 3 2 a a
Poat-war 1 £ 3 2 3 4 3 a a
T a Terrace
F a Flat
8-D « Setai-detached
D a Detached
B6
This is largely because the how York City study, like tho
chapters*
4:
usually be some reason for him to mobilise his activity
higher classes, ami the control they have over the educ¬
linguistic change,
***** ViG
Formal Speech
same as those upon which Labov based his New York City
insight into styles that are more formal than formal speech
speech.
TfteVfeqd
that overall scores for the two tests are reasonably com¬
totally negligible*
It was found that scores for this test were not aignific-
100
are even more formal than those elicited by tho Word List
Casual Speech
follows t
cup of tea*
di(jressions»
28
mop® spontaneous or more casual atyl© of speech". When
Interviewa
Chapter Eleven).
soditi orvse
smasxnr 0 • nmomm*
YMO 899IV1
108
ular form for all verbs other than the copula "be"* is
Method
SSSS2&
»4 a af P( c( a 4< ie fi 1 f 0 4• 1 a0 0 I
a f sS *9 o> a g
.4• 4• I 3^ 4« 4< 0 .af■' 0 c »4 4< 3 »4 4• a c O laf « G■ tf 1* n 4• 0 #" 1
65 O 9 4• 0 4« o 4* ©e0
X9 c» 4• 11 4• es 4• 9 »4 im S af © U © af 9 0 c9 © 9 *a 4« 4« 4• 4■ 3a »4 SJ 9
'
'
9 4• 0 9 9 c 0 S »4 4- C 33 a 1 4• © X *2 e Xe G o !X c 4« C 9 'X e 9 as a e taf 19
.
points*
called Class X*
4 ts
4&
£0
Class. Ih.de«:
4©
20
EX .i^^SSroy^W—
3 * € & 7 l i lb n d is IS l& I? It
Q&%% "£x-d,&X.
cs
FS
20 FS
C.S
0 rvri
5 El 1
Seci&l Ckss
115
groups Siav© the lowest ©cores of all the groups (with tho
exception of the anomalous colt tt 12), aid th'it two of
are not ©specially helpful, since thoy are not very sij^nif-
(F1&. 2). ".ore, what stands out most clearly Is tho eon-
Table 1
figaag&i&ga M
X 19*
XX 13-18
XXX 11-14
XV 7-10
V >6
5? ♦t i*
£ £
If I
«*
*%
ft H
3
*
s>
ft
a
«si
I
«3
w
# i I t 6
ft ft ft » 5 © ft » ft
*
t- «+
<*
I! • ? 8
fcS
til *S
o
i s
M
ft
I
ft ft
r?
a t a
&
ft a ft § ft e
ft C 1 © a
«f
jS I*
<s
9
* I
l
«*
« c I iE i
ft a
ft
ft § § s? o ft
i
!
» a
H
f
i
e
» o I ft
n
0
1
O ni*
a
«►
£ % S o $1S or H ©
4 £
15
§ s »
s
<5
3
cf
t-
MJ
J-
©
S3
«
11 2 £P
gr
l- •ft
M4
U
a* 1
ii y
in their OS,
LHC from the MJiC* Ths very large gap between the WC ami
ation between rs and CS, are those two classes which Have
120
The only change that does occur has the effect of increasing
the differentiation between the UWC and the JflfC, ami slight¬
c.s
40 PS
zc PS &S
o IE
5V X
S&ci&l Class»
40
20
A^-^ooP.
cs
SO
c%
y (>0 <$ c$
PS
40
PS
PS PS
2S
0*
10*$ as-2)
121
aged less than seventy were still growing up* One eon-
were, at the most, nine years old at the end of the First
122
This means that there has been a marked fall In the per¬
and around 70 per cent for OS (see Fig* 6)* This suggests
is now holding its own in Nch, and since that time has
Table 2
X MMC 0 0
XX LMC 33 25
XXX OkC 77 43
XV Mire 87 89
V IMC 100 95
of feature«
and the UfC are the classes most aware of the sooial
Norwich
PhonoLojv
The pronunciation of EAn English is clearly that of
that of the Homo Counties and from 11. P. (ST© can sub-
list*
1* hefloxes of ME o
u
and MD ou aro kept
x distinct
moan I mown
sole t soul
nose i knows
to© s tow
boot « boat
moon t aoaa
soup i soap
tomb i tome
cuto « coot
OUtQ t OOOt
But© I boot
puro i purr
euro » our
sorely t Shirley
Slot© that /j/ is conerally rotainod la
jk
owe* valuo (but not ens
fear i fair
hero t hair
boor « bar©
a schwa off-clid©#^
SED work was .carried out between 1956-57 for Nfk* 1950*59
fc.
o Sfi
PPpey
*£)<>cki t. ShonLfiL
BL'ckUn
Horfol K
*
CrCmsfcon •
k- Blink clm
« Ltudhum
& S- WaUhatvi
q f\!e.cb
i\iz<~cori
♦ Wlt/i/
*
Shiydhxin NOdwtCH '-i-:
•
OutFweli ♦
G-ooder&fcone QeeclhcitYT
*
•
(shweU th oefK
U>w*sit>FiS (Z
N /
PlcLhclM oiUaUhkU
9
9
C&fiboldtitcLftl / ChedFto^ IM*Zworth
rv *
» «<« e HencllKSkdM ycxfovcL
Suffolk
Mri8/2/j)CE © (iujchull
/
t
4
■
Pp'jtch-
* x
4
\
ke&UiiqtoH IPSlvtCf/ Weodbe-uij e
o
,S ^9% \
* d'-s
ft ' I
MiO tl^dnxK
ESSIES
MAP I
Lowr\\Ciy\ O
£> . t. J). *
in blow, crow, grow, know,
16
He writes * for example!
amount of diphthongisation. A
01 21
** fi 0- O
1 0C sA 0• 0 IH 4 1
^ OHa i »4 A§ 9 9 9 »t<
J| M{
O 4« »A 9A .P
91 0 0« • 11 *4 A0
I z i S J
« 0« «% O * J K »4 3 * £H ©
i 0 « 5a %m a >« A 9 4« »4 9
»- < »— •
s a & * a i~ «* %■< *
I 0 ni 1 •- IV 1* »*< 0s
3 tf S 0& #1 I S SJ >
000 0« »4 5< 9 «* 2 I a0 0
140
e) /B ~ V * broom* roof
Suffolk localities*
f,,„ s.g.j).
A;/ •'
/U:/ o
/II/ X
Fo dec^ome
142
22
l.U*i ~ an* — O ~ tti j* There i«
thus no evidence of a complete
example*
No, <1f*>
St,
s.w,
XI.
Ha, >!«>
Bu, X«>
Ih3
indicate a distinction*
reflexes of ME $•
'following' examplest
m>te* tea*
/u«/ in all localities «
/u«/ in Kfk).
region*
overlapping"«
No. 7e*a "0*4 *0*3 0*a Ae*a '1*3 e*a '#*3 0*3
11. "I'd "0*3 0*3 e*a ea Ae «<? Xd" 03' '©•3 >e*a
»4 9 I9 I
»i
I
3
9 A S 5© 9
o <V
i
« &
# V<
£ »♦< 9
9 3T
£
32
>i!
a H% s !t I
\r< o
I
l I I i 1
W >_t 2 9 »• >T« 9 tf
>x< 9 « 5"
*W •
>tr 9 &r 9 tf m 9 *4
1H • 9 • >t< 9 tf >tt
0H 1
$ 1§|f« f#f 1 9* W 99
I I9 • I9 V !9 1 # « ♦
£ 9 e<
the merger as being usual at
least in AahweUthorpe* ^
goto that the schwa eff*glide la
speakers* In Heh#
s S 1 *4 5 4
11
lli a'.
•
•
•
©©
S
4 i?
M
lli 111 lli
Ij
3
i
*
I
! ®4
£>
sn
«*• » ©H 1
tf
I S
4
3 1^"■#
% »4 I 3 »4 4 © « i E I
4 © ■| 3
1• a 1 —r v i ©i 3 !
si
0< » »4 3§ tf 2 2
s * H |" Y ? I© 3 4 li
150
J IE a >[ei — £tl —• « t3 J
ME ai >j,ti —eij
MTI o >[©* ~ ©*I J
idiosyncrasy#
(i) K»>.Grit!! writes i "Th® principal
partner.
s.tr. ;a »• 4t ia#
11. >a* V* "p—sA S* a <£•
Ha. ,'Ar~'A* <a* <A <A* \a» 'a.
Bu. S3 <a 3
Ho. 'a. a* *
a **-33 'a.-33 o
33-*3
#
[?• ~ «i —?tj
i/Pi — at J
iv
iy
L? —*• ~5J
(.£*
s *i
dropping**
This corresponds to If oh
l.hli ~ 4* J ©to,
th^ndUalj*
PhansoLoyL ca.L Va-iTi a hies
Aftor this brief description of ©onto features of E*a
amount of glottalisation!
[t1*) (aspirated)
[t] (unaspirated)
[t2] (glottalised)
[2] (glottal stop)
follows t
(t)-l [th tj
(t)-2 [t2j
(t)-3 [2]
in v:L style*
ations*
Since the value scales for (p), (t) and (k) are, in
logical parameters*
(h)-l [hj
(h)-2
iterxs like have, hln, which are normally j^avj, Lanj etc#
in west varlotloo of English are excluded froa the
scale isi
(ns)-l J^j
(nfj)-a {.nj
165
(r)-l |>J
(r)-a LUJ
(&)» (£)# (a«)» (*«)» («)t («r), («r), (I), (4r), (o),
(on), (o), (S)» (yu), The method of hsndllng those
ular value*
(a)
vowel qualitiesi
<a)-l fJ
<a)-2 |»ij
(a)-3 L*** i
(a)~& [si]
(a)-5 l*«®j 42
as possible*
index scores*
(a)-3 |.«eij
(a)-4 l««t—«?tl ~ w»lj
add i
present work.
171
itt at?J etc, in the SEP Nfk records, and Ellis writes
[eO ~ eO« J etc, in the Suffolk records. The many differ¬
ent types of Nch pronunciation would appear to represent
/t/ is (2j «<► (not before (tj or L*2j)« Th« ralue scalo
is ae followst
(e)-l L© jj
(o )~2 1.5 *]
<s}-3 j& * XJ
Chapter Eleven)*
173
aets of items.
(ir)-l L3iJ
(ir)-2 U»i
(ir)-3 L»t ~ A]
Nfk speech within EA. Lowiaan writes Lla ~ <5 ] etc*, and
Francis La* ~ ~ The value scale for Heh 1st
(o)-l L®J
(o)-2 La ~ ~ ®J
175
/»/•
•uj
(ou)-3 (S)-3 (u)-3 i«« —
ui ~
Vuj
(S)4 (u)-5 LtT -~yj
j.*» ~
Vm ~3*j
nunciatioru
177
Value 1 2 3 4
Variable
t
(a) » let et e t
<S) el el el etl
(at) fit it at 3*
(ao) uW ew 3*
(«) e ft A
(I) al el el dl
(1*) 3t gt at
M k KJi 2
(nff) a
(o) 9 a at
(ou) All eu u» U
(S) Att eu Ul 0
(p) P a
(*■) •»
4
(t) t 11 I
(S) Att eu Ul at
(yu) jut
X78
phenomena*
of a speaker*
and whether the social class index has or has net been
istics.
130
Table X
Class
eoeial structure*
ws m H
St^ie
145
S
J4 csoj
Gj&
0 Q QjftXttMA&VZ**!
VOS B cs
184
Table II
important,
Tho Variable (o )
The UtfC and MS»'C have very similar scores in all styles*
Table III
Styloi m,s
•mhmm*
PT>S FS CS
Jlass
lOlSj&S&M&Jl&il
Note too that even the IMC uses only 10 per cent non-ft*P«
forms in WL8,
196
tho fiC. Of the three wc groups, the t/fefC and MMG exhibit
lbs
,2
H _
0 %ti
L*&>
640
jtii&vtx--*-?*'
COO
Wl£ ^ LM&'MKC. Pi
F$
SfojU>
240
2
H /&& L.M.C.
l£a
otas-
V&& r-fs
197
respect to (au).
less contexts*
this variable*
It © 30 0 I >4 1 I UI
g© 1 © 4< »+ A 0 H9 M 35 0 » »4 0H s m 34 6
• » »♦ « i© i1£ *© 3 $*« • 0u •
11 © ©© k0 © £ 2 1K* 0 : >4 *4 a •
S I *4 3 H % SK 4© o k *V © £ ©0 © «0 3
2 I 4* S * * • 3 0 © » 4♦ 0 24 »4 © «i *. »4 ©
I• k 03 »4 0 »% T 3 »+ 24 k 01 ©
§ © »I
4 k
4« ©2 9 « *4 !J ©< ! »4 k 44 © *4 © lf©
3I 3 3 S wik ( 4' 0* 3 t »4 ©
w £3 $
* : I v 34 © k ® k< © £ © k© 0 3 .
7
differences of each score from the mean."
0x1 w 0
2x2 at 4
4*3 « 12
4x4 a 16
Totali 10 32
Moan m £2 * 3*2
10
Totali 6*4
6.4 « 0*64
10
dispersion, sayt
(au) 0.3543
(a) 0*4243
(I) 0.3980
<au) : 2-69
t
<S> 1 - 155
<d: 0 -
130
ere i
(au) 28.2
(a) 36.3
(J) 34,5
zoo
this variable.
cs
tmrnm
WC 157-260 150-300
mc 160-293 181-300
WO 213-288»
hi 111 m mm wii m
250-300
2X0
style) variation*
(ii) Those variables which ore not in¬
ation*
ation,
2X1
of inter-stylo variation*
etc*
&
tC
5"
a 4s
2S
WLS fcPS PS cs
§£^(kL
&>
/©
4©
z»
m* fefS B cs
stylistic variation of this variable which la
19 VII
nil I 0 9 1
ft
Sr
ft 0 1 ft »
<»
e
•ft
ft 9 ft 9
M
ft
ft ft ft
&
•4
0 m o »
t-
e 5 O
H- 0 ft
*
•»
ft M S ft
ft ft-
&
*4
« ft ft
? I
«#•
ft
*I
! S 9 —g§
•ft
. V
ft
<4
ft
i
i ft 9 a- » ft
o
«►
cr
•ft
a;&
• 3
i*
S « o
*
sr
« 9
i: 8 9
•ft
si t ?
i O ? ?
5
! I E £
I ft ft M ft ft 0 1
9 »
er
«*
? I
ft ft
I & J
1
B5
efr
5 *- M
?
ft
w
ft s-
*3
& ?
ft «•
er
a
5 0 1 S oi*I!
3 9
I t
216
per word*
quant occurrence*
short e>. )
Table IV
FS cs
don't 156 44
O.VAX 51 8
suppose 23 9
bom® 22 11
Bead 8 0
F.f!n£& a 6
both 7 6
broke 4 2
supposed 4 3
whole 4 1
Holme 4 0
over 4 0
Holmes 2 0
bloke 2 2
poet 2 0
stone 2 1
a«Mr* J° 1 4
homework 1 1
moat 1 1
a poke 1 0
photo 1 0
npJMs, 1 0
coats 1 0
road 1 1
roads 1 0
blokes 1 0
rollerdrorae 1 0
Close 1 0
drove 0 1
Hippodrome 0 1
woke 0 3
i.i&. V/arikbU (€)\ %b«fj Cbss
Si^le
S4vj?e
219
the LUC# and between the LMC and the VC* Within the ¥C#
moved from the R«P. norm# because we are here using the
I © I ©
P © W 3
ct- t*
•0
ft
ft
a 0 3 a
n
o 3 ©
ft
3 4 9
I
«t
t* tr
E ft
©
0 ©
© 9 €
et
»* **
M
I
9 3
1
a
c*
2 ©
<fr
ss & I
a a
I *
* 2
ft
2 0 a 1 O
9
Sf «► ct *■»
«t
g
b
«♦ tr
« i ©
&
©
**
f t
ct-
S a § ft ° g i ©
H 5ft
►% «t
$
!3 £ © ©o © «♦ I*s «* ° . t* = «* t* 2 X %J
%*:©►» •t
I
► H
© 3 a p
$
^5 © a
£ M
«
». S * r
* •
«*
3 P
t * 3
*>»
?
I f
«*
Br
4
•0
4© §i 3 ©
»
©
I
°
I
«*
» g 3 0
9
1 S
«*
t*
*<
t*
«
a
3
i t
0 9 © © § 1 » * I
s
t*
►3 it
or
«*• Cf
i ia
I
5
c
E
g
5
4
3i
**
9 3 §
«♦
p
«*•
I
I I «*•
H- © * O 9
r
tnie
E H H
P « « P O o © 3 I
9 © a & S a 9
tr «fr «t V{
♦3 i*
H S i t 3
3
© O 9 0
o» 9
Si
t* St
•a
i £
« © i * P g- ©
3 a © 1 a
cr
* 9 C « 4 © 0 © H> 3 i o
© © 4
c* «* tr
>1 0^ I*
•a
»4 & o ** a 0 I g e *4 SJ 01
*r
I i s 1 SH ia * Q t*•
5 HH
dif 5 4• *W I * a s« i 1!0 • H s|
i!g »* i *4 3 0 0 *4 « 1 % 1£ 0 44
i < \ S ••
iii
a? ! >9 0 4« I► 8 S0 © .V" O
10 g0 *4 1 »4 s 0 VA 0 a 4* H »rw im I % ai 0 »4 ia ©§
%(e
ft&. F*
Style
(to
I ^
rf Dfi&
0©d
223
14
the two marked phonological variables of
contextual styles*
Table V
hi WLS WPS FS
mm *
CS
in Mch and has been for many years* At the same time,
Diffusion Processes
Eleven.
Rural—Urban Dichotomy
was rural—bom*
Table VI
Class
of the elderly.
229
CS, and where both the UWC and HWC have scores that are
the LMC and KMC very closely. How can this be explained?
will occur.
Nch people, but that the more typical modern Nch pro¬
Table VII
Per cent
Table VIII
10-19 31 48
20-29 67 32
30-39 72 30
40-49 70 23
50—51? 75 25
60-69 63 31
70e 71 29
and CMC of [eij| for the LMC between Lei] and [eXjt
and for the MMG of Surprisingly enough the KMC
except that the iilfC has higher scores than the LWC in
(I)-i . L«ij
(l)-2 - fcBXj
(I)-3 a l*ij
(IM = L=»iJ
variable#
Table IX
Male 27 6 12 15 24
Female S 0 0 3 5
Total 35 6 12 19 30
MMC 17 17 17 17 17
LMC 25 12 12 12 12
UWC
'
37 0 12 19 37
MWC 95 18 36 50 82
LWC 62 0 0 37 50
233
Table XX
Percentage of Informants
in Two Ago—groups ualng (I )-4
10-39 61 11 18 43 61
40* 56 9 12 22 41
Eleven,
UJUi
4§ ^
Oft
<£t
C£&
Vl« ftf$ FS c&
St«jb>
240
Differentiation of w.n*'
(er) and
wne. m ■■ ww—awnnMie'ii
(tr)
A
(er) ft(fx) Wj Sfcjlfe : KHC
2kZ
level In CS.
Table XII
fer) (*r)
mc 0 0
LMC 12 11
U¥C 2 0
bWQ 3 7
LtfC 10 13
affected|
ventory.
The Variable (u)
et o.
text increases*
class differentiation,
room
food
proof, Tombland
with /«»/ and /u»/, that food also lias /*»/, and
that too, who and goon can also occur with /«»/,
X "
examplei
Table XIII
£s 03
££3
Class
(u)-4 forms.
LMC and tWC groups use 100 per cent {.J J-lesa forme in CS*
for WLS and HPS, and are given below in Table XIV* This
shews that the UWC* MNC, and LMC us* most intrusive ft/* e»
with the L¥C at almost the same level* Nothing can be
©\
VA
& 8
«
•3
© 9
VA
o-a
CO
nagiooo o©©G3
«r
oooN^MVOW»
o
o o V3 M
©
O
H oU
o U
<r
10
§
!
*
[£,
)
257
Table XV
£2L £2.
ConelugAon
ation*
liks Nch,
material*
emic straitjacket*
under 2. below.)
A /P/ « kB /P/
IB /P'/
1 / ii
realistic*
1 /•* mi/
li^ci VAlai-si
1, 2 // 2 /mi/
thus t
migl
u,
n
e 0,
A
M
a, a,
ing way i
h h "x
'<■»
/io~9l~'2~''3y„Bu /»2~o2~S2---/
LU ,AT'll AP /i.~x «J~ V '*2a\~Z h--/
272
intelligible*
appear identical0*
another*
« • «v I
0 »4 a 1 © 44 34 « i i ►«
1© €o w i »4 © ® & f H ^> 4* e- 4 © »4 4 5 a «• m © t0 2
.
«
cH I U%# © * a I »tV »4 ^© ef 0 * • ee «so
273
single type*
stating this*
in Chapter Eight*
Incidence in "cognates**
all ef themt
283
back t bake
following type»
Ia*J are
enjoy It
234
allow it
3t ~ »t ~ bi ~ et ^ ^ Is ~U9 ~ oa/«
No single speaker has all these "phonemes"» so
A. 1 /» «* — ri — ©» — la — «a /
2 /a* a»i —' ti/
■
'—'
r i —
2 /m —
HP! R?1 —''X»~ e5/
fm ~
n — rl — « i/
/
'
J /*
-
e*l '—' ei ^ la —
6 /* —
«?1 -— o» € %/
1 /® —
ri ■—' la ~ **/
3 ~
ri —'
B. (*) ~ ~ ni ~ t»n/m
(il) /u — at — »a/
(iii> /h — n» — w/
(iv) /ti- on/
c# (p\ / ot- oa -
~
txa/
(a) /o» ~
na/
fr) /o»- oa/
f») />*/
0< I /A — 3» ~ at <~ at
"
0 *" t»%/
ir /a ~ at — ai — a —
'1>«/
XII /a ~ 3* ~ at — 0 — >»/
IV /A ~ 3i ~ at — at ~ 0/
-
V /a — a* — u —
>•/
VI /a ~ Rl ~ at — V
vn /a — 31 — at — a/
VIII /A — at —
286
other blocks*
233
structure rulest
/«/ /»«/
5) ♦ Obatr
♦ Stop ♦ Acute
>
— Acute ♦ Strid
+ Sharp
6) ~e Obatr~
♦ stop
-
strid ^ j~- ActtteJ
- Nasal
♦ Sharp
5a) ♦ obstr
♦ Acute
4»
Nasal »
♦ Strid
— -J
♦ Sharp
7) /**/ /a/
/d*/ /s/
Daeo-Huiaanian dialects i
Daeo*RunMiian
Moldavian Huntenian
II
elassifioation isi
same for both dialectal /&/ and /w/« For the first dia¬
1) /*/ ► l»J /*
2b) * TOO
* l-
* eons
i) M > t«J /*
2b) 15} » l«]
1) NW, SW /soin/
SW /cut/
2) m /ant/
£JL m D2
so in soin
*
puter puier power*
1) 01
Dx / D2, Dj koiid
many ways much more powerful and real 1stlo than the
level
Distinctive Features
briefly, below*
2
1) Fudge has demonstrated that the facts of Tswana
by him*
for Instance* the lexical sets of fear and fair are not
in some dialects.
abstract features.
13
possible phoneme sequences*
rulesi
feak ■■) 3
Coda » k ♦ 3
Termination > 6
trated in Fig* 1*
a P t c k
b b d J g
c •P st ek
f $ e
▼ 9 a
3 v 1 r
k » n
<r~ h
307
A B C D
3 V 1 r
k a n
A B 0 D
3 1 r
4 <V ■
N " '
/
\
A D C D
a P t c k
1 b b 4 J e
e ep et ek
V
a £ e s a
2 V
b V £ e
3 1 r
% m n
A B C D
1 a/b T
o St
2 • S
s
308
This Indicates that tl*» dl*» stl-, «1* etc** are not
*
W9
ȣ
contribute to the realisation of the preceding vow®l"»
is shown in Table 6#
X T Z
*=*<•
I3 P f
mt
I i A I A an ol
em 4t*
II e U e u
«a>
III a o a o at 91
the lexical sets of nose and knows from the above system#
Y z
^ X r—*
P P
/
I i u I u
mm
a e a
II e a mm
ol
b e au
mm
a a o
III a o
b al ou
>
Morphological Alternations
of the formt
texts).
This rule will produce alternations of the typet divine /
divinityi ecrone / serenity» opaque / opacity* This
17
relatively complex and cumbersome*
cerned*
1) /A HI
(J) // > /A HI//
That is //a// )
> /AV/
//*!// )
E i Mandarin Tone 1
and high
315
E » Mandarin Tone I
rules as follows,
2) //r ^ II
[£j // » //Y« XX//
That is //©// )
//;//1 > //://
315
XX
3) //Y= 1X3 is! " 4 //TM //
That is //S//
//•//
//«//
and //«//
//a±//
//at//
2) > a '
T II
3a)
aj > 0 / T°<
X
^
ft A
li u
X
IX
au ol
m
a O
XXX
b al ou
X r
<=K
a
a u
xx
an ol
«e»
o
xii al
on
lexical Entries .
and 9.
//B4,Y~< IIIb,AW/
or* //n*a#m,//
//B*.Y ex
on //mai.au//
illustrated in Fig. 3.
Syllable Generator
Biasystemic Phono*
logical System
I
Diaeyetemi c Phono¬
Inventory logical LEXICON
Rules System
Input Output
321
[_ru»dJ or [rtfdj.
20
The t/p« of rulo proposed by Thomas to handle
N tu \U • '9 V * \ .N \ >f • 01
I »*< I 2
\u \ Fe» \ \6» ot • V *s \\ tf 0* *
•
>« x^ \\ *t * 9 • »« • \ \ \f ♦ 9•
M *4 1o■ gs 3 g ©1 $© £ S( u l ►
g£ O *« 5 O lf * © O BJ ©
*I * It © i W 5 O fT ©g 9 •« ♦ §o e 9 © oj e 1 ©« 9
i © k S H 14 © © 4* s a© 1 0e © »4 M• © 4•• s tr<k I S t—
i 0 » 4i « 11 ! M< 31 © 9 *t SH
3© >% ©■ c © •» ©A © 4< a »4 o SI © © © £©
11J © »k
© gk
1
34 © e5 © BJ
«k «
it£ ©
!
3 kpi© © «
© « © *•«
i:
ft ©
*4 9 »* 9 © *
3s
©k © »♦ i
S •
«i
©g ©
I «»
4i ©©
©©
© 4* © © © ©
«© ©£«
8• © © © ©
§ s i©k
I 211
rs « i
g «£
* 8 &H .* *I
4 »4 J« S H H «u
1w
1«* 0A * i »4 »4 1 iv »* 01 0 »+ A 0 »4 xa »♦ © 2 8IH tf
& »4 tw< O1 H K 3 O tf 5 »4 A a© o£ e w
91 »♦ * a2 1•
" Ii
I s »4 1 0 ® tf £ 5 ,c tf£ 2a * sI• :i
tho phoneme //«// (and th© rule itself) will drop out
of the diasystem altogether.
//£//
//*i//
//Si//
//a// » //si// •
Interviews)*
328
/*•/ ) el**J /. { M
gj.rj m t (Style* Class* Ago)
•>)
e//o// ► //«•//
e (rule k) m t (Style, Class* Age, Sex)*
(r) - X LrJ
X m t (Stylo, Class, Ago)
rules
performance may be
6) * //T(31// » //Xgl//
8 (rale 6) • f (Style, Class, Age)
That la, //n// ""*'" """"■) //a//. The addition of this rule
For those who also have j.0j in room, broom the rule must
read
rule d, api»U«a«
8) //x// » //«//
/IA/~YI/.
//U// ► //o//
//i// » //•//
335
sideration*
9) //132//
» //A2//
//**//
33$
for all types of ffeh English and Indeed very many other
types of English*
ation rulee*
23
for tho realisation of consonant phonemes* A later
30
universal phenetio categories*
A B D
«><
/?.
a P t k qu
X
b b d * e»
a f S s
2
b V X J
3 1 r
4 m n
3*0
//»//
Alveolar p*a« 2a
Volar p*&*
syllable
//«// ►
Glottal constriction —i
Slottal timing
llottal constriction 9
^
jalottal timing *
the following!
IU '
s 4r 4* tA
II I £' 4 11 I I i S 3 I I9 H
W l 4*• « 04 U S 94 §1 * 0H «© 5 s0© o- £ 0 9
ft 1
«© .y 45 £ K8 0U 0o »♦ 94 2 §® » «r © 4* 0 ® *4 0 0© e 4* 0 5i i
© ©£ 0• »4 £J i« m 0 SS | * © ► 90 4* 94 £ H« 0^ CS © « 4« «4 e S
£ KJ > u 04 « © « 0 « 4* ©* ££ Ig
H w «1 3H • tr 0 « 0 »4 © o ©3
© £< 94 94 © o © I t 94 © *4 a ©©0 4* 33 © »4 a
3*3
r~—
articulations #
by double slants*)
Phonological
Realisation ftulot //A2b// > M
Phonetic Mutation
Rule* M » /€/ /— /t/
Phonetic Bealis*
ation Pulet /f/ » Labiallty 2
glottal con*
striction 9
Nasality 0
Stricture 2
Affrlcation 0
Glottal timing 3
Laterality 0
Lip rounding 0
Secondary
articulation 0
Labiality 2
Glottal con¬
strict Ion 9 5
Nasality 0 0.3
in
Stricture 2 3
Affrication O 0 / certain
contexts
Glottal timing 3 2
Laterality 0 0
Lip rounding 0 0
Secondary
articulation 0
form B?
348
(/ph/ !m _L
11) //Ala// > !/p/ / m
1/pV
B*
</ph/ !*— ,
g 0 f (Style* Class)
pj., b and It
that |bJ and resulting from /p*/ and /p/ oecur only
in casual or rapid speech* anil it is the performance
3*9
instead of
16) //A3// ■» M
(see below). They can also result from some of the vowel
as followst
Note that rules 29 ami 30 mean that //a// and //3// eon
//"// » //y"//.
%
/«H/ » U«*j
so on /i4«w/*
g • f (Age) ^
ne m
s© £© m X tft *4 I *4 44 «
X© 3 >© © tr k © t« »♦ 2 ! 44 I w■ ee >\ ♦
$ »4 I ©I S « >N © © ©© k «m
a I 4* 1 44 * 1Jit a
i 4« 4< « X O 0< 44 £
11 i »k « 44 . »4 I ." i i> -s »4 *4 X * £ tI £•
© »k S £ k © « 4* «*• « © *4 44 g o * © »4 I X *4 I »4 44 ©
11 2 »4 5 £H •
o X 4r 1 © H« ES 0 A I © tr ©a
Ok O ©© «k s© »4 4• m23 »4 h t
! •
! © k* *© g 8 »4 I3 3 ©k I ©k O X 4■ 5 0 %4
I: s i© © 4« 4» © > | A ! SI « e ©© e t©
»4 £ 44 2 %© I © »4 44 O 3 44 © » 1 i© 2 »4 44 © 1 w
44 A 4* N # ne
S *<ne 2 S •• N
U \ ♦%a 2 S »% ifC m \
g« I 2 ©2 X 44 « *4 © k 44 2 4* 1% 9© »4 0 ©U A© u H©
as *
tf k© *# \ \ »4 >
91 km 00 \ II C<°« \ .0 >
355
fair ft* •/ store /atai/
ik
t over ftutf
employer /teiplai/
employing /stnploin/
ago in Well,
9 4*< *4 £ 91 0 eO »4 £ 9 tI tV e tI *I e 1 £ 94 £ B 34 £ 9© 3I
M
'
31 § 9 t ! H eC »H H H A9 HoS *© 9 £O »4 £ £i
9 ©3 1 9 tI H 9 V > 4« 3* 9© 6. 94 »4 a • »4 |> 6 9 1 4* 9
3
IH © !
i2 H 9
« © *4 £
2
: 0 tt • «
»4 9
© tf
I £ « K< O tI
I ia ti
t* S £ a9 i
Ie
M i« 1
& tf ttI
s9
9 N<
sil »t •
19 « tt •*
*e
94 i ti 9 M«e
»4 sj
»
k0
9.
9 2
9 ta « 9
3?
3 *• 94 a *4 44 tt *4 0 e »cf S 9 h >4 1 »4 K O H tf 4# § 94 S | *
J3 *4 8 4* 1 I 9 *4 9 * 3 e 9& ©
3a
3S IH *4 * >• 3 ©© 7 44 I >! 94 I o. si I
i » »4 s « 1 ^\ > .N" »4 tf g © t% »4 £ e
! tt H > I
s> * - > *
H 44 ; » 9 tI 9 I►9 »4 s 9 »4 tt © w< 1w % I 9 tI
I 9 iH 3 I9 »4 *4 B 9 9 M« X 9 £ JiS i
© £ » i H Q* 1> 9 »4 0 £ 9 ©© H 1 H tt 0 ©a
M
tI© H 9 rO
& 1 8 0 k 9 9 M tf I tt tf ©© © tV ti 9 tt tt g■
1
Ia £ * 9 H tt * £ 9 tI 9 H 9 94 © 31 3g 9 9 tt 0
IH © £ 9 tI 9 h« © w 9 3►9 »4 © ©9 »4 ti 0 i *4 © ©© 9*
357
rule 37,
37) //r// »
rulesi
38) /I/
37) A/ ♦ /a/ > «/3»/~/a»/
HO) /»/
quired for the oldest Kelt speakers, who retain /&/ and
optional roloi
0 A/ ► 0
//r// M
/**/
s tS © 1 « ©
a© tt S tr« 5J © c * »* ! \H \
i: \ >n \ V s iV »*• Rj « *I e 4# s s i? s ! 1* ©u
I iU • tf m 1 # © iC© H • tf »4 ! tf 4 *i
a,*«
1 t ti if 04 Ua M> «H 9 © ©©© §
»t s I • e *<
I i 1 *« 1 1 i 04 u m
©U »t a • I*
11 ♦ ;♦ * s
H► I »4 © »4 R © & 4• © O 9 s
3 X H ♦ a *■ X
sa 3 1 Ii «£ 1 13 § 6U »4 £ I
> ♦ a x
g :5a s J
H3 ?j s ai i 3 »4 § 1 * H t« ?% Jt
U3 « ! -v !! £ £s * I £ a 4* * £
S§ »▼ 0 £ c 3 M> 1
we 2 « s* o 4% i aH !
iS
M
t*
I I f E ©& § »* • s ?
I
© •
v
*♦
0
» 8
J- S » * • © M S !
«1 © 0 *
£r
© 2
1 ? ? 11 s ?
N
u
9 N»
S
5 » ©
1 0 « « 1
sr
<* ♦
s.
I
■s.
♦
0 1 © 3 ©
f-
*<
«<
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//f#e#r#// //f*al*r*//
/flia/ /fsia/
/«**/ /ft i/
/t%%&/ /fsta/
er /f* 1/ /ft %/
phonetic element*
5») /«/ ♦
j%| ► /y / *
53) /»/ ♦
{ /$ ) » /X/ /- *•)
entry*
/phl«3a/
60)
61)
A/
This will give the output /ni Jem/ from the input /oft ma/
1 am# Vo will see those particular phonetic mutation
id
where /-/ represents phonetic syllable boundary*
369
phonetic taut at ion rales, wo now have a phone tio eye teas
12 and 13,
A ■ 6
a b
i
X ui
V tt | Wtt Uu
i
« a
i
st 3* Ol
m » ml »i J tws on mi ot
i
at as
i
i
«£*•
a
«• 3> si
CI Of fees paw
both become /»*/$ while /li/ and /»!/ ©an both become
371
/e »/ Mid /Ou/ and /»u/ can both become /»»/* Note, tee,
Phonetic space
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37%
of the short (A) vowele the foot that there is less space
for the realisation of the back vowola /V/, /#/ and /a/
has lad to the fronting and lengthening of /»/ in the
377
I ©
e »
vowels may also have led to the merging of fear and fair
%S tf & i A « 2* 9« af »* I* tf 1i &C ®2 1 0 af SX
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af a
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« »4 «i
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I af ef © tf af I © tf © « ef 33 5g Wtf af £ tf tf af tf tf © ef 9 tf ©« 3
/oh/ and /ay/ ,,, are not easily described ia the present
form ef Igenerative phonologicalJ theory#**®
are«
a"/
/*/ 111
/•/
/3»/ > Iff]
/kh/ Affrieatlcn 0 /. ii ii mi
Hi/e •/
Glottal timing 5
laterality 9
lip rounding 0* 5
Secondary articulation 0
63)
A,p. 3 A,p. 3 A*p* O
a.e. 9 1 o*o* 1
W ~ t*jtj /
/%? "Iai" ' * 0
i*i — L*ai ~ UJ
shown above*
1 1 fH «0 »4 Vk4 4* ►s0 4• 4 1 »4 H■ « £3 « 0 *4 4« g
rf 1• •
s<
386
68) /»/ *
g m t (Age).
69) M
8 » f (Class)
8 m t (Style, Class).
387
72) /uiy ► e
7^) /<£*/ • e
8 * t (Class}•
79) /* »/ '•") i
m si**
l C
i«4? i«J« J
*■ i-
81) /a«/ ) #
get (Class)
383
84) At/ ■ )
veleed consonants*
A/ At/
A/ /»»/
At/ At/
/m/ At/
fof At/
/#i/* /»»/ and /»»/» /ss/ said A */, and /X/ and /*/.
389
ations of /h/*
mutation rules*
this type«
following.
n \C 4*
OS 3V
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* 0• •
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it >4 • 4* •
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<0 «
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1 o£
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s «i I satm « 9 tf S I 9>
£ tf I *4 £ #4 A tf tf I tf 4* I I I a 4• tf » tf t m tf tf
tf a a
:i r* T
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B £ »•- H tf tf tf • 8K » tf
tf tf tf I I g
tf t tf tf tf Itf9 tf Ib tf tf 0 tf *I tf tf *
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II i 1 s *4 ij' i 9 4% »4 4 • U9 i e »4 O M« 5S
1w 4* 4 % 9 4 9■ 4* s K 44 S 40 5 « 9 9 41 « *% « 4 9 e 9- 9• •► 2 !
5 9 5 »4 4 9 *I »4 i »4 4 »4 4<« ► 9 SK *S 4§ « 9 9 cf . & © a 9 9 « 9^ 49 s.
I 4s i »4 s1
i9 2 »4 3 3< O 9 « SI 9 « *4 4 9 »4 E 9 I *4 5 9 9 ef »4 4 9 1 * »
4 • A• 4, • tf 4<, * tf te
O# 9 * « O• 9 %*
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t4«»*
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5* 4O • 44 3* 4* < n
4 « tI • )• 9 a • il * o
ift • lf • 0 %• © « 4 \r
»*> »
92)
ami produces the typical can short forms with the wide
he celled
101) ta-aj ► p
realisation rule*
/!</ > *
coneononis*
397
107) 0 » UJ / 00*
awrt& Ur if*J
A# M ,.Se,.aa
following*
phonetic representation!
1*J An that**.
stop.
and Saturday.
luj in out.
koi
RQtnn*
performance*
Artlculatorr Settings
(d) nasalisation
Pitch Pangeat The pitch range used toy both male and fe¬
or deep*
1I i e. H I HI * m 4r S »4 % tif KI tt €
*5 oh i 1 s *© I 2 i 1 4* i s s*
8 4• C
M
3 *4 fr*«•1»*4 % »4 M »4 a
1 tf 0s
II
9 *4 *4 * J 2© s3 im !i »f 9u
*4 »4 2 £1 5 5 2 9 t9 ! i1* J
.
« 9 j
!I 9 | 5 $9 2t «4 V »
S a 3
407
feature*
particularly unpleasant*
overall setting*
i1 I « 1* J£ H N 4# »4 :3£ « i tI I 9 m* >+ C 9 I9 O
.*
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.
I I 5" •
2stI 1 tf t% ►I % tf S tf £ J * g • *Stftf »4 4■ a tf t%
"
s tf 3 *4 tf 3 tf tf tf 4# »4 4 tf tf tf tf tf 9 tI 4f 3£ 1 * 11
£
i tf 1 2 1 4* § »* tf tI tf 6 tf 4* tf tf & tf tf tf tf tf »4 s I
I 4* t 3 M i tf u »4 2 t t 0
i »4 1 3 »4 3 tf tf tI »4 2 tf .I tf • H *4 4< « a tf tf
| Raised Larynx
in phonetic spaee§
Instance, that the above rules account not only for the
Toungoq
event*
by the rulet
2 (153) —1 <B)
//A2b// » /V/
/W ♦ /3/ » /3i/
Phonetic neallaatlon Pule
L#J * ft/**
j-'doxxo-K a • n^'.iiixsno
418
vey of Neh English has been carried out* while the second
tine are that one must ta'..e Into consideration, first* tho
rural CAn rather than urban if eh* They can* however* help
•«* thyre.
fren it j to ^aJ*
421
jaiej.
mora exactly the form that the loss ef the fin short 2
IS taking in Heh*
that even the Mob LWC uses no mere than H2 per cent of
A^e
¥•
result of the fact that age and social class are not
independent variables in British society* fiteauat of a
but the fall in scores from right to left across tho graph
427
and eince the First World War, and the increase in educ¬
roof and soot with taj.) This moans that pairs such as
coke > cook, foal t full* lake • look* must has# boon
of J00/
with this distinction in Neb, but the fact that (on) has
become a variable during the eourse ef thle century
change is likely*
'J'"
»4«t
xfcV
ttkuv .J
L
jo-^i a»-2? 5o-3k, CJH$ to-CA "fc-V
4qs
50
*31
this process.
rule 3t
Y^ll
a! ♦ 0 /-
T ^
•j
b' > „ / T-<III
*)
b'
* ^ /
Till
That 1st
//S//
\ > //ai//
and.
//S//
//ou//'
} » //ou//
*33
The PeDlacemcat of /Mm/ ^nd M *>y /*'*/
Chapter Ten#
thesis,)
*3*
was one* mist have taken plaee before the torn of the
as *» «* * •
17 35
rs • 26 56 20 40
9 %3
HPS 4 3 49 51 53 33 33
SfLS 23 43 61 76 63 36 5%
System 1, Syste^ 2
Creasing in Nchf
of this informant*
*39
changes «
of this typot
kko
earlier than with (er), but that the change has taken
place at a slightly slower rate* In the case of (er),
it is speakers aged under forty who use no schwa in every¬
day speech.
r*„
m
VariV'ti (er\ &•»
'
j J
ct«*&
-j
*
I5&I
its
X
£' * A
i-5
JAA?
IVvt
0^
li*H 2?'A "J&i*
Acs
er?
<!>
ct
ft-
/o
(a)-5, the older EAn variant /et/« Index scores C»r (a),
however, measure both the systematic phonetic different¬
suggest that the merger of /ei/ and /ml/ has not resulted
simply from a replacement of /©t/ by /ml/$ but also from
fore state that /e»/ < //a// occurs only very rarely in
& I H ?
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a S § » O *
9
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sr
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9 f 9 9 ?
I & I %
m 0 9 9 n i e
2
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S3.
•
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kk6
13«] at all in CS« the average (ir) index score for this
localities investigated*
«t S? sr
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H
P w
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m
k
P
:
9 9
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91
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t* ft Sf
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4 9 1 X 9 n © 9 © O
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9
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as
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(irj bu S&jte CUAOL'A^G.
XS
*30
Older Kffe and Meh speakers tend to have clear /I/ in all
that "is often of the {.fcj typo*, while dark /§>/ has a
laesienj • Imimdi
this context*
pcnn*orth [p^inadj
(a) from i#j to l»J and from (,ej to let J. for younger
Plan tphl»»Snj
playing j.phl»»«j
(I)-* forms are the same groups which have mors (I)-l and
group*
Home Counties,
Mm can put forward two reasons for this* First, the $SMC,
LMC, and, often, the WC, adopt only those features trans¬
arm t on
SS*M * £25
10-19 1 50-59 *
20-29 0 60-69 1
30-39 0 70s o
*0**9 1
£e] >
Att .© S ££ 1s s »* © 24 • ta o :• 5 £I i »4 £ I 8 tt
2. 0 i 2 © *4 & u tf • *4 tf i nI *H © * ©I tf e »4 A S 2 *4 9
©'
© .tf g *4 34 © I 51 5 tf ?2 9 tf ©© »4 tf ©£ *tf 34
£I tu tf S ti £ *I
tf a tf © »tf # A« © *4 34 9 tf g tf 2 © *4 « 4« t
tr I 1 £ © tt I 4© 3 2« *« § 1 > tt 4♦ tt § tt © I *tf *
of schwa
AV lw
Mrs* D**s short (A) vowelo are the same a® thoso of the
ttch
NCh
bee
tM-i LfiJ
'i»ij
hsx 1**1 1**1
buy
«Mm«W 1**1 L®*1
lewd L3*i L**J
land L?*J l««J
load Lttuj touj
low 1&«J t»»J
Rel| q»
name AV /•I/
HSLS. /«•/ /Ii3/
ihSKS. A«/ Ala/
£*&£££ At/ Ala/
£&L At/ /ma/
path At/ /at/
poor /»»/ /Una/
pore At/ /eta/
paw At/ /*»/
*££££ At/ Ana/
fire /*•/ Aia/
bird /3«/ A* a/
pure /3t/ /«*«/
igX2E /«!/ Am a/
-"nAyff At/ /Ola/
/•*/
At/
Apart lro.-s the long monophthong In name, the
$ I I
HK *5 t »4 3, © tI « tV © © « ?S3S »♦ 5 .C H © © © 8 § ** o •*
1*3 \ o< H I K€ ©I H \e o c * * H *4 a-
_8
1 ©© s c I £ « tI ©
g:I I © > © tI © SJ H©©© 0 t%
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I H © 3 a tI 9© » O ©< 34 © tS © o tI © © © s? 31 94 3 »* H© 3
I *} © tI Hl © tI
3» a% 3 O H O &t H o «
The third major change would appear to he the
meatst
probably via stages such aa /Uua/ > /uta/ > /o»a/ > /»«<?/,
The second stair© of application of this process* Judging
loss of schwa began with /ei-?/ some time around tho turn
Itoae of the typos fire and tower, and was only sob*
particular period*
U69
ei
Sire. D# 01 aid
at ata
at aid
IV U13
VI
loss of «. t 3» at
at ®t
at at
VII
Recent «t 3« ot
merger#
at
470
Metarules
or»
/am/ do not become /»»/ and /©»/ but /at/*) Thus /II/* /Uu/,
/Ui/ and /¥u/ are lowered to the voxels closest to them
change*!
km Soeio-psychological factors
6. Functional load
a* Change in setting
between Hch English and other types | and (il) changes due
to differences already existing ia feh English (which saay
of sound change*
(by rule loos)y bat tho Initial Impetus for the change
may equally well have occurred at tho level of arlie*
3H 5
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$78
following ways
if
X Y
then
:c 0
long V — * high
subsequent rule*
theory*
change#
//s// )
♦ //»//
//?// '
481
*
/V^f
to
*) ,.,
) t /
b' ¥<*
move them the neat, for Jackets to have three but tone one
change*
d■ o * ! 3I t 1 1
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© H »* * I- 5 2 I XkO e ©S
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i 1 Ui st »* c • dI c & 4« 4»" t 5c !I
1 i »4 1 1* st ** 3■ • 0I 9 0 1 1O■ 1* *4 di I *
*
aporitaneous* changes.
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therefore * spontaneous* *
Europeani
p t k
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systems*
one speaker* or aor© than one style) and when they will
occur*
of two.
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by»
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opportunity*
another*
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country.
HtJ . PI F.I
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following result*
MS « a. J2UU
(<UJ)2
82 x 1,984 - JU260
34
is therefore!
Ii4 « io*9* pi PI . PI
(dij)2 PiePJ
507
appears in Table 8*
Birmingham 43 Glasgow 0
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P.P. form,
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© 4r ► © lf © 3S » ©U ©H ©1
520
produced**511
03 ed A 2
1 79 21 • 100
O 62 33 m 100
dividing line*
22*21 Male
Over-reporting 13 0 29
Under-reporting 7 8 7
Accurate 80 9* 6k
over-reporting 43 22 63
Cttdor-roporting 33 50 14
Accurate 23 23 13
Over-reporting 13 12 23
t?nder-re porting 36 54 13
Accurate 45 34 3?
Over-reporting 32 22 43
Under-reporting 15 23 0
Accurate 53 50 57
of the word.
NOTES
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n
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m *t C 3
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r Ho
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;
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533
2*3-252*
13. J. Regan, "Southern California Ghetto language and
Roles"# Paper presented at the Autumn Meeting of the
Linguistics Association of Great Britain# University
of Leeds# (1969)*
1*. E. Goffman# The Presentation of Self In Everyday
Life. (New Yorkt Boubleday Anchor* 1959)•
15* «• Labor# on. cit.. (1966a)# Chapter IV.
16. M.A.K. llalllday et al.. op. cit.. p. 91*
17* It seems probable# however# that the effect here le
greater than that achieved by a similar instruction
in the New York City survey. Reasons for this will
be discussed later# but appear to be connected with
British "working-class solidarity" and other
sonants#
22* The notations hero* (like Kokeritz's i,Uj| and tut J),
would appear to Indicate a pre-merger state be¬
tween ll.I*, /ui/ and EAn /ui/*
23. This evidence would appear to suggest that the
two sets of items (which are close but distinct in
Kokeritzj have, in Lowman and Francis, overlapping
areas of articulation* but not a complete merger*
Francis* transcriptions* which do show sons very
minimal contrasts* e.g., l§d J / ttfujl l«*J / l»*Jt
may tend to obscure this state of affairs as far as
his records are concerned* The complete merger can
be assumed to be a ffeh feature*
t
552
35* P. 13.
36. Phonological variables are symbolised by enclosure
in parentheses*
f
533
phenomenon.
43» In many types of R.P. this vowel is in fact long*
thened to (a)»2, especially before /b, d,
dj. a. g,
a/. In Itch this lengthening occurs in all environ*
stents. Cf• A.C. Gists on, Ait Introduction te the
Pronunciation of English. (London* Arnold. 1962).
p. 100.
44, Piphthonglsation is particularly common before
/e* k.y /. This fact is not taken into consider¬
ation in the calculation of index scores, since any
possible bias should bo minimised by the largo
amount of material.
1. e. (1966a).
Labov. op. cit.t
2. Sec ibid., pp. 39<K)99| J.L. Fischer, op. clt.i
A.C. aimson. op. cit.. p. 194| S* Sivertson, op.
elt.. p. 129f G.L. Erook. op. cit.
3. J.L. Fischer, op# cit.
4. Labor*o terms *change from below" and "change from
above" refer respectively to changes from below and
above the level of conscious awareness. Usually,
55*
325-3*0.
13. H. Weinreich, ¥. Labov & M.X. Hergog* "Empirical
Foundations for a Theory of Language Change"* in
w.P, Lehtaonn & T. Malklel (eds.)* Directions for
Historical Linguistics. (Austin and London1 Uni¬
versity of Texas Press, 1968)* p. 13*.
1*. For a discussion of the unmarked nature of /t/ as
Chapter Six.
3. P. Forby, op. cit.. p. 90.
4. O.Y. Shevelov, *0n Predicaments, Predictability
and Futurism In Phonology*, in J. Hamm (ed.),
APPENDIX
Th» Questionnaire
**** ( Lexical)
(isizSsii)
"Some questions about Noh. itself**
X# (Lify^istlo Zqse<nirltg)
"This is the last thing we're going to ask you to
2# Income Group#
568
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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oede, W, and P,K» Hatt* Methods In Social Research,
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Oregg# R.J., "Notes on the Phonology of a County Antrim
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Gumpers, J,J,# and D,H, Itytnes» eds,, The Ethnography of
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Johnson* Urban Geography. Loudont Pergaraon, (1967)*
Jones* &** "Concrete and Abstraot Sounds", Proceedings
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University, (1939)*
Jones* D*« The Phonenet Its Mature and Use, Cambridget
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Joos* M,* "The Medieval Sibilants** lanCTB^e 28, (1956),
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Joos* M,* The Five Clocks. New Yorki Harcourt* brace
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(1963). 43-54.
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576
22- (1955).
Heading* H.F.* A Glossary of Sociological Terns. Athens«
Contos. (1963).
ogan, J.* "Southern California Ghetto Language and
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Meiss* A#J# * Occupations and Social status# Glencooi
Free Press# (1961)#
573
(1966). 79-93.
Vaslliu, E«, "Transformational versus Btunique Phonemic
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Viereck, W., Phonenntlache Analyse des Djalekta von
232-2h6.