Module 4 Groundwater

10/9/2022
Module - 4 Ground Water

Ground water hydrology, Application of Darcy’s law and
Aquifer characteristics, Models for Groundwater flow
analysis, steady state well hydraulics – Fundamentals of
unsteady state.
Lecture hr = 4
…. as part of the water cycle
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Groundwater
 Groundwater is the water below the ground surface occupying the
pore spaces in rocks and soils.
 Groundwater is present everywhere beneath land surface and ocean
bottom.
 Most ground water originates from precipitation and surface water.
 Groundwater is always in motion.
Volume of water stored in the water cycle's reservoirs
Reservoir Volume of water Percent

(106 km³) of total
Ocean 1370 97.25
Ice caps & glaciers 29 2.05
Groundwater 9.5 0.68
Lakes 0.125 0.01
Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005
Atmosphere 0.013 0.001
Streams & rivers 0.0017 0.0001
Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004
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Circulation and residence times of groundwater

Water source Circulation time through system
Atmospheric water 8.2 days
(0.04% of total fresh water)
Shallow GW (<800m deep) approx. 200 years
(15% of total fresh water)
Deep GW (>800m deep) approx. 10,000 years
(15% of total fresh water)
Importance Groundwater
Important source of clean water

More abundant than SW
Baseflow Linked to SW systems
Sustains flows
in streams
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Development Scenario
• Largest consumer of groundwater in the world

• Meets about 62 % of irrigation demand, 45% of
urban water demand and about 80 % of the
domestic water demand
• Assessment Units (as on31st March, 2013)
Total No. of Assessed Units = 6584
1. Safe = 4520 (68%)
2. Semi Critical = 681 (10%)
3. Critical = 253 (04%)
4. Over-Exploited = 1034 (16%)
5. Saline = 96 (02%)
Source: Dynamic Ground, Water Resources of India, CGWB, 2017
Problems with groundwater

• Groundwater overdraft / mining / subsidence
• Reduction in natural recharge
• Waterlogging
• Seawater intrusion
• Groundwater pollution
• No dedicated programme on groundwater management.
• Unlike surface water, groundwater has not been regulated on a
statewide basis.
• Landowner may extract an unlimited amount of groundwater.
• Groundwater mostly treated as source rather than resources
• In India most groundwater-related interventions are currently part of
other programmes like : watersheds, landscapes, river basins, villages,
blocks, districts, states etc, but aquifers are seldom considered
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Aquifer
 An aquifer is a body of highly permeable rock or
unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) that can
store water and yield sufficient quantities to supply
wells.
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Aquifers System
1 Unconfined Aquifers
2 Confined Aquifers
3 Artesian Aquifers
4 Leaky Aquifers
5 Perched Aquifers
Unconfined Aquifers
Where groundwater is in direct contact with the

atmosphere through the open pore spaces of the overlying
soil or rock, then the aquifer is said to be unconfined. The
upper groundwater surface in an unconfined aquifer is
called the water table.
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Open Well
Hand Pump
Water table
Through the unsaturated zone which water moves downward and
whose pore space is not completely filled. Saturated zone: in which
water collects and whose pore space is completely filled. The plane
of separation between these two zones is the water table.
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Confined Aquifers
Confined aquifers are permeable rock units that are
usually deeper under the ground than unconfined
aquifers. They are overlain by relatively impermeable
rock or clay that limits groundwater movement into, or
out of, the confined aquifer.
Potentiometric/Piezometric surface
An imaginary surface that defines the level to which water in a confined

aquifer would rise were it completely pierced with wells
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Aquifers System
3- Artesian Aquifers
Are confined aquifers but under high pressure.
Water will rise above the ground surface without
pumping
4- Leaky Aquifers
One of the upper or lower confining layers is
semi-permeable
5- Perched Aquifers
Water is collected above a layer of Clay of
limited extension
Provides limited amount of groundwater
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Leaky Aquifers
Artesian Aquifers
Perched Aquifers
Important properties of aquifer media
1. Its capacity to store water
2. Its capacity to release the water held in its pores.
3. Its ability to transmit the flow easily.
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Porosity
Saturation Capacity
Specific Retention
Specific Yield &
Specific Storage
Permeability
Hydraulic conductivity &
Transmissibility
Porosity
 The porosity or pore space is the amount of air space or void

space between soil particles.
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Saturation Capacity
 A saturated soil has all of the pore space filled with

water.
Volume of water
Sat capacity 
Total volume of soil
Under saturation condition

Vol. of water = Vol. of voids
Vol. of voids
Sat capacity   Porosity

Porosity
Saturation Capacity
Specific Retention
Specific Yield &
Specific Storage
Permeability
Transmissibility
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Specific Yield (Sy)

 Specific yield is the ratio of volume of water that drains from a
saturated soil due to gravity to the total volume of soil.
 A sample with smaller grain sizes will have a lower specific yield
because of the Surface Tension.
Volume of water drained by gravity

Sy 
Specific Retention (Sr)

The Specific Retention (Sr) of a rock or soil is the ratio of
the volume of water a rock can retain against gravity to
the total volume of the rock.
Volume of water stored against gravity

Sr 
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Relationship between Porosity, Specific Retention & Specific Yield
Porosity = Specific yield + Specific retention
Specific Storage (Ss)

1 m of water = 9.81 kN/m2
The specific storage is the amount of
water that a portion of an aquifer
releases from storage, per unit volume
of aquifer, per unit change in
hydraulic head, while remaining fully
saturated.
Specific Storage unit L-1
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Storativity or Storage coefficient (S)

Storativity or the storage coefficient is the volume of water released
from storage per unit decline in hydraulic head in the aquifer, per
unit area of the aquifer
1m
1m
1m
S = b Ss
Specific Yield (Sy) Vs Specific Storage (Ss)
Confined Aquifer Unconfined Aquifer

Specific Yield (Sy) = Min =0 Specific Yield (Sy) = Max
Specific Storage (Ss) = Max Specific Storage (Ss) = Min =0
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Porosity
Saturation Capacity
Specific Retention
Specific Yield &
Specific Storage
Permeability
Transmissibility
Permeability (K)
•Engineering property of soils and is a function of the soil
type. Its value depends on the average size of the pores and
is related to the distribution of particle sizes, particle shape
and soil structure.
• Permeability which will permit flow of one centipoise fluid
to flow at linear velocity of one cm per second under a
pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centimetre.
Unit (length)2 or darcy
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Hydraulic conductivity (K)

• Also known as coefficient of permeability
• Units of velocity – metres/sec, metres/day
• Very wide range of values in natural soils and rocks,10-2 to 10-
11 m/s
1m X 1m X 1m
Unit hydraulic gradient

• Hydraulic conductivity is the rate of flow under a unit
hydraulic gradient through a unit cross-sectional area of
aquifer
• It represents both the properties of the porous medium as wells

as the properties of the fluid flowing through the porous
medium
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• It’s a function of properties of both porous media and
the fluid (water, liquid and gasses) passing through it
which represent the specific rate (L / T ) of water
passing through the porous media.
 g 
K k 
k Permeability   
ρ Density of fluid
g Acceleration of gravity and
µ Dynamic viscosity of fluid
Unit of K = length per unit of time (m/sec)
Transmissivity
Its amount of water that can be transmitted horizontally

through a unit width by the full saturated thickness.
T=Kb
b – Thickness of saturated zone/Aquifer thickness
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Porosity
Saturation Capacity
Specific Retention
Specific Yield &
Specific Storage
Permeability
Transmissibility
How Fast Does Groundwater Flow?
Henry Darcy (1803-1858), Hydraulic Engineer. His law

is a foundation stone for several fields of study
 The hydraulic gradient: the slope of the water table/Potentiometric

surface.
 The hydraulic conductivity, is determined by permeability, density,
and viscosity of water.
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Darcy Law
h1  h2 dh
QK A K A
L dL
dh q - Darcy’s velocity/Specific discharge
qK
dL
dh
Q AK  Aq
dL
Darcy velocity is a fictitious velocity since it assumes that

flow occurs across the entire cross-section of the soil sample.
Flow actually takes place only through interconnected pore
channels.
dh
Q AK  Aq
dL
A = total area Av voids
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Darcy velocity is a fictitious velocity since it assumes that

flow occurs across the entire cross-section of the soil sample.
Flow actually takes place only through interconnected pore
channels.
dh
Q AK  Aq
dL
dh
q  K
dL
q K dh
V 
A = total area Av voids   dL
Darcy’s velocity/Specific discharge
dh
qK
dL
Seepage Velocity /GW flow velocity
q K dh
V 
  dL
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Assumptions in Darcy’s law

1. Steady state flow, under laminar regime i.e. Qin = Qout
2. Viscous flow - rate of flow directly proportional to pressure
gradient
3. The flowing fluid is incompressible.
4. Porous media 100% saturated with fluid which flowed
5. Fluid and porous media not reacting
6. The flow through soil is laminar (Rey. no < 10).
7. The formation is homogeneous and isotropic: same porosity,
same permeability and same fluid properties
In an unconfined aquifer extending over 4 km2, the

water table was initially at 26 m below the ground
surface. Sometime after a depth of recharge 20 cm
(full irrigation), the water table rises to a depth of
25.5 m below the ground surface. Afterward
1.5X106 m3 of groundwater was withdrawn from
this aquifer, which lowered the water table to 27.5
m below the ground surface. Determine the specific
yield and specific retention of the aquifer.
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Porosity (Φ) = Specific yield (Sy)+ Specific retention (Sr)
Specific retention (Sr) = Porosity (Φ) - Specific yield (Sy)

Vol of Voids(Vv )
Porosity ( )=
Total Volume of Soil(Vt )
Volume of water drained by gravity
 
Specific yield S y 
GROUND WATER MODELING
Groundwater models may be used to predict the effects of

hydrological changes (like groundwater abstraction or
irrigation developments) on the behavior of the aquifer and
are often named groundwater simulation models.
WHY MODEL?
•To make predictions about a ground-water system’s

response to a stress
•To understand the system
•To design field studies
•Use as a thinking tool
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Models for Groundwater flow analysis
Models for Groundwater flow analysis
1. Regional Study
2. Localized Study - Well Hydraulics
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Well Hydraulics
Wells
• Well - a deep hole dug or drilled into the ground to obtain water from
an aquifer
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Well Hydraulics
Pumping Well Terminology
 Static Water Level (ho) is the equilibrium

water level before pumping commences
 Pumping Water Level (h) is the water

level at any point during pumping
Q
 Drawdown (s = ho - h) is the difference
between SWL and PWL at any point
s  Well Yield (Q) is the volume of water
pumped per unit time
ho
 Specific Capacity (Q/s) is the yield per unit
drawdown
h
 Specific Drawdown (s/Q) is the drawdown
per unit discharge
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Cone of Depression
 A zone of low pressure is created centred on the pumping
well
 Drawdown is a maximum at the well and reduces radially
 Head gradient decreases away from the well and the
pattern resembles an inverted cone called the cone of
depression
 The cone expands over time until the inflows (from
various boundaries) match the well extraction
 The shape of the equilibrium cone is controlled by
hydraulic conductivity
Well Hydraulics
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Unconfined Aquifer
Confined Aquifer
Cone of Depression
High K aquifer
Low K aquifer
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Aquifer Characteristics
 Pump tests allow estimation of transmission and storage

characteristics of aquifers
 Transmissivity (T = Kb) is the rate of flow through a vertical

strip of aquifer (thickness b) of unit width under a unit
hydraulic gradient
 Storage Coefficient (S = Ssb) is storage change per unit

volume of aquifer per unit change in head
 Radius of Influence (R) for a well is the maximum

horizontal extent of the cone of depression when the well is
in equilibrium with inflows
Importance of well hydraulics

 Groundwater withdrawal from aquifer are important to
meet water demand. Therefore, we need to understand
well hydraulics to design a pumping strategy that is
sufficient to furnish the adequate amount of water.
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Importance of well hydraulics

 Selection of appropriate drilling methods
 Selection of appropriate completion materials
 Selection of motor and pump
 Protect sea water intrusion
 Protect from contamination
 Simulate future scenario
 Study interaction with other well near to it
 Safe ground water withdrawal
 Analysis and interpretation of well and aquifer
performance.
Types of flow in well hydraulics

1. Unsteady flow
 Drawdown at a location constant w r t time
 Velocity, water level constant w r t time
 Well discharge constant
2. Steady flow
 Drawdown at a location constant vary with time
 Velocity, water level constant vary with time
 Well discharge may/not constant
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Steady flow
to a well in a confined aquifer
to a well in an unconfined aquifer
Unsteady flow
to a well in a leaky aquifer

Steady flow
Unsteady flow
to a well in a leaky aquifer
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Steady flow towards a well in a confined aquifer

Thiems equation
Steady flow towards a well in an unconfined

aquifer
Dupits equation
Thiems equation
h1 h2
B
r2
Q = Constant discharge from the wel

B – Thickness of the aquifer
Darcy's law dh
QK A
dr
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Thiems equation
Q = Constant discharge from the well
Area of flow (A) = 2πr * B

dh dh dh
QK A  K  2 rB  2 rT
dr dr dr
Thiems equation
Q  r  2.303 Q r 
S ( r )  h2  h1  ln  2   log  2 
2 T  r1  2 T  r1 
If r2 = R (radius of influence) ; h2 = H
Q R
S (r )  H  h1  ln  
2 BK  r1 
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aquifer : Dupits equation
Confined Aquifer Unconfined Aquifer

aquifer : Dupits equation
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Dupits equation
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Dupits equation
h1
h
H
h2 r1
r2
Q = Constant discharge from the wel

B – Thickness of the aquifer
Darcy's law dh
QK A
dr
Area of flow (A) = 2πr * h
dh dh
QK A  K  2 rh
dr dr
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dh
Q  K  2 rh
dr
Re-arranging the above equation
Q dr
 hdh
2 K r
Q dr
hdh 
2 K r
Dupits equation
Observation well
Pumping well
Q  r2  2.303Q r 
h22  h12  ln    log  2 
 K  r1  K  r1 
h22  h12  (h2  h1 )(h2  h1 )
Q r 
S ( r )  h2  h1  ln  2 
 K (h2  h1 )  r1 
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Thiem Equation Assumptions
• Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic

• Aquifer is horizontal and have infinite horizontal extent
• Pumping well fully penetrates and receives water from the
entire thickness of the aquifer
• Hy. conductivity is constant in space and time
• Pumping has continued at a constant rate long enough for
steady state
• Ground-water flow is horizontal and symmetrical about well
axis
• Darcy's law is valid
• No other pumping/recharge
• Flow is laminar
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Dupits Equation Assumptions

• Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic
• Aquifer is horizontal and have infinite horizontal extent
• Pumping well fully penetrates and receives water from
the entire thickness of the aquifer
• Hy. conductivity is constant in space and time
• Pumping has continued at a constant rate long enough for
steady state
• Ground-water flow is horizontal and symmetrical
about well axis
• Darcy's law is valid
• No other pumping/recharge
• Flow is laminar
Dupits Equation Assumptions
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Darcy’s velocity/Specific discharge
dh
qK
dL
Seepage Velocity /GW flow velocity
q K dh
V 
  dL
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Unconfined aquifers: Dupits equation
Q  r2 
(h22  h12 )  ln  
 K  r1 
Q r 
h2  h1  ln  2 
 (h2  h1 ) K  r1 
Q R
H 2  h12  ln  
 K  r1 
Q R
H  h1  ln  
 ( H  h1 ) K  r1 
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Confined aquifers
Thiem Equation
Q r 
(h2  h1 )  ln  2 
2 BK  r1 
Q R
H  h1  ln  
2 BK  r1 
A well of diameter 300 mm fully penetrates an

unconfined aquifer having a static water level 50 m
above the aquifer bottom. Constant drawdown values of
1.7 m and 0.8 m are noted at the two observation wells
located at 15 m (towards west direction) and 45 m
(towards north direction) respectively from the pumping
well, which is pumped continuously at the rate of 2592
m3/day. Assume steady state condition, determine the
following:
1. Field hydraulic conductivity of aquifer.
2. Water table elevation and drawdown at pumping
well.
3. Minimum radial distance of zero drawdown
boundary.
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Radius of well = rw= 150 mm =0.15 m

Static water level = H = 50 m
Q = 2592 m3/day
Observation wells
r1 = 15 m , Drawdown = 1.7 m; h1 = 50 - 1.7 = 48.3 m
r2 = 45 m , Drawdown = 0.8 m; h2 = 50 – 0.8 = 49.2 m
1. Field hydraulic conductivity of aquifer (K).

Q  r2 
(h22  h12 )  ln  
 K  r1 
Q  r2 
K ln  
 (h22  h12 )  r1 
Q = 2592 m3/day
Observation wells
r1 = 15 m , h1 = 50 - 1.7 = 48.3 m
r2 = 45 m , h2 = 50 – 0.8 = 49.2 m
2592  45 
K ln    10.33 m / day
 (49.2  48.3 )  15 
2 2
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Water table elevation and drawdown at pumping well
Diameter of well = 300 mm

Q = 2592 m3/day ; K=10.33 m/day
Observation wells Q  r2 
(h22  h12 )  ln  
r1 = rw= 0.15 m , h1 = ???  K  r1 
r2 = 45 m , h2 = 50 – 0.8 = 49.2 m

Q = 2592 m3/day ; K=10.33 m/day
Observation wells
r1 = rw= 0.15 m , h1 = ???
r2 = 45 m , h2 = 50 – 0.8 = 49.2 m
Q  r2 
(h22  h12 )  ln  
 K  r1 
2592  45 
(49.22  h12 )  ln 
 10.33  0.15 
(49.22  h12 )  455.562

h1 = 44.33 m
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Water table elevation at pumping well = 44.33 m
Drawdown at pumping well = 44.33 –H = 44.33 - 50
Drawdown at pumping well = 5.67 m
Minimum radial distance of zero drawdown boundary
Q = 2592 m3/day ; K=10.33 m/day

Observation wells
r1 = 15 m , h1 = 48.3 m Q  r2 
(h22  h12 )  ln  
r2 = 45 m , h2 = 49.2 m  K  r1 
r3 = R, h3 = H = 50m
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Minimum radial distance of zero drawdown boundary
Q = 2592 m3/day ; K=10.33 m/day

Observation wells Q  r2 
r1 = 15 m , h1 = 48.3 m ( h 2
 h 2
)  ln  
 K  r1 
2 1
r2 = r3 = R=??, h2= h3 = H = 50
2592 R
(502  48.32 )  ln  
 10.33  15 
R
2.092  ln  
 15 
2.092  ln  R   ln 15  R = 121. 5 m
The following observations were recorded during a pumping

test on a tube well penetrating fully in an unconfined aquifer:
Well diameter = 250 mm
Yield of the well = 300 m3/hr
R.L of original water surface, before pumping started = 122 m
R.L of water in the well at constant pumping = 117.1 m
R.L of water in the observation well = 121.3 m
R.L of bottom impervious layer = 92.0 m
Radial distance of observation well from the pumping well = 50 m
Determine the following:
1) Field hydraulic conductivity of aquifer and
2) Radius of influence of the well
3) Water table elevation and drawdown at radial distance 25
m from pumping well
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RL = 122m
RL = 117.1 m
H
RL = 92m
Diameter of well = 250 mm Radius of well = 125 mm

Q = 300 m3/hr ;
H = 122 - 92 = 30 m
Pumping wells
r1 = rw = 0.125 m ; h1 = 117.1 - 92 = 25.1 m
RL = 122m
RL = 121.3 m
RL = 92m
Q = 300 m3/hr ;
H = 122 - 92 = 30 m
Pumping wells
r1 = rw = 0.125 m ; h1 = 117.1 - 92 = 25.1 m
Observation well
r2 = 50 m ; h2 = 121.3 - 92 = 29.3m
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RL = 122m
RL = 121.3 m
RL = 92m
Q  r2 
(h22  h12 )  ln  
Q = 300 m3/hr ;  K  r1 
Pumping wells
r1 = rw = 0.125 m ; h1 = 117.1 - 92 = 25.1 m
Observation well
r2 = 50 m ; h2 = 121.3 - 92 = 29.3m K = ??
RL = 122m
RL = 121.3 m
RL = 92m
Q  r2 
Q = 300 m3/hr ;
(h22  h12 )  ln  
 K  r1 
Pumping wells
r1 = rw = 0.125 m ; h1 = 117.1 - 92 = 25.1 m
Observation well
r2 = R=?? ; h2 = H= 30 m R = ??
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RL = 122m
RL = 121.3 m
RL = 92m
Q  r2 
Q = 300 m3/hr ;
(h22  h12 )  ln  
 K  r1 
Pumping wells
r1 = rw = 0.125 m ; h1 = 117.1 - 92 = 25.1 m
Observation well
r2 = 25=?? ; h2 = ? h2 = ??
A 150 mm diameter tube well fully penetrates a 30m

thick confined aquifer, and is pumped at a certain
rate to yield a drawdown of 2.6 m. If permeability
coefficient of aquifer material is 30 m/day and
drawdown insignificant after radial distance 300 m
from well. Determine the discharge from the well.
Also determine difference of water level at two
observation wells located at redial distances 5 m and
20 m.
Q r  Q r 
(h2  h1 )  ln  2   ln  2 
2 T  r1  2 BK  r1 
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A 150 mm diameter tube well fully penetrates a 30m thick confined aquifer, and is pumped at a certain rate
to yield a drawdown of 2.6 m. If permeability coefficient of aquifer material is 30 m/day and drawdown
insignificant after radial distance 300 m from well. Determine the discharge from the well. Also determine
difference of water level at two observation wells located at redial distances 5 m and 20 m.
Diameter of well = 150 mm; Radius of well = rw=0.075m

B =30 m ; K = 30 m/day
Drawdown at well = 2.6 m
Radius of influence = R= 300 m
2.6 m
B =30 m
Discharge from the pumping well?

Radius of well = rw=0.075m
B =30 m; K = 30 m/day
Drawdown at well = 2.6 m Q r 
Radius of influence = R= 300 m (h2  h1 )  ln  2 
2 BK  r1 
r1= rw = 0.075 m ; h1= (H - 2.6) m
r2= 300 m ; h2= H m
(h2  h1 )
Q 2 BK
 r2 
H ln  
 r1 
51
10/9/2022
Discharge from the pumping well?

B =30 m; K = 30 m/day
r1= rw = 0.075 m ; h1= (H - 2.6) m
r2= 300 m ; h2= H m
Q
(h2  h1 )
2 BK 
 H  ( H  2.6)   2  30  30
r   300 
ln  2  ln  
r
 1  0.075 
2.6
  2  30  30  1772.67
 300 
ln  
 0.075 
Discharge = Q = 1772.67 m3/day
Difference of water level at two observation wells located at

redial distances 5 m and 20 m
B =30 m; K = 30 m/day : Q = 1772.67 m3/day
r1= 5 m ; h1= h1 m Q r 
(h2  h1 )  ln  2 
r2= 20 m ; h2= h2 m 2 BK  r1 
1772.67  20 
(h2  h1 )  ln  
2  30  30  5 
(h2  h1 )  0.436 m
Difference of water level at two observation wells located at
redial distances 5 m and 20 m = 0.436 m
52

Module 4 Groundwater

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10/9/2022

Module - 4 Ground Water

…. as part of the water cycle

Volume of water stored in the water cycle's reservoirs

Reservoir Volume of water Percent

Circulation and residence times of groundwater

Important source of clean water

Baseflow Linked to SW systems

• Largest consumer of groundwater in the world

Source: Dynamic Ground, Water Resources of India, CGWB, 2017

Problems with groundwater

Where groundwater is in direct contact with the

An imaginary surface that defines the level to which water in a confined

Important properties of aquifer media

1. Its capacity to store water

2. Its capacity to release the water held in its pores.

3. Its ability to transmit the flow easily.

Important properties of aquifer media

 The porosity or pore space is the amount of air space or void

 A saturated soil has all of the pore space filled with

Under saturation condition

Important properties of aquifer media

Specific Yield (Sy)

Volume of water drained by gravity

Specific Retention (Sr)

Volume of water stored against gravity

Relationship between Porosity, Specific Retention & Specific Yield

Porosity = Specific yield + Specific retention

Specific Storage (Ss)

Specific Storage unit L-1

Storativity or Storage coefficient (S)

Specific Yield (Sy) Vs Specific Storage (Ss)

Confined Aquifer Unconfined Aquifer

Important properties of aquifer media

Unit (length)2 or darcy

Hydraulic conductivity (K)

Hydraulic conductivity (K)

• It represents both the properties of the porous medium as wells

Hydraulic conductivity (K)

Unit of K = length per unit of time (m/sec)

Its amount of water that can be transmitted horizontally

b – Thickness of saturated zone/Aquifer thickness

Important properties of aquifer media

How Fast Does Groundwater Flow?

Henry Darcy (1803-1858), Hydraulic Engineer. His law

 The hydraulic gradient: the slope of the water table/Potentiometric

Darcy velocity is a fictitious velocity since it assumes that

A = total area Av voids

Darcy velocity is a fictitious velocity since it assumes that

Darcy’s velocity/Specific discharge

Seepage Velocity /GW flow velocity

Assumptions in Darcy’s law

In an unconfined aquifer extending over 4 km2, the

Porosity (Φ) = Specific yield (Sy)+ Specific retention (Sr)

Specific retention (Sr) = Porosity (Φ) - Specific yield (Sy)

GROUND WATER MODELING

Groundwater models may be used to predict the effects of

•To make predictions about a ground-water system’s

•To understand the system

•To design field studies

•Use as a thinking tool

Models for Groundwater flow analysis