UNIVERSITY OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

Subject: Anatomy and Physiology

Review Material

CELL STRUCTURE

• Organelles:

- specialized structures in cells that perform specific functions

- Ex. Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, etc.

• Cytoplasm:

Location: inside cell

Characteristic: jelly-like fluid

Function: give cell shape and hold organelles in place

• Nucleus

Location: center of cell

Characteristic: all cells contain nucleus at some point

Function: houses DNA, produce ribosomes

• Nuclear envelope:

Function: protects the nucleus

• Nuclear pores:

Location: surface of nucleus

Function: where materials pass in and out of nucleus

• Chromosome

Location: inside nucleus

Characteristic: made of DNA and proteins

Function: part of genetic makeup

• RER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum)

Location: cytoplasm

Characteristic: membranes with ribosomes attached

 Function: site of protein synthesis (pancreas)

• SER (Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum)

Location: cytoplasm

Characteristic: membranes with no ribosomes

Function: site of lipid synthesis (Ex. Cholesterol- testis), Detoxifies drugs and pesticides (liver)

• Ribosome

Location: attached to RER or cytoplasm

Function: produce proteins

• Golgi apparatus

Location: cytoplasm

Characteristic: closely, packed stacks of membranes

Function: collect, sort, package, and distribute proteins and lipids (mucus-pancreas)

• Secretory vesicle

Location: cytoplasm

Function: distributes materials out of cell

• Lysosome

Location: cytoplasm

Function: enzymes that digest foreign material (phagocytes)

• Peroxisomes

Location: cytoplasm

Function: enzymes that detoxifies alcohol and formaldehyde and disarm free radical

(free radicals- H2O2 – catalase- H2O), (liver and kidneys)

• Mitochondria

Location: cytoplasm

Characteristic: contains folds (cristae)

Function: produces ATP

• Cilia
 Location: cell surface

Characteristic: many per cell

Function: move materials across cell’s surface

• Flagella

Location: cell surface

Characteristic: 1 per cell

Function: move cell, Ex. Sperm

• Microvilli

Location: cell surface

Characteristic: shorter than cilia

Function: increase surface area

CYTOSKELETON

• What is it?

- cell’s framework

- made of proteins

• Functions:

- provide support

- hold organelles in place

- enable cell to change shape

TYPES OF CYTOSKELETON

Microtubules:

- largest diameter

- provide structural support

- form cilia and flagella

Intermediate filaments:

- medium diameter

- maintain cell shape

- help form chromosome

Microfilaments:
 - smallest diameter

- involved in cell movement

Centrioles:

- microtubules

- produce the mitotic spindle fiber

WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY

• A cell’s characteristics are determined by the type of proteins produced

• Proteins’ function is determined by genetics

• Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular processes

DNA

• What is it?

- double helix in nucleus

- composed of nucleotides

- contains 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose, nitrogen base, phosphate)

FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION

• Also called Central Dogma

• Occurs in three stages:

– DNA replication

– Transcription

– Translation

GENE EXPRESSION

• What is it?

- information in DNA directs protein synthesis

- proteins provide code for gene expression

- enzymes regulate chemical reactions

- uses transcription and translation

 TRANSCRIPTION

• What is it?

- process by which DNA is “read”

- occurs in ribosomes

- produces mRNA (messenger RNA)

- mRNA contains codons

- codons: set of 3 nucleotide bases that code for a particular amino acid

TRANSLATION

• What is it?

- process by mRNA is converted into amino acids (polypeptides)

- produces proteins

- codons pair with anticodons

- anticodons: 3 nucleotide bases carried by tRNA

CELL DIVISION

• What is it?

- formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent cell

- uses mitosis and meiosis

- each cell (except sperm and egg) contains 46 chromosomes (diploid)

- sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes

MITOSIS

• What is it?

- cell division that occurs in all cells except sex cells

- forms 2 daughter cells

COMPONENTS OF MITOSIS

• Chromatid:

2 strands of chromosomes that are genetically identical

• Centromere:

where 2 chromatids are connected

• Centrioles:
 small organelle composed of 9 triplets

STAGES IN MITOSIS

1. Interphase:

- time between cell divisions

- DNA is in strands (chromatin)

- DNA replication occurs

2. Prophase:

- chromatin condenses into chromosomes

- centrioles move to opposite ends

3. Metaphase:

chromosomes align

4. Anaphase:

- chromatids separate to form 2 sets of chromosomes

- chromosomes move towards centrioles

5. Telophase:

- chromosomes disperse

- nuclear envelopes and nucleoli form

- cytoplasm divides to form 2 cells

CELL MEMBRANE

• What is it?

outermost component of a cell

• Functions:

- selective barrier

- encloses cytoplasm

• Extracellular: material outside cell

• Intracellular: material inside cell

 STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE

• Called Fluid Mosaic Model

• Made of phospholipids and proteins

• Phospholipids form a double layer or bilayer

• Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and nonpolar

Polar regions:

- “heads”

- hydrophilic (H2O loving)

- exposed to H2O

Nonpolar regions:

- “tails”

- hydrophobic (H2O fearing)

- away from H2O

OTHER PARTS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

1. Proteins 2. Glycoproteins

- binding sites - glycocalyx

- Blood type
- receptors - Receptors (bacteria, viruses, and toxins)
- Transport - Cell-to-cell recognition and interaction

MOVEMENT THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE

• Cell membrane selectively determines what can pass in and out of the cell.
• Enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in higher concentrations INSIDE the cell.

• Sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher concentrations OUTSIDE the cell.

WAYS MOLECULES PASS THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE

1. Directly through the bilayer membrane (diffusion):

-O2 and CO2 (small molecules)

2. Membrane channels:

- proteins that extend from one side of cell membrane to other

- size, shape, and charge (+/-) determine what can go through

- Ex. Na+ passes through Na+ channels

3. Carrier molecules:

- bind to molecules, transport them across, and drop them off

- Ex. glucose

4. Vesicles:

- can transport a variety of materials

- fuse with cell membrane

A. Diffusion

• What is it?

movement of molecules from areas of high to low concentration

• Solution:

solid, liquid, or gas that contains one or more solutes

• Solute:

substance added to solvent that dissolves

• Solvent:

substance such as H2O that solute is being added to

Ex. Add salt to H2O. H2O =solvent, salt=solute, mixture=solution

• Concentration gradient:
 - measures conc. difference at 2 points

- greater the distance the faster the solute will travel

• Filtration:

• movement of fluid through a partition with holes

Mediated Transport Mechanisms

• Facilitated diffusion:

- diffusion with aid of a carrier molecule

- requires no ATP

• Active transport:

- moves substances from low to high conc.

- requires ATP

- Ex. Sodium-potassium pump

OSMOSIS

• What is it?

diffusion of water across a cell membrane

• Osmotic pressure:

force required to prevent movement of water across cell membrane

TYPES OF OSMOTIC SOLUTIONS

• Hypotonic solution:

- lower conc. of solutes outside cell

- higher conc. of H2O outside cell

- H2O moves into cell

- lysis (burst)

• Hypertonic solution:

- higher conc. of solutes outside cell

 - higher conc. H2O inside cell

- H2O moves out

- crenation (shrinks)

• Isotonic solution:

- equal conc. of solutes

- water doesn’t move

- cell remains intact

ENDOCYTOSIS

• What is it?

process that brings materials into cell using vesicles

• 2 types

- Phagocytosis:

cell eating (solid particles) - phagocytes

- Pinocytosis:

cell drinking (liquid particles) – intestine