ADVANCED BUILDING CONSTRUCTION II

FINISHING BUILDING WORKS

INTRODUCTION

The finishing works in building is the concluding stage of construction, and in many cases, it is the
overall quality of a building or structure being put into service, which depends on the quality of its
execution. Several types of finishes can be based on the materials used, environmental conditions and
costs.

There are two basic types of finishes applied to the building fabric i.e. those inherent in the material and
those applied to a background. The inherent finishes are the type of finishes which provide a natural
finish without any need for further work. Examples of such materials are timber, stone, brick and glass;
while the applied finishes is the application of materials to existing backgrounds, such as plaster to a
wall or paint to timber. The durability of the finish will depend upon the material properties of the finish
and the material it is applied to, as well as the bond between the two materials.

Building finishes comprise of plastering, pointing, painting, varnishing, white and colour washing or
distempering. These finishes fundamentally form a protective coating to the disclosed surface and
thereby increase the life span of the materials. These finishes protect the building from adverse weather
conditions and also add beauty to the building.

A) PLASTERING: Buildings or any structure will only have a character based on the application of
different plastering options. Plastering, which is also known as render, is an important aspect in
construction and plays a vital role in the aesthetics of a building. Whether you’re restoring an old edifice
or designing new walls and ceilings for a specific effect, the main essence of plastering is to protect
moisture intrusion.

Therefore, “Plastering is the process of covering uneven and sharp surfaces of the multiple
components of a building with a plastic material like mortar which is also known as plaster”. It
further provides a base for receiving other decorative finishes such as painting, white-washing, etc.

Objectives of plastering:
i) To give a uniform and durable finished surface.
ii) To qualify the external surfaces to combat the atmospheric influence particularly the
penetration of water.
iii) To ensure that dust and dirt cannot lodge on the internal surfaces and also to protect it from
vermin.
iv) To create a good surface for taking colours wash or paint.

Types of Plaster based on material used:

i) Lime Plaster: Lime plaster is a mixture that consists of lime and sand on certain proportions or
volume. This mixture can be used both as an undercoat and as finishing coat. The significant downside
of lime plaster is shrinking after drying. To prevent shrinkage and the plaster from cracking, animal or
synthetic hair is added to the lime mixture. Lime is also known for being a well-suited material for the
restoration of ancient and historical buildings. Due to its many attributes, lime plaster is one of the most
durable building materials and that is why it is preferred in many masonry restorations.

Main characteristics of lime plaster:

i) Protect stone and brick.
ii) Allows paints and plaster to breathe.
iii) Can last for a hundred years.
iv) Enhances the stability of walls by keeping them from moisture.
v) Flexible and soft.
vi) Has better adhesive strength.
ii) Cement Plaster: Cement plaster is used for interior and exterior surfaces. It is composed of grey
powder cement mixed with sand and water for solid background and fillers for hollow blocks. White
cement, however, provides an ideal finish for cement plastered walls.

Main characteristics of cement plaster:

i) Good adhesion strength.
ii) Highly resistant to abrasion.
iii) Non-toxic and suits all types of paints.
iv) Needs ventilation to harden.
v) Should be kept far from fire hazards.
vi) Should be mixed well to attain a smooth finish.

iii) Gypsum Plaster: Gypsum plaster is made of mineral rocks rich in calcium sulphate. It is also known
as the Plaster of Paris. Using fine ground gypsum mixed with water, gypsum plastering is highly
preferred over cement in many ways.

Main characteristics of gypsum plaster:

i) More pliable and manipulated.
ii) Lightweight.
iii) Does not need to be mixed with sand.
vi) Gives a smooth finish.
v) Prevents shrinkage.
vi) Acts as a barrier and protects the block work from the fire.
vii) Perfect rust-preventive agent.
viii) Direct painting can be applied.
ix) Environment-friendly.

Types of Plaster Finishes:

In any construction or home improvement, rough ceilings and walls need to be rendered to provide a
smoothness or appealing surface using different designs. For this purpose, it is vital to know the different
types of plasters applied on surfaces.

EXTERNAL FINISHES
External finishes refers to materials which are applied to the exterior surface of an enclosure
or a building envelope. An external wall finish is the first line of defense against the weather elements.
It is the l ast physi cal element i n bui l di ng that recei ves the activiti es of cl i matic factor s
such as rai n, sunshine and air. They are therefore supposed to be weather resistant to elongate their
life span.

Here are some of the external finishes that are available :

* Smooth cast finish;
* Rough cast finish;
* Sand faced finish;
* Pebble dash finish;
* Scrapped finish;
* Depeter finish; and
* Textured finish.
1. Smooth cast finish: This finish is similar to rough-cast finish and provides a smooth surface due to
the use of fine-grained sand.

2. Rough cast finish: This type of finish is also called a Spatter-dash finish. This plaster is of proportion
1:3 with one part cement and three parts of coarse-grained sand by volume. The mortar is dashed
against the surface by a large trowel and is roughly finished by the light movements of a wooden float.

3. Sand Faced Plaster Finish: This type of finish contains two coats. The first coat is carried out in
cement mortar of proportion 1:4 that includes 1 part of cement and 4 parts of clean coarse and angular
river sand by volume. The second coat is of 1:1 plaster and the thickness is 8mm and sand used should
be of uniform size. The surface should be kept well wetted at least for 15 days of completion.

4. Pebble Dash Plaster Finish: This type of finish is also known as Dry-dash finish, which is of 12mm
thickness. Above this plaster, small pebbles or crushed stones of suitable sizes (10 – 20mm) are cast
and left exposed. The pebbles are sometimes lightly pressed into the mortar after throwing to gain a
good amount of aesthetic determination.

5. Scrapped finish: In this type of finish, the terminal coat of mortar is left to become firm for a few
hours. This finish is a rough finish and is less liable to the cracks.

6. Depeter Plaster Finish: This finish is also similar to rough-cast finish except that when the coat is
wet, pieces of gravel or flint are pressed with hand on the surface.

7. Textured finish: In this type of finish, the final coat of plaster is made of ornamental patterns or
textured surfaces like ribbed stucco or fan textures.

INTERNAL WALL FINISHES: It is important to note that there are different types of interior wall
finishes materials that can be used in addition to the aesthetics and value of your property. Below are
some of the interior wall finishes materials.

1. Wood Panelling: Wood Panelling is one of the numerous interior wall finishes material you can use.
It is a decorative treatment done with the wooden panels of a wall in various designs. The material is
often used on plywood and wood covered with veneer or laminate.

2. Tile Cladding: This is one of the most common interior wall finishing materials used in decorating
homes or offices. There are different kinds of tiles, for example, granite, marble, glazed tiles etc. The
selection of the type you want to use for your property is often dependent on the place where it is to be
applied. They are also available in variety of shapes and colours.

3. Flakes Finish: It is a special material used to enhance the elevation treatment of the building. The
flakes finish is majorly used for the exterior facade. It has also been used for the interiors but to a very
small extent. The flakes are applied with a trowel on walls over a coat of adhesive.

4. Canfor Finish: This type of interior wall finish is often used for residential apartments, and it is also
known as faux finish. It adds a unique aesthetic appeal to any structure that it is used in. It comes in
6mm thickness and in different designs. It gives a stone wall or brick wall effect.

5. Coral Finish: The Coral finish material is similar to other kinds of interior wall finishes like the
Plaster of Paris Finish and Gypsum Plaster Finish. It, however, gives a rough edgy finish when applied.

6. Sand Textured Finish: Sand textured finish is another type of interior wall finish used to give fine
texture to the walls. This wall finish is not very commonly used because of its grains coming out. It is
however commonly used for ceilings.

7. Stained Glass Finish: Another type of interior wall finishes is the Stained Glass Finish, and it usually
involves a lot of creative work. The glass is decorated with itching, frosting, glass pasting and finally
colouring with suitable colours according to the theme. The stained glass panels are used on walls and
ceilings.

B) POINTING: Pointing refers to the finishing of mortar joints in masonry, be it stone or brick. It is
however, the implementing of joints to a depth of 10mm to 20mm and filling it with better quality mortar
in desired shape.

Types of Pointing:
The choice of particular type of pointing depends upon the type of masonry, nature of the structure and
the nature of the finish desired. The various types of pointing commonly used are described below:
1. Flush Pointing.
2. Cut or Weathered or Struck Pointing.
3. Keyed or Grooved Pointing.
4. V-grooved Pointing.
5. Tuck Pointing.
6. Beaded Pointing.
7. Recessed pointing.

Flush Pointing: Flush pointing is achieved when mortar is pressed hard in the raked joints, and
finished off flush with the edge of masonry units. The edges are then neatly trimmed with a trowel and
straight edge. The flush joint helps bridge any height differences between adjacent bricks or stones,
and prevents water and dirt from collecting in any low spots.

Cut or Weathered or Struck Pointing: Weathered pointing is a modification of flush pointing. The
face of the pointing is kept inclined, with its upper edge pressed inside the face by about 10mm.
Weathered pointing throws off rain water and is considered fairly durable; however, it’s fairly difficult to
achieve.

Keyed or Grooved Pointing: In this type of pointing, the mortar is pressed into the raked joints and
finished off flush with the face of the wall. While the pressed mortar is still green, a groove is formed by
running the bent end of a small steel rod (6mm in diameter) straight along the center line of the joints.

V-grooved Pointing: This type of pointing is made similar to keyed or grooved pointing by suitably
shaping the end of the steel rod to be used for forming the groove.

Tuck Pointing: In this type of pointing, the mortar is first pressed in the raked joints and after which it
is finished flush with the face of the wall. While the pressed mortar is still green, the top and bottom
edges of the joints are cut parallel so as to have a uniformly raised band about 6mm high and 10mm in
width.

Beaded Pointing: Beaded pointing is used almost exclusively in historical restorations. This joint looks
like a raised bead on top of a flush joint. Beaded joints can be much more noticeable, making the mortar
joints part of the structure’s visual aesthetic.

Recessed pointing: This is sometimes referred to as raked joints, and is formed when the mortar joint
is raked back to a certain depth from the face of the brick. The mortar is first made flush with the brick
and then raked out to the desired depth.
C) PAINTING: The final finishing of all surfaces such as walls, ceilings, woodwork, metalwork, etc. is
necessary to make them look good and also for their protection from moisture, termites etc. So
according to the nature of the surface and the finishing required, the surface should be coated with
different types of paints. Paint is a solution of a pigment in water, oil, or organic solvent, used to cover
wood or metal articles either for protection or for appearance. For different surfaces, different types of
paints from different companies are used.

Painting is normally carried out for the following reasons:

* Protecting surfaces from insects, rain, solar radiation and other external factors;
* Increasing the visual appeal of a surface;
* Water proofing;
* Increasing surface durability.

Factors to be considered when selecting paint for a particular application:

Before selecting the type of paint for a specific application, its physical properties must be considered.
A good paint will offer the following benefits:

• Ease of application
• Reasonable drying period;
• Forming a thin film without cracking;
• Forming a hard and durable coating;
• Its performance should not be affected by the weather; and
• Not harmful for users

Types of Paint: There is a wide range of paint available but for most general uses, the following can
be considered:

a) Oil Base Paint: The most commonly used paint is the paint that has oil as a vehicle. Oil paints may
be secured ready-mixed, in white or in color, or they may be mixed on the job.

Oil paints are applied in two or more coats. In two-coat work, each coat must be heavy to cover and
protect the backing. Three-coat work is better, as it can be built up with thinner coats, giving better
coverage and protection.

The surface finish may be either brushed smooth so that there are no irregularities, or it may be specially
treated in the finishing coat.

b) Water-Based Paints: Water-base paints are of two types: those which can be mixed with cold water
and those which must be mixed with hot or boiling water. The latter, as a rule, are called calcimine
paints. Both types usually have an admixture of lime in some form, sometimes combined with gypsum
or other ingredients. The most common form of cold-water paint is whitewash, which consists of lime
and water to which salt and finely ground ingredients are sometimes added to give better coverage and
longer life.

Water-based paints are generally applied in flat coats which have a mat finish. While sometimes used
in finished water-base paints are more suitable for factories, stores, and meeting rooms, where they
can be advantageously used to secure clean, light-reflecting walls, especially over masonry units. You
can obtain water-base paints in a limited range of colors. Some of the water-base paints can be applied
directly over wallpaper.
c) Cement Paint: To give a new look for concrete and other cement-based materials, cement paint is
the perfect answer. It is a special paint coatings made for masonry and cement-based materials,
including concrete, mortar (and brick), concrete block and stucco. Not only it adds to the aesthetics of
the wall but also provides a waterproofing coating and can supplement the role of putty.

d) Texture paints: These are used to create desired visual effects on the walls by the use of brushes,
rollers, putty knives, trowels and other applications, which a variety of patterns can be created. Other
paints can be applied on the textures to create desired effects. Sometimes, texture paints are tinted
prior to application, giving the desired colour. Texture paints also help in covering undulations and
levelling surfaces.

e) Enamel Paints: Enamel paints are hard, washable and usually glossy paints. They can be oil-based
or alkyd-based and come in several sheens; from eggshell or low-luster to satin, semi-gloss and high-
gloss. Their find application is not only on metal surfaces but also on interior walls and wooden surfaces.

f) Texture Paint: Texture paint is made with a heavy body, with either an oil or water base, combined
with finely ground minerals to produce a thick paint. You can apply texture paints with either brush or
trowel.

Texture paints can be colored as desired and several colors can be combined and worked on the wall
to secure a variegated effect. In using texture paints, you should always follow carefully the
manufacturer’s recommendations.

g) Casein Paint: Casein paint is a water-thinned paint in which the vehicle is a milk protein called
casein. The pigments used in this type of paint include whiting and lithopone as well as those pigments
required to give the desired color. Normally, the paint is clear white, but you can obtain it in almost any
color. It comes in either paste or powder form and is mixed with water on the job and applied with a
brush.

In applying casein paints, your first coat should be a primer recommended by the manufacturer of the
paint to close the pores of the plaster, masonry, wallboard, or other material on which it is applied.
Casein is a very quick drying material and must be carefully applied to avoid overlapping sections. This
paint has the advantage of permitting the use of the room only a short time after the paint is brushed
on.

h) Emulsion Paint: These are the superior quality of paint formed by mixing oil/water and an
emulsifying agent to prevent the combination separating. They have much better ease of application,
washable and have a greater overall decorative appeal. Not only do they have higher coverage than
enamels and distempers, they are mostly washable and can be easily applied on concrete and stucco
surfaces.

Functions of paint:

(i) It protects wood from decaying.

(ii) It prevents corrosion of metals.

(iii) It renders surface hygienically safe and clean.
(iv) It gives decorative and attractive appearance to the surface.
(v) It also protects the surface from harmful effects of atmospheric agencies.

Characteristics of an ideal paint:

An ideal paint should have the following characteristics:
i) It should be easy and harmless to the user.
ii) It should retain its original colour for a long time.
iii) It should be able to cover maximum area of the surface with minimum quantities.
iv) The paint should form a hard and durable coat on the painted surface.
v) The paint should not peel off from painted surface.
 vi) It should be good fire and moisture resistant.
vii) The painted surface should possess attractive and decorative pleasing appearance.
viii) The painted surface should not show any form of cracks.

D) VARNISHING: Varnish is a transparent, hard, protective finish or film primarily used in wood
finishing but also for other materials. Varnish is traditionally a combination of a drying oil, a resin, and a
thinner or solvent. Varnish finishes are usually glossy but may be designed to produce satin or semi-
gloss sheens by the addition of "flatting" agents.

Types of Varnish:
Varnishes can be classified into the following categories depending upon the solvent used:
(i) Spirit Varnish
(ii) Turpentine Varnish
(iii) Water Varnish
(iv) Asphalt Varnish
(v) Flat Varnish or Oil Varnish

* Spirit Varnish: This type of varnish is prepared by dissolving resins such as shellac in methylated
spirit. This type varnish dries very quickly and gets easily affected by weather action and it is mostly
used for wood furniture.

* Turpentine Varnish: In this type of varnish, gum, dammar, mastic, and rosin like resins are dissolved
in turpentine. These varnishes are light in colour and dry quickly.

* Water Varnish: This type of varnish is prepared by dissolving shellac in hot water. Shellac does not
dissolve readily in cold water and as such accelerate the process of dissolving in ammonia or potash,
soda or borax. This type of varnish is used for painting pictures, posters and maps.

* Asphalt Varnish: This type of varnish is obtained by dissolving melted asphalt in linseed oil. The
varnish may be thinned by adding suitable amount of either turpentine or petroleum spirit. This type of
varnish is used for varnishing fabricated iron and steel product.

Properties of a good Varnish:

A good varnish should possess the following properties:
(i) It should not hide the natural grains of the surface.
(ii) It should not shrink or show cracks after drying.
(iii) It should make the surface glossy.
(iv) It should dry rapidly.
(v) It should impart the finished surface uniform colour and pleasing appearance.
(vi) The thin film of varnish developed after drying on the surface should be tough, hard and durable.
(vii) The natural colour of the varnish should not fade away when varnished surface is exposed to
atmospheric action.

Difference between Paint and Varnishing:

Paint and varnish are two commonly used finishes that is applied on wood and other materials. The
comparison between them is based on the appearance, application, protective properties and drying
time.

Appearance: Paint contain pigment and generally ranges from opaque to translucent, which they
provide decorative and protective layer whereas varnish has little or no colour, its transparent and has
no added pigment. Varnishes are also applied over wood stains.

Application: Paint can be applied with a brush, a roller, or a spray gun whereas vanish can be applied
directly to bare or stained wood that is free of dust. The traditional way of applying varnish is with a
brush but it can be sprayed or wiped on.

Protective properties: For interior applications, paint and varnish both provide decent protection
against water and solvent. For outdoor applications, paint is more protective and long lasting than
varnish. The pigments in paint provide superior resistance compared to varnish and other finishes.
Varnish will last for only 1 – 2 years on wood when exposed to full sunlight compared to 7 – 10 years
for paint.

Drying time: A brush on vanish can take up to 8 hours to dry whereas a sprayed of paint may dry in
less than 1 hour. One of the biggest challenges with varnish is its long drying time, which allows pesky
dusty particles to settle on the surface.

E) DISTEMPER: Distemper paint is water based paint, which is made up of water, chalk and pigments.
It is of course better than whitewash but inferior to oil paints and emulsion paints. It gives an elegant,
smooth, attractive and slightly uneven look.

Distemper paint is mostly applied only on the walls and ceiling surface. It also proves to be ideal for
temporary interior paint works. It is generally applied to interior walls, as it is not waterproof. For regions
where there is very less rainfall, it may be used to paint exterior walls.

Properties of Distempers:
(i) Distemper paints are decorative paint and are easy to apply.

(ii) Distemper paints can be applied using a paint brush, a roller and also by spraying. But before
you use it, you have to read first manufacturer’s brochures as various manufacturers’
recommends different method of application.

(iii) Distempers paints are available in powder form and also in paste form. Powdered distempers
are known as dry distempers, whereas paste form distempers are known as oil bound
distempers. Oil bound distempers are superior to dry distempers.
(iv) Distemper paints are generally light in colour and provide a good reflective coating.

(v) They can be applied on cement plastered surface, lime plastered surface, brick work, insulating
boards, etc.

(vi) The life of distemper paint is between 3 to 5 years. It is not flexible and also not waterproof
paint.

Classification of Building Finishes:

Finishing of a building can be categorized into several sections:
► Floor finishing;
► Wall finishing;
► Ceiling finishing; and
► Roof finishing.

FLOOR FINISHING:
A floor finish is a liquid which is applied to a resilient tile floor and dries to a hard, durable and smooth
film. This film is about the thickness of waxed paper and is expected to protect and extend the life of
the floor while providing an attractive appearance and slip resistant surface.

Factors to be considered when choosing floor finishes:

When choosing a floor finish material, the following should be kept in mind:
* How slippery or smooth it is: do not use very smooth finishes in bathrooms and balconies.

* How abrasion resistant it is: do not use soft, quick wearing finishes in areas with heavy foot
traffic. For example, marble and wood have low abrasion resistance, while granite and cement tiles
have high abrasion resistance.

* Whether it is chemically neutral: some finishes react with acids, and therefore they should not
be used in kitchens.

* The climate: wood and carpets are perceived to be warm, so use them in cold climates, while stone
and tile are perceived to be cool, and so use them in warm climates.
Types of floor finishes:
There are several types of floor finishing materials available in the construction industry, but detailed
descriptions of each of the most important ones are as follows.

1) Jointless Flooring:
(a) Concrete Floor Finishing:
(i) Cement and Sand Screed: This consists of cement and sand mix in the ratio 1:3 laid to a thickness
of 25 – 75mm. It is the cheapest and most commonly used in local homes in Nigeria.

(ii) Granolithic finish: This is used for industrial buildings, warehouses, and lavatories etc., where hard
wearing surfaces are required. It consists of rich concrete made with very hard quality coarse aggregate
such as granite. The mix is 1:1:2 to 1:2:3 (cement, sand, granite) depending on the specific use of the
floor.

(iii) Terrazzo finish: This is composed of white or coloured Portland cement and crushed marble
aggregate (of different colours) to a mix of 1:1 or 1:2. Before laying, the entire area can be divided into
suitable panels of predetermined size and shape using ebonite strips. It can be laid in-situ or precast.

(b) Cement-bitumen finish: This is a mixture of cement and bitumen which can be used in industrial
complex or hotels.

(c) Rubber latex cement: This is made of Portland cement, aggregates, fillers, pigments and solution
of rubber latex laid to a thickness of 5-10mm. It is hardwearing, resistant to damp, non-slippery and
quiet.

(d) Magnesite finish: This is a mixture of magnesium chloride solution, powder asbestos, sawdust,
woodfloor, ground silica, calcined magnesite and talc. It is used for industrial floors because of its high
resistance to alkalis, organic solvents, sulphates, oil, grease and fats.

2) Marble Flooring: This is an expensive floor finish. Marble slabs are laid in different sizes, usually in
rectangular, square or irregular shapes. The slab is usually laid over 1:4 cement and sand mix, gently
pressed with mallet and leveled.

3) Sheet Flooring
a. Linoleum: This is manufactured by mixing oxidizing linseed oil with gum, resins, pigments,
woodfloor, cork powder and fillers. It is produced in standard sheets as rolls of sizes 1.83m wide, 23–
28m long and 2–6mm, thick on approved adhesive.

b. Carpets and Rugs: They are just spread on the floor surface without any bonding material. They
are available in variety of materials, colour and sizes. Rugs are however very difficult to clean but are
noise proof.

c. Rubber floorings: This is made from either natural rubber or synthetic rubber. The sheet is
manufactured by mixing pure rubber with fillers such as asbestos fibre, granulated cork etc. The sheets
are secured to the floor using the appropriate adhesive. It is resilient, noise proof, durable but can fail
easily due to wrong maintenance. However, oil, greases and other organic solvents are harmful to it.

4) Tile Flooring:
Tile flooring may be preferred to sheet flooring for its ease of laying and economy of materials. However,
all the materials used for sheet flooring can also be in tile form.

a) Thermoplastic Tiles: These are produced from a mixture of thermoplastic binders, plasticizers, fibre
asbestos, fillers and pigments. They are heated and pressed into sheets and produced in sizes of 300
x 300 and 250 x 250mm and thickness of 2.5mm and 3mm.

b) Poly Vinyl Chloride Tiles (P.V.C. tiles): They have the same composition as thermoplastics except
that, PVC resin is substituted for thermoplastics binders and this gives added flexibility and resilience.
It comes in sizes of 300 x 300m and 225 x 225m and thickness of 2mm or 2.5mm; approved adhesive
is applied on the base (usually concrete) and on the back of the tiles with the help of a trowel.
c) Cork tiles: These are made from granulated cork, compressed and bonded with synthetic resins.
They are warm, quiet and resilient. They are in sizes of 100 x 100m x 5mm and 300 x 300m x 5mm.

d) Clay tiles: These are manufactured from natural clay selected for a particular colour and refined in
varying degrees. They are usually fired at very high temperature and are available in different forms.

(i) Quarry tiles: These are produced from least refined or coarse clay. They come in square shapes of
250 x 250mm or 300 x 300mm.

(ii) Ceramic tiles: These are manufactured from highly refined clay to produce fine, smooth textured
clay products. Materials such as glass, quartz and colour pigments are also added before they are
heated at a temperature of about 1200oC. They are soaked in clean water and laid on a bed of cement
mortar (1:1) 13mm thick. They are good for kitchens and toilets since they are easily cleaned, resistant
to water, oils and greases. However, they are cold, noisy and expensive.

e) Mosaic Tiles: These are made of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed, cement, or of marble,
arranged in different pattern. These pieces are cut to desired shapes and sizes. They are laid on paper
backing and are put into position after applying mortar bed on the wall surface and the paper washed
off after drying to expose the tiles.

WALL FINISHINGS:

Wall finishes: As the name implies, ‘wall finishes’ is the finish given to the wall of a property to enhance
the interior or exterior look of the structure and to provide a decorative skin to conceal building
components including structural members, insulation, ductwork, pipes, and wires. The purpose of using
the materials is to increase the aesthetic appearance of the walls.

When we refer to decorating a room it does not only mean that adding some accessories to the building,
but it refers to dressing the room with different finishing materials. Wall finishes used for the interiors
are quite delicate and need maintenance. The new contemporary trend has brought about great deal
of increase in the usage of various types of wall finishes for aesthetic purpose.

Wall finishing materials:

There are several types of wall finishing materials used in the construction of buildings, and some of
which are: -

i) Wallpaper: Wallpaper has seen resurgence in popularity within both the residential and commercial
interior design markets. Wallpaper also now offer enhanced durability, colour fastness, finishes and
customizing opportunities.

Types of wallpaper:
* Pulp Wallpaper: This is the cheapest type of pattern wallpaper. It is easy to hang and strip
which care needs to be taken when hanging to avoid over stretching them.

* Vinyl Coated: A pattern printed on to a thin skin of vinyl (plastic) with a paper backing behind.
Vinyl papers are easy to hang and fairly easy to strip. They are quite tough and washable
making them ideal for use in kitchens and bathrooms.

* Flock: Flock wallpaper is one of the oldest types of wallpaper used, the pattern consists of
fibers which feel and look like velvet. Traditionally flock wallpaper has been used widely in pubs,
clubs, restaurants etc., but can be used in any home.

ii) Wood Paneling: Wood paneling is an effective and sustainable way to add warmth to a space.
The panel consists of a series of thin sheets of wood framed together by strips of wood. The vertical
strips are known as stiles and the horizontal one as rails. Wood panels include solid lumber paneling;
wood veneer paneling and plastic laminate faced wood paneling.
iii) Leather: Leather has excellent acoustic and thermal insulation properties and has a surprisingly
high fire rating. The main stipulation is that it should always be installed by an experienced and reputable
company.

iv) Mirror: Mirror finishes can come as a panel, tile or as a mosaic. They are excellent at covering
open shelving, defining awkward spaces, brightening dark or narrow rooms, screening laundry areas
and many other applications. Mirror always make a room seem larger and can be used to ‘correct’ any
less than perfect proportions.

v) Living wall: Living walls, or green walls, are self-sufficient vertical gardens that are attached to a
free-standing frame or to the exterior or interior of a building.

vi) Graffiti is writing or drawings that have been scribbled, scratched, or painted on a wall or other
surface, often in a public place. Graffiti range from simple written words to elaborate wall.

ROOF FINISHING:
Roofing sheets are used to cover a building to prevent rain and other weather conditions from affecting
those who live inside the building. The type of roofing sheets used in building projects speaks a lot
about the aesthetics aside being a form of covering for a building, so it is very vital to pick the best
roofing sheet that is durable and would last long.

Roof Finishing Materials:

Several types of roofs are available for residential construction, but different materials are chosen
according to their various qualities, advantages and disadvantages. Here are just a few popular ones
available in the market as there are various brands of roofing sheets available in the country today.

1. Aluminium roofing sheets: Aluminium roofing sheets can last for more than 50 solid years of usage
no matter the temperature and harsh weather condition. This kind of roof is targeted to the middle class
citizens who cannot afford the expensive options in the market and it is highly reliable and durable. The
only disadvantage of aluminum roofing sheet is that it isn’t noise-proof during rain fall.

2. Stone-coated roofing sheet: This type of roofing sheets is known for its beauty, durability and
ability to withstand harsh weather conditions. You will find stone coated roofs mostly in major cities in
the country such as Lagos Abuja, Kaduna, Enugu, etc. Some of the advantages of stone-coated roofs
over other types of roofing sheet is that it doesn’t rust, it is sound proof, it can resist fire and heat over
a long period of time and its light weight makes it easy to maintain. Stone coated roofing sheets are the
most expensive roofing sheets in Nigeria.

3. Fibre britment roofing sheet: This top popular roofing sheet was hot-in-demand in the past before
other types of roofing sheets came on board in the building industry. Known for its ruggedness and
quality, fibre britment roofing sheets has the quality to last long and is durable to use for your edifice.

4. Swiss Roofing sheet: This type of roofing sheet is the most expensive you can purchase and it is
meant for the wealthy class. Swiss roofing sheets are the best in terms of aesthetics, quality, class,
design, style and it is very durable.

5. Solar roof tiles: Solar roof tiles are also known as photovoltaic shingles which are designed to look
like and function as conventional roofing materials like asphalt shingles or slate but at the same time
they produce electricity. Because of this, they are considered as a type of solar energy solution known
as Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV).

6. Asphalt shingles: Asphalt shingles are the most common roofing materials in Nigeria because
they’re effective in all environmental conditions.

7. Metal roofing: Metal roofing comes in vertical panels or shingles resembling slate, tile and shake –
and lasts about 60 years. Metal excels at sloughing off heavy snow and rain, won’t burn and resists
high winds. It is lightweight and can be installed over existing roofs. They are durable, good looking,
and fairly affordable.
8. Slate: Slate roofing can lasts for more than 100 years. It won’t burn, is waterproof and resists mold
and fungus. Slate is effective in wet climates but is expensive, heavy and may be easily broken when
stepped on. Slate roofing is one of the most durable roofing materials available today. A properly
installed slate roof covering can easily last for 100 years, requiring little maintenance.

9. Rubber slate: Rubber slate looks natural and can be cut with a knife to fit intricate roofs like those
found on Victorian homes. Rubber slate roof can last for 100 years but can be damage by satellite
dishes and walking.

10. Clay and Concrete Tiles: Clay and concrete tiles can withstand damage from tornadoes,
hurricanes or winds up to 125miles/hr and even earthquakes. They are good in warm and dry climates
and they are likely to break when walked on.

CEILING FINISHES:

Ceiling Finishes Materials:

Just like the walls of a house, the ceiling has to be decorated or "finished" to some extent. Some of the
different ceiling finishes materials are:

1. Gypsum Ceiling
2. Plaster of Paris Ceiling
3. Wooden Ceiling
4. Glass Ceiling
5. Metal Ceiling
6. Synthetic Leather or Cloth Ceiling

Gypsum Ceiling: Gypsum ceiling is a hydrated sulfate of calcium. These types of ceiling are
lightweight, sound insulated, fire resistance and soft thermally insulated. Gypsum ceiling comes in the
shape of square boards that are hung with the help of iron framework.

Plaster of Paris Ceiling: Plaster of Paris (POP) is the majorly used material in the construction of
ceiling. POP is obtained when gypsum is heated to a certain degree, which gives both aesthetical and
functional help. They are excellent insulators of heat and cold. These types of ceiling do not only hide
the ugly nature of roof members, ventilation ducts and conduits but also give smooth finish to the ceiling.

Wooden Ceiling: Wooden ceiling is used due to its natural textures and pattern. Nowadays these
types of ceiling are used commonly as it gives a pleasant look to the eyes. Wooden ceiling being costly,
it is not used in malls and hospitals but can be installed in residential buildings.

Glass Ceiling: One of the types of ceiling used in building construction is glass. It is a non-crystalline
material with the property of brittle and transparent. But this can be altered to make it non-brittle and
non-transparent using some admixtures.

Metal Ceiling: As metal is a hard and durable material, it is used extensively as a ceiling. When the
metal surface is polished, it gives a shiny surface, which is a treat for eyes. The metals used in this are
galvanized iron and aluminum. The cost of this ceiling is low as they are easy to install and access. The
hidden members of the structure are easily accessed as the panels are easily removable and
reattached.

Synthetic Leather or Cloth Ceiling: The materials used in this type of ceilings are either leather or
cloth. As the materials are man-made, they can be given any form, shape and design, which improve
the aesthetic view of interior of the building. As these collects dust and has low light transferring
property, it is only used in temporary tents or other temporary buildings.
CEMENT
Cement is the basic ingredient of construction and the most widely used construction material
worldwide. It is a mixture of 60% – 67% lime, 17% – 25% silica and 3% – 8% alumina, which are
intimately mixed together with water to form slurry, subsequently heated, dried and grounded to a very
fine powder. A small proportion of gypsum is added before grinding in order to control the rate of setting.

Cement has the property of setting into hard mass after mixing with water in required amount. It is also
known as Portland cement because after setting into hard mass it resembles with the rocks found in
Portland, United Kingdom. The chemical formula of cement is CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3.

Types of Cement:
The following are the different types of cement used in construction works.

a) Ordinary Portland cement: Ordinary Portland cement is the cheapest and most commonly used
cement, accounting for about 90% of all cement production. It is made by heating limestone and clay
to a temperature of about 1300°C to form a clinker, rich in calcium silicates. The clinker is ground to a
fine powder with a small proportion of gypsum, which regulates the rate of setting when the cement is
mixed with water.

b) Rapid hardening Portland cement: Rapid hardening Portland cement is similar to Ordinary
Portland cement except that the cement powder is more finely ground. Rapid hardening cement
develops in three days, has a strength which is similar to that developed by Ordinary Portland cement
in seven days. With rapid hardening cement, the initial set is much shorter and formwork systems can
be removed earlier. Although rapid hardening is more expensive than Ordinary Portland cement, it is
often used because of its early strength advantage.

c) Low-heat Portland cement: Low-heat Portland cement is used mainly for mass concrete works in
dams and other constructions where the heat developed by hydration of other cements would cause
serious shrinkage cracking. The heat developed by the hydration of cement in concrete in construction
works is dissipated to the surrounding air, whereas in large mass concrete works it dissipates slowly.
The slow rate of hardening does not affect the ultimate strength of the cement but allows the low heat
of hydration to dissipate through the mass of concrete to the surrounding air.

d) Water-repellent cement: Water-repellent cement is made by mixing a metallic soap with ordinary
or white Portland cement. Concrete made with this cement is more water repellent and therefore
absorbs less rainwater than concrete made with other cements and is thus less liable to dirt staining.
This cement is used for cast concrete and cast stone for its water-repellent property.

e) Portland blast furnace cement: Portland blast furnace cement is manufactured by grinding
Portland cement clinker with blast furnace slag, the proportion of slag being up to 65% by weight and
the percentage of cement clinker is less than 35%. This cement develops heat more slowly than
ordinary cement and is used in mass concrete works as low-heat cement. This type of cement can be
used in mass concrete work such as dams, foundations, and abutments of bridges, retaining walls,
construction in sea water.

CONCRETE
Concrete is also a material used extensively for water storage and transport such as in the lining of
canals and water reservoirs. In addition to the above primary uses, it is also used as a coating material
for specific purposes such as for waterproofing, fireproofing, soundproofing and shielding against
radiations in X-rays plants and atomic power plants. The essential property of concrete is that it sets
and hardens into a strong, rock-like mass within a short period of time. The ultimate strength and other
properties of concrete depend on several of factors, like:

• The nature of the aggregate materials used.

• The quality and proportions of cement, aggregates.
• Water used for making the mixture, and
• Workmanship.
The Composition is generally expressed in terms of relative volumes of:
• Cement.
• Fine aggregate (sand) and;
• Coarse aggregate (gravel, etc.).

Thus, a 1:2:4 concrete indicates a mix having 1 part by volume of cement, 2 parts of sand and 4 parts
of gravel or crushed aggregates.

Concrete is generally used in two types of construction, i.e. plain concrete construction and reinforced
concrete construction. In PCC, it is poured and casted without the use of any reinforcement. This is
used when the structural member is subjected only to the compressive forces and not bending. When
a structural member is subjected to bending, reinforcements are required to withstand tension forces.

Properties of Concrete: Concrete has the following properties:

i) Strength: The concrete used in the construction of load carrying structure such as dams, bridges,
pier and abutment of bridges, etc. should be strong. In this structure, reinforcements are used with
concrete to extend the strength of concrete, so that it will be able to resist the loads.

ii) Durability: The concrete should be able to resist weathering action, such as wind, rain, storm and
variation of temperature. So when we use concrete in the construction of dams, sewer line or in
seawater, then it should be able to withstand the action of chemical salts. When this is done, the
concrete will be safe from environmental problems.

iii) Watertight: When used in the construction of water retaining structures like culvert, a retaining
wall of dams or in water canal, the concrete must be watertight. If the concrete is not watertight,
reinforcement steel bars which are used in the concrete can be rust (corrosion).

iv) Workability: Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold
properly with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability
depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level
of hydration) and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures, like super-plasticizer.

v) Density: The concrete must be compacted and there should be no voids or hollows left in the
concrete. The weight of the concrete must be 2400kgm 3, which is the good quality of concrete.

vi) Resistance to wear and tear: When we use concrete in the construction of roads and floors, the
concrete must be able to resist abrasive action.

Concreting Operation:
Operation involved in concrete production varies with the type of work to be carried out, but generally
involves the followings:
• Storage of materials;
 • Mixing of concrete;
• Concrete mix transportation;
• Placing and Compaction of concrete;
• Surface finishing; and
• Curing of concrete.

i) Storage of concrete materials:

• Storage of cement:
- Cement should be stored at the work site in a building or a shed which is dry, leak-proof as well as
moisture proof.
- Cement should be stored and stacked in bags, kept free from the possibility of any dampness or
moisture coming in contact with them. Cement bags should be stacked off the floor on wooden
planks in such a way as to keep about 150mm – 200mm clear above the floor. A space of 600mm
minimum should be left between the exterior walls and the stacks.

- The height of the stack should not be more than 10 bags to prevent the possibility of lumping up
under pressure. The width of the stack should not be more than four bags. Cement bags should
not stacked in a manner to facilitate their removal and use in the order in which they are received;
a label showing date of receipt of cement should be put on each stack to know the age of the
cement.

- Cement in gunny bags, paper bags and polyethylene bags should be stored separately.

* Storage of Aggregates:
- Keep aggregates in a clean condition.
- Take necessary measures to prevent contamination with undesirable substances,
- Make floor of the storage bins with plain cement concrete,
- Separate storage bins with partitions to prevent mixing of different aggregate sizes.

ii) Mixing of concrete: There are two types of concrete mixing:

(a) Hand mixing;
(b) Machine mixing.

Hand Mixing: This method of mixing concrete is resorted to when the quantity of concrete is to be used
in a work that is insufficient to warrant the necessity of machine. Hand mixing is done on a clean, hard
and impermeable surface. Cement and sand are first mixed dry with the help of shovels until the mixture
attains a uniform colour. Aggregative are then added to this mixture and the whole mixture is then turned
by shovels until the stone pieces uniformly spread throughout. After this, desired quantity of water is
poured into the heap from a can fitted with a rose. The mass is then turned until a workable mixture is
obtained. It is advised to add 10% extra cement to guard against the possibility of inadequate mixing
by this method.

Machine Mixing: The machine used for mixing concrete is termed as concrete mixer. Two types of
concrete mixers are in common used:
1. Continuous mixers;
2. Batch mixers.

Continuous mixers are employed in massive construction where large and continuous flow of concrete
is desired. The process of feeding the mixing is more or less automatic. The machine requires careful
supervision so as to obtain the concrete mix of desired consistency.

In batch type of concrete mixer, the desired proportions of materials are fed into the hopper of a drum
in which the materials get mixed by the series of blades or baffles inside the mixer. Batch mixers are
further classified into two types:
1. Tilting drum type
2. Closed drum type.

In the first type, components are fed in the revolving drum in a tilted position and after sometime the
concrete mix is discharged by tilting the drums in the opposite direction. In the latter type the drum
remains rotating in one direction and emptied by means of hopper which tilts to receive the discharge.
While using the mixer, coarse aggregates should be fed first, sand and cement should be put
afterwards. In this revolving state, the components get mixed while water is poured with the help of can.
The concrete should be for at least 2 minutes, the time being measured after all the ingredients including
water have been fed into the drum. The batch type concrete mixer is as shown in the Fig 6.1.

Ready-mixed concrete: Ready-mixed concrete is extensively used today. It is prepared in mechanical,

concrete mixing depots where the materials are stored, weight batched and mixed, and the wet concrete
is transported to site in rotating drums mounted on lorries (cement mixers). The action of the rotating
drum prevents aggregates from segregating and the concrete from setting and hardening for an hour
or more. Once delivered it must be placed and compacted quickly as it rapidly hardens.

iii) Concrete mix transportation:

The operation of moving concrete mix from the concrete batching plant to the concrete pour location is
known as concrete mix transportation.

When the mixing is done properly, the freshly made concrete is then transported to the construction site
for the actual work to commence. The type of plant used to transport concrete from the mixer to the
point of deposition depends on the size of the job and the height above the ground at which the concrete
is to be placed. Truck mixers, concrete dumpers, concrete pumps, buckets handled by cranes, hoisting
towers or cables, chutes and belt conveyors are used for this purpose. Concrete should generally be
placed in its final position within 30 minutes of leaving the mixer.

iv) Placing and Compacting concrete:

Concrete should be placed and compacted immediately after mixing. The concrete should be placed
within 30 to 40 minutes to prevent the danger of concrete getting its initial set, before laying the concrete;
the shuttering should be cleaned of all of dust or debris. Crude oil or grease etc is usually applied to the
shuttering before concreting to prevent the shuttering absorbing the water from the concrete or getting
struck to it. In placing the concrete, care should be taken to see that it should not be thrown from heights.
Concrete should be laid in layers 15cm to 30cm (6” – 12”) in thickness and each layer should be properly
compacted before laying the next one.

Compaction of concrete should proceed immediately after placing. The function of compaction of
concrete is to expel the air bubbles in the mass and make it impermeable in addition to its securing the
desired strength. The concrete mass should be consolidated or compacted till the cream of the cement
starts appearing on the surface. Over compaction may lead to segregation of concrete while-under-
compaction may leave air voids in concrete and results in honey combing. Compaction may be done
by hand or mechanical device.

(a) Hand compaction: The hand compaction may be done by rodding, tamping or hammering.
Tamping is usually adopted for compacting concrete for slabs or other such surfaces. Rodding is done
for thin vertical members. Hammering is done for massive plain concrete works and for compacting an
almost dry concrete the surface is beaten with heavy flat bottom rammers till the thin film of mortar start
appearing on the surface.

(b) Mechanical compaction: Mechanical compaction is done by the use of vibrators. Vibrators are of
three types:
1. Internal
2. External
3. Surface.

Internal vibrators are commonly used in large works for flat surface compaction. In this the vibrator is
immersed in the full depth of concrete layer. The vibrator should be kept in one position for about 3
minutes and then removed and placed another position.

External vibrators are placed against the form work and are only adopted for thin section of members
or in places where internal vibrators cannot be used with ease.
Surface vibrators are generally employed in concrete road construction. Compaction of concrete by
use of vibrators permits the use of stiff concrete mix of high strength and ensures better compaction
than that obtained by the method of hand compaction.

v) Concrete surface finishing:

Surface finishing is the operation of attaining a concrete surface of desired texture and pattern. Finishing
makes concrete more functional and aesthetic. Concrete that will be visible, such as driveways,
highways, or patios, often needs finishing.

vi) Curing of concrete: Curing of concrete can be explained as a series of chemical reactions that
occur between cement in a concrete mix and the water, which the process is known as hydration. For
concrete to achieve its correct design strength, hydration must be carefully controlled. In effect, it is the
process of initial setting of concrete into a solid mass and subsequent hardening.

Curing is therefore done with the following objectives or purposes:

i) To prevent the loss of initial water due to evaporation or to replace the loss of water, which is essential
for the process of hydration and therefore, for hardening of concrete.

ii) To increase the strength of concrete gradually with the age by efficient curing. This increase in
strength of concrete is sudden and rapid in early stages (i.e. for first few weeks after setting) and
afterwards the rate of increase in strength goes on decreasing.

iii) To increase durability, impermeability, resistance to abrasion and reduces shrinkage effects.

Period of curing: The period for which curing should be allowed to continued depends upon three
factors, viz: type of cement used, type and nature of work and atmospheric conditions such as
temperature, humidity and wind velocity. It has been recommended that for Ordinary Portland Cement,
the concrete must be cured for at least seven days but for low-heat cement, the curing period should
be extended to 21 days.

Types of Concrete
• Plain or Ordinary Concrete.
• Reinforced Concrete.
• Precast Concrete.
• Pre-stressed Concrete.
• Ready Mix Concrete.
• Asphalt Concrete
• Lightweight Concrete
• High-density Concrete
• Rapid hardening Concrete

Plain or Ordinary Concrete: It is one of the most commonly used types of concrete, which its essential
constituents are cement, sand and coarse aggregates designed and mixed with a specified quantity of
water. Plain concrete is mostly used in the construction of pavements and in buildings, where very high
tensile strength is not required and it is also used in the construction of dams.

Among the most important properties of ordinary concrete, are the followings:
Density: 2200 – 2500Kg/m3.
Compressive Strength: 200 – 500Kg/cm2.
Tensile Strength: 50 – 100Kg/cm2.
Durability: Very Satisfactory.

Reinforced Concrete: It is also called RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete). In this concrete type, steel
in various forms is used as reinforcement to give very high tensile strength. In fact, it is because of the
combined action of plain concrete (having high compressive strength) and steel (having high tensile
strength); the steel reinforcement is cast in the form of rods, bars, meshes and all conceivable shapes.
Care must be taken to ensure the maximum bond between the reinforcement and the concrete during
the setting and hardening process.
Precast Concrete: The term ‘Precast concrete’ is applied to individual concrete units or members of
various types, which are cast in separate forms before they are placed in structure. Precast members
are cast at the building site or at a casting yard located some distance from the structure in which they
are to be used; then transported to the site of the structure by truck or by some other means; and finally
placed in position by cranes or other devices. Some of the examples of Precast Concrete are; precast
poles, fence posts, concrete lintels, staircase units, concrete blocks, and cast stones, etc.

Prestressed Concrete: It is a special type of reinforced concrete in which the reinforcement bars are
tensioned before being embedded in the concrete. Such tensioned wires are held firm at each end while
the concrete mix is placed. The result is that when the concrete sets and hardens, the whole concrete
members, is put into compression. This sort of arrangement makes the lower section of the reinforced
concrete stronger against tension, which is the principal cause of the development of tension cracks in
un-tensioned reinforced concrete.

Ready Mix Concrete: This concrete type is prepared in concrete plants and transported by the help
of truck mounted transit mixtures. Once they are reached at the site, there is no further treatment
necessary. The ready-mix concrete is very precise and can be developed based on the specification
with utmost quality. The manufacture of these concrete will require a centralized mixing plant which will
be located at an adjustable distance from the construction site.

Asphalt Concrete: Asphalt concrete is a combination of aggregates and asphalt. It is also known as
Asphalt. They are vastly used in the construction of highways, airports, as well as in the embankments.
They can be hardened in just an hour. That is the reason why it’s vast usage in roads.

Lightweight Concrete: Concrete that have a density lesser than 1920kg/m will be categorized as
lightweight concrete. Aggregates are the important element that contributes to the density of the
concrete. The lightweight concrete is applied for the protection of the steel structures and is also used
for the construction of long span bridge decks and the construction of the building blocks.

High-density Concrete: This type of concrete is also called heavyweight concrete. In this concrete
type, the density varies between 3000 – 4000Kg/m. These types of concrete are prepared by using high
density crushed rocks as coarse aggregates. Among such materials, Barytes is the most commonly
used material, which has a specific gravity of 4.5. They are mostly used in atomic power plants and
other similar structures because it provides good protection from all type of radiations.

Rapid Hardening Concrete: This type of concrete is mostly used in underwater construction and in
repairing of roads. Because its hardening time is very less, it can be hardened in just a few hours. They
are also used in building construction, where the work should be done fast.

WOOD:
Wood is an organic, hygroscopic and anisotropic material. Its thermal, acoustic, electrical, mechanical,
aesthetic, working, etc. properties are very suitable to use and it is possible to build a comfortable house
using only wooden products while in other materials, it is almost impossible.
Types of wood based products:
Plywood: Plywood consists of thin sheets, or veneers, of wood glued together. It is classified as interior
or exterior, depending on the type of adhesive employed. Interior-grade plywood must have a
reasonable degree of moisture resistance but is not considered waterproof. Exterior-grade plywood
must be waterproof and capable of withstanding immersion in water or prolonged exposure to outdoor
conditions.

Particle Board: Wood chips, sawdust, and flakes are pressed with a binder (urea formaldehyde or
phenol-formaldehyde) to form boards (sheathing, underlayment, core stock), having uniform strength
and low shrinkage in the plane of the board.

Hardboard: Wood chips (exploded by high-pressure steam into wood fibers) and lignin are pressed to
form boards of various densities. Additives may add weather resistance and other properties.

Fibre boards: These are rigid boards and they are also known as pressed wood or reconstructed wood.
The thickness varies from 3mm to 12mm. These are available in lengths from 3 to 4.5m and width
varying from 12 to 18m. These are used for:
(i) Internal finish of rooms such as wall panelling; suspended ceilings.
(ii) To construct form work for cement concrete.
(iii) To construct partitions.
(iv) To prepare flush doors, tops of tables etc.
(v) To provide an insulating material of heat and sound.
(vi) To work as paving or flooring material.

Properties of wood:
The following properties of wood make it good for use in the construction of buildings.

i) Moisture Content (MC) and Shrinkage: Wood’s reaction to moisture provides more problems than
any other factor in its use. Wood is hygroscopic; that is, it picks up or gives off moisture to equalize with
the relative humidity and temperature in the atmosphere.

ii) Thermal Properties/Temperature Effects: Although wood is an excellent heat insulator, its
strength and other properties are affected adversely by exposure for extended periods to temperatures
above 100°F. At temperatures above 220°F, wood takes on a thermoplastic behavior.

iii) Environmentally friendly: Timber is the most environmentally responsible building material.
Timber has low production energy requirements and is a net carbon absorber.

iv) Strong and lightweight: Timber is strong, light and reliable, making timber construction simpler
and safer than steel or concrete construction. A comparison with steel and concrete shows that radiate
pine structural timber, for example, has strength for weight ratio 20% higher than structural steel and
four to five times better than unreinforced concrete in compression.

Additionally, timber is:

i) Safe: Timber has low toxicity and therefore requires no special safety precautions to work with it,
other than normal protection from dusts and splinters. Timber frame construction requires little in the
way of heavy lifting equipment making building sites safer work places. Timber being non-conductive
has obvious benefits in terms of electrical safety.

ii) Easy to install: Increasingly specialist timber frame and truss manufacturers use high tech
prefabrication enabling accurate and speedy installation.

iii) Recyclable: Timber is a forgiving material that can be easily disassembled and reworked. If
demolition or deconstruction of a wooden building is necessary, many wood-based products can be
recycled or reused.

iv) Cost effective: Comparative studies of the economics of different wall framing systems indicate
that, in terms of direct building expenses, timber frames are consistently the most cost-effective solution.
v) Comfortability: Well-designed timber structures are comfortable to live in all year round, no matter
where you are.

vi) User friendly: Versatile timber gives building designers creative freedom providing homeowners
with flexible design choices. Timber is simply the best building material for builders, designers and
homeowners and can be used to construct the homes we love, structures we admire and warehouses,
commercial buildings and other structures.

BRICKS
Brick is an old building material since very long time. Brick is used in construction of the building
because of its good load bearing capacity, long life, and strength. Bricks are made up of good clay and
molded in rectangular shape of uniform size then dried and burned.

Classification of Bricks:
1. Un-burnt bricks
2. Burnt bricks

The first type of brick may be burnt in sunlight, (or) when burnt in kiln, it may not be burnt well. The un-
burnt bricks are used to construction temporary structures.

The second type of brick is well burnt bricks which can be used for permanent structures. Well brunt
bricks are further classified as follows:

i) First Class Bricks: These bricks are table molded and burnt in kilns. It should be thoroughly burnt
(without being vitrified) and have rectangular plane surfaces with parallel sides and sharp straight right-
angled edges. First class bricks are mainly used for face-work or superior work of structure. The
structure constructed with these types of bricks doesn’t need plastering.

ii) Second Class bricks: These bricks are ground molded and burnt in kilns and generally used to
meet the requirements of first class bricks except that these may be slightly chipped, distorted or may
have surface cracks.

iii) Third Class bricks: These bricks are ground molded and burnt in clamps. They are not hard and
have rough surfaces with irregular distorted edges. These bricks are used in unimportant and temporary
structures and in places where rainfall is less. The structures constructed with these bricks need
plastering.

iv) Fourth Class Bricks: These bricks are over burnt with irregular shapes and used as aggregate
in foundations, floors, etc. They are stronger due to over burning.

Properties of Good Bricks:

Good bricks used for the construction of important structures should possess the following qualities:
• Bricks should be uniform in shape and standard size.
• Bricks should be table-mounted, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks and with
sharp and square edges.
• Bricks when broken should show homogeneous and compact structure free from voids.
• Brick should not absorb water more than 15% of weight for first class bricks and 15 – 20% by
weight for second class bricks, when soaked in water for 24 hours.
• Bricks should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be left on brick surface, when
scratched with finger nail.
• Bricks should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of one
meter.
• Bricks should have low thermal conductivity.
• Bricks when soaked in water for 24 hours should not show deposits of white salts when dried
in shade.

NATURAL STONE: A traditional finishing material is natural stone, which is durable and has an
attractive appearance. Facing products are produced from granite, limestone, marble, and quartzite.
Natural stone finishing materials are used for exterior and interior facings on walls and for floor
coverings, mainly in public buildings and structures, such as theaters, hotels, and subway stations.
Natural stone materials are also used in the form of decorative chips to finish the surfaces of concrete
and reinforced-concrete parts and units.

The main rock groups:

Rocks, referred to in building as ‘stones’, can be divided into three groups, according to how they are
formed in nature:
• Igneous rocks
• Sedimentary rocks
• Metamorphic rocks

Igneous rocks: Igneous rocks are all formed from molten rock, which has cooled and hardened. For
example, rocks such as basalts, volcanic glass and pumice are formed from volcanic lava. Rocks such
as granite are formed from molten rock that has cooled and hardened underground.

Sedimentary rocks: Sedimentary rocks are most often made up of bits of other rocks, usually as a
result of erosion. For example, layers of mud and sand (the result of other rocks being worn down)
become buried deep in the earth and are compressed and hardened to form shale and sandstone.

Metamorphic rocks: Metamorphic rocks are formed as a result of changes which have been usually
brought about by heat and/or pressure in the earth’s crust. For example, when shale (a sedimentary
rock) is compressed it becomes a metamorphic rock, slate; sandstone, when heated up, perhaps by
volcanic lava, turns into quartzite; and limestone becomes marble under pressure.

BUILDING ENGINEERING SERVICES

Building services are the systems installed in buildings to make them comfortable, functional, efficient
and safe. Based on this, building services are mainly divided into Mechanical, Electrical and Building
Operation System.

1. Mechanical system includes:

* HVAC System: Heating, Ventilation and Air conditioning.
* Site drainage: Water, drainage, sanitary disposal.
* Plumbing: Water distribution, water treatment, sanitary facilities.

HVAC System: Heating, Ventilation, and Air conditioning (HVAC) is the technology of indoor and
vehicular environmental comfort. Its goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality.
HVAC system design is a sub-discipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles of
thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and heat transfer.
The “V” in HVAC, or ventilation, is the process of replacing or exchanging air within a space. This
provides a better quality of air indoors and involves the removal of moisture, smoke, odors, heat, dust,
airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide, and other gases as well as temperature control and oxygen
replenishment.

Site Drainage: This is the movement of water to another area away from the site. Site drainage
measures prevent the flooding of property, drainage structures, waterways and roadways. For example,
residential drainage systems help to remove excess water from residential areas. This system helps
whisk water away from walkways, driveways, and roofs to avoid flooding.

There are four main types of residential drainage systems. These include surface, subsurface, slope,
downspout and gutter systems.

1. Surface Drainage System: For surface drainage to work properly, ditches need to be dug in
a parallel pattern. The ditches are relatively shallow and act as canals for run-off water. The
ditches guide the water into a large drain or away from your home, to avoid water pooling or
flooding in unwanted areas. Surface drains are a necessity if the area is flat. In flat areas with
a lot of precipitation water pooling can cause a lot of problems without the proper drainage
system. This can be done around buildings, walkways, or driveways to guide water away from
important structures.

2. Subsurface Drainage System: This type of drainage system, also known as the French
drain, is generally placed beneath the top layer of soil. This removes extra water from soil that
has become waterlogged at the root level. If the roots of a tree or other plant become water
logged they start to rot and can cause the plant or tree to die. The installation of a subsurface
drainage system requires deep underground ditches and pipes and a large collector drain to
aggregate the water from the pipes. In most cases, a sump pump must also be used to push
water through the pipes and way from the tree or plant. However, this type of drainage system
can cause disruptions in the soil as well as plant respiration.

3. Slope Drainage System: Slope drains utilize pipes installed on an incline to naturally move
water away from a structure. This pipe can be concrete, plastic, or steel, and will be covered
with a durable grate to protect people and animals from falling into it.

4. Downspout and Gutter Systems: The downspout is connected to the gutter system of a
building or home and guides water away from the roof to the ground. Downspout pipes can be
either rectangular or round and are made of steel, copper, or aluminum. Most downspouts
empty water on a slope so water does not pool at their base.

PLUMBING
Plumbing is the system of pipes, tanks, fittings and other apparatus required for the water supply,
heating and sanitation in a building. Plumbing plays a critical role in the delivery of draining materials
and water from commercial and residential buildings. It comprises of a network of valves, pipes, and
other components. Both residential and commercial property owners should understand how their
plumbing systems work so that they can detect when it requires repair or maintenance checkup. That
makes it easier to identify a potential plumbing issue and fix it before it gets out of control.

Of course, everyone knows how crucial plumbing is in their buildings, and without it, a residential or
commercial house is considered incomplete. Unfortunately, only a few people know the basic about
plumbing systems. Only a handful of property owners try to understand the different types of plumbing
systems. Plumbing as a whole is made up of various sub-systems, parts, joints, fixtures, and pipes,
which work together to make a system. Here is an overview of top plumbing systems.

Septic and Sewage System: Septic and onsite sewage systems are different. Though their designs
may differ, their role is to dispose or remove waste from a building. These wastes can be anything
including human activities by-products that flow through the pipes as gray water or sewage. The most
common septic and sewage designs include full sewage systems, wastewater, and onsite wastewater.
Experts recommend contacting professional plumbers for repair whenever there is an issue with a septic
or sewage system. Plumbers are experienced and know the difference between full sewage,
wastewater, and on-site drainage system. On-site disposal systems use a leaching method to get rid of
the effluent. The waste or effluent starts from the kitchen sink, toilet, or other facilities. It then flows
through the pipes, septic tank, and then out to the leach drain.

Septic and sewage systems are designed to remove wastewater from kitchen sinks, bathroom, and
toilet from the building. Septic and drainage systems consist of a network of pipes that take fecal matter
and human waste as well as laundry and cooking wastewater out of the building. Drainage systems are
connected to a series of pipes that allow the entire system to operate at atmospheric pressure and
venting of gases. It is the system that ultimately takes all wastewater from a building to the community
sewer facility.

Water Supply System: A water supply system includes potable water and the supply of tap to the
building. Water supply sub-systems provide water to commercial and residential construction for
cooking, washing clothes, drinking, bathing, and other functions. Your system should maintain ideal
water pressure for it to pump water steadily into the facility. A home may encounter several plumbing
issues with their drainage and water supply systems. Leaking and drinking sinks and faucets are some
of the costly plumbing problems that could rack up your monthly water bill.

One of the causes of worn washers is a faucet leak, but homeowners can remedy them. Professional
help may be required to detect and address a potential leak problem before it worsens. Kitchen sinks
and clogged showers are other causes of plumbing problems. It happens when pipe systems and drains
are not functioning correctly. Regular use of a water supply system could cause the soap and other
materials to build up over time. However, homeowners can use their household products such as
vinegar, baking soda, and elbow grease to unclog blocked pipes. The professional plumbing services
can use tools such as pipe and sewer cameras to detect the cause of the blockage.

Venting or Drainage System: Vent and drainage systems are critical in diverting gases and
wastewater from both commercial and residential buildings. Wastes produce gases, and letting them
get trapped in the pipes could cause a problem to your drainage or venting system. The venting and
drainage network is made up of several components, which could include a trap, pump, piping system
as well as external and internal venting systems.

The role of the venting system is to divert gases produced by wastewater from the building to the
outside. Then a stack is used to disperse these gases in a roof. However, there should be enough water
in the system for the drainage system to prevent sewer gases from getting back to the house. Of course,
waste gases won’t divert out of the drainage system properly when vents are blocked, and that could
cause safety and health issues to the occupants. Plumbers use different tools to detect and solve any
problem with a drainage system. These tools can include pliers, pipe cutters, and cordless impact
wrenches. Your plumber can also use highly specialized machines to solve a specific plumbing problem.

A plumber can also use smart gadgets such as pipe and sewer cameras for high-quality image display
of the duct system, drain, and the pipe. One way to maintain your plumbing system is to ensure a regular
checkup by a professional plumbing service. Your drainage and water system could overtime
experience various plumbing problems including contamination, blockage, clogging, and drainage
leaks. However, regular cleanup and inspection of pipes could help detect potential problems and
prevent expensive repairs down the road.

Stormwater Drainage System: It is the system that carries rainwater away from the roof to the storage
tanks. Stormwater drainage systems in older structures take rain into the septic system but can move
water from modern buildings into the community storm sewers. Gutters, pipes, drains, and storage
tanks are some of the components of a stormwater drainage system.

2. Electrical system includes:

* Electrical power: Normal, standby, emergency power supply and distribution.
* Lighting: Interior, exterior, emergency light.
* Auxiliary: telephone, data and video sound.

Electrical Power Supply:

In 1831 Michael Faraday succeeded in producing electricity by plunging a bar magnet into a coil of wire.
This is credited as being the elementary process by which we produce electricity today, but the coils of
wire are cut by a magnetic field as the magnet rotates. These coils of wire (or stator windings) have an
angular spacing of 120ƒ and the voltages produced are out of phase by this angle for every revolution
of the magnets, thus, generating a three-phase supply.

A three-phase supply provides 73% more power than a single-phase supply for the addition of a wire.
With a three-phase supply, the voltage between two line or phase cables is 1.73 times that between the
neutral and any one of the line cables, i.e. 230 volts 173 = 400 volts, where 1.73 is derived from the
square root of the three phases.

In Nigeria, electricity is generated mainly from hydro-electricity power plants and the distribution is
through regional companies. The electrical supply to a domestic installation is usually 230V single
phase and is designed with the following safety objectives:
1. Proper circuit protection to earth to avoid shocks to occupant.
2. Prevention of current leakage.
3. Prevention of outbreak of fire.
Electrical supply intake can be terminated in a meter box situated within a dwelling, which most supply
companies prefer to use the external meter box to enable the meter to be read without the need of
entering the premises.

The local electricity supply company is responsible for providing electricity up to and including the meter,
but the consumer is responsible for safety and protection of the company's equipment. The supplier will
install the service cable up to the meter position where their termination equipment is installed. This
equipment may be located internally or fixed externally on a wall, the latter being preferred since it gives
easy access for reading the meter.

Generally, the supply company's meters and termination equipment are housed in a meter box. These
are available in fibreglass and plastic, ranging in size from 450mm wide × 638mm high to 585m wide ×
815mm high with an overall depth of 177mm.

The consumer control unit provides a uniform, compact and effective means of efficiently controlling
and distributing electrical energy within a dwelling. The control unit contains a main double pole isolating
switch controlling the line and neutral conductors, called bus bars. These connect to the fuses or
miniature circuit breakers protecting the final sub-circuits.

3. Building Operation System includes:

* Transportation: Elevators, escalators, moving walkways.
* Processing: Product, food, services.
* Automation: Environmental control and management.

Transportation: Vertical transportation is a phrase used to describe the various means of travelling
between floors in a building. All buildings with more than one storey should have at least one set of
stairs and the provision of stairs is a very important consideration when designing buildings in order to
ensure that all the occupants of the building can escape safely in the event of a fire. In buildings with
more than four storeys, a lift (commonly known as an elevator) is desirable as there is a limit to how far
people are willing to walk up stairs.

Lifts: Lifts (also known as elevators) and escalators are the primary means of moving people, goods
and equipment between different levels within buildings. Staircases are still required as an alternative
means of escape in the event of a fire or when the lift or escalator is out of use (e.g. for routine
maintenance).

To function efficiently and to provide access for the elderly and disabled, modern offices and public
buildings are provided with suitably designed lift installations. Planning should commence early in the
design programme. Priority must be given to locating lifts centrally within a building to minimize
horizontal travel distance. Consideration must also be given to position, relative to entrances and stairs.
Where the building size justifies several passenger lifts, they should be grouped together.

In large buildings it is usual to provide a group of lifts near the main entrance and single lifts at the ends
of the building. The lift lobby must be wide enough to allow pedestrian traffic to circulate and pass
through the lift area without causing congestion. For tall buildings in excess of 15 storeys, high speed
express lifts may be used which by-pass the lower floors.

Lifts are typically used for two purposes – passengers and goods. Passenger lifts, as the name
suggests, are designed primarily for moving people although they are often used for moving small hand
trolleys, persons in wheelchairs and sometimes prams/pushchairs.

Escalators: Escalators move people vertically from one level to another, and are a popular feature of
commercial shopping centres and large retail stores, travel interchanges and other commercial
buildings. They can be used to convey people over long distances and over more than one floor, as
illustrated in Photograph 9.3. The escalator comprises a moving steel mat that moulds itself to the profile
of the transport system underneath. This forms a series of steps on which one stands until reaching the
top or bottom of the escalator. Pitches tend to be steeper than staircases, typically around 35°– 45° to
the horizontal.