Technological University of the Philippines

Ayala Boulevard, Ermita, Manila

College of Engineering
Electrical Engineering

ASSIGNMENT NO.: 1

ACEE5-M
Electronic Circuits: Devices and Analysis

Submitted By:
Manaois, Ethan Zachary A.
BSEE2B

Date Submitted:
October 8, 2022

INSTRUCTOR:
Engr. Cheerjoy M. Curitana, RME, REE

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 1

Name: Manaois, Ethan Zachary A. Instructor: Engr. Cheerjoy M. Curitana
Course/Year/Section: BSEE – 2B Date: October 8, 2022

DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS MODELS

QUICK OVERVIEW:
• Representation of diode in three Models:
- Ideal Case – Model 1 with Vy = 0
- Piecewise Linear model 2 with Vy has a constant value
- Piecewise linear Model 3 with Vy and forward resistance.

DIFFERENT DC ANALYSIS MODELS

1. LOAD LINE ANALYSIS

- DEFINITION: Load line diode the curve represents the diode response (I versus V D), while
the straight line displays the linear component of the circuit: I= (V DD-V D)/R. The point of
intersection corresponds to the actual current and voltage.

- GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION:

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 2

 2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL (DIODE MODELLING)

- DEFINITION: The Second dc analysis model is the mathematical model, or we can call this
DIODE MODELLING. Diode modeling in electronics refers to the mathematical models
used to approximate the actual behavior of real diodes in order to perform calculations and
circuit analysis. The I - V curve of a diode is nonlinear.

- GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION:

- DIFFERENT DIODE MODELS: (DIODE BIAS CONNECTION)

1. Forward-Bias - In this circuit, the anode of the diode is linked to the positive terminal of
the battery, while the cathode of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery. (IF) represents the forward current flowing from cathode to anode, and VF
represents the forward voltage drop across the diode, which is equivalent to the diode's
potential barrier.
2. Reverse-Bias - The positive terminal of a battery is linked to the cathode of a diode in
this circuit, and the negative terminal is connected to the anode. Because the reverse-
biased current is so little, it may be disregarded, and there is no need to restrict resistance
in reverse biasing.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 3

 3. IDEAL DIODE MODEL

- DEFINITION: As you can see, a forward biased diode behaves like a closed switch and a
reverse biased diode behaves like an open switch. The potential barrier, dynamic resistance in
forward biasing, and reverse current are neglected in ideal conditions.This model is insufficient
for troubleshooting when attempting to determine if the diode is operating properly. The V-I
properties of a perfect diode are depicted in the image.

- GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION:

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 4

 • Because the dynamic resistance and potential barrier are neglected in forward
biasing, the voltage across the diode is zero.

• In forward bias, the curve of an ideal diode is shown on the vertical Y-axis in
blue color.
VF =0
• The value of forward current (IF) across the diode can be found by using the
value of limiting resistance and biased voltage using Ohm’s Law.

IF =VBIAS /RLIMIT

• As reverses current is ignored in an ideal diode and its value supposed to be ‘0’.
It is shown in the V-I curve on negative axis.
IR=0A

• The value of reverse voltage is equal to the biased voltage.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 5

 4. CONSTANT VOLTAGE DROP MODEL

- DEFINITION: means the voltage through the resistor or load present in the circuit is (supply
voltage – 0.7) volt. The voltage drop across different diodes are different. Typically, it ranges
from 0.6 to 0.7 volts for a small silicon diode.

- GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION:

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 6

 DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

AC-EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODELLING

- DEFINITION:
- The operation of the converter is examined in some technical publications under ideal
circumstances. An ideal condition is when there are no delays, interruptions, or errors that cause
the process to diverge from its perfect state.

- These unavoidable deviations from the normal condition may be brought on by changes in
the circuit's parameters, including the source and load voltages, switching times, and circuit
elements like inductors or capacitors.

- This system behavior is referred to as the dynamic system behavior, which need to be
rectified for the intended output via a control mechanism. This calls for the study and design
of the controller using a modeling technique, which allows us a wide range of analysis options
for the different interruptions or problems.

- CONTROL SYSTEMS:

FUNCTION: Through either an open-loop or closed-loop system, the control system

monitors the disturbances and adjusts the circuit's parameters accordingly. By using feed-
forward, an open-loop controller can reduce predicted disturbances.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 7

 EXPLANATION: For the purpose of designing the components for the necessary
operating modes, it is necessary to understand both the static and dynamic behavior of the
converter. As a time-variant, non-linear, discrete system, switching converters must be
made less susceptible to load and line disturbances.

The closed loop controller adjusts a parameter, such as the firing angle, in response
to input variances. The benefit of closed loop is that it enables the controller to control
output switching transients as well. The output value cannot be set using the feed-forward
path alone, and transients that exceed the permitted limits are produced.

TYPES OF DIODES

SOLAR CELL

- DEFINITION: A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is an electrical

device that transforms light energy into electrical energy via the photovoltaic effect. A solar
cell is essentially a p-n junction diode. Solar cells are a type of photoelectric cell, which is
described as a device whose electrical properties, such as current, voltage, or resistance,
change when exposed to light.

- CONSTRUCTION: A solar cell is in essence a junction diode, albeit its construction differs
somewhat from that of typical p-n junction diodes. A thin layer of p-type semiconductor is
developed on top of a bigger layer of n-type semiconductor. Then, on top of the p-type
semiconductor layer, we place a few finer electrodes.

These electrodes do not prevent light from passing through to the thin p-type layer. A p-n
junction exists just under the p-type layer. At the bottom of the n-type layer, we additionally
include a current collecting electrode. To protect the solar cell from mechanical shock, we
enclose the complete system in thin glass.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 8

 - MATERIALS USED: The materials which are used for this purpose must have band gap
close to 1.5ev. Commonly used materials are-
1. Silicon.
2. GaAs.
3. CdTe.
4. CuInSe2

- ADVANTAGES:
- No pollution associated with it.
- It must last for a long time.
- No maintenance cost.

- DISADVANTAGES:
- It has high cost of installation.
- It has low efficiency.
- During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night we will not get
solar energy.

PHOTODIODE

- DEFINITION: Photodiode is a type of PN junction device that produces current when

exposed to light. It is sometimes referred to as a photodetector or a photosensor. It works in
reverse bias mode, converting light energy to electrical energy.

- SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION

- CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE: The device's PN junction is housed within a glass

substance. This is done so that light energy can pass through it. Because only the junction is
exposed to radiation, the remainder of the glass material is painted black or metallised. The
total unit is incredibly small, measuring only approximately 2.5 mm.
- It is worth noting that the current passing through the device is measured in micro-amperes
using an ammeter.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 9

 - OPERATIONAL MODE OF PHOTODIODE

Photodiode basically operates in two modes:

• Photovoltaic mode: It is also known as zero-bias mode because no external reverse potential is
provided to the device. However, the flow of minority carrier will take place when the device is
exposed to light.
• Photoconductive mode: When a certain reverse potential is applied to the device then it behaves
as a photoconductive device. Here, an increase in depletion width is seen with the corresponding
change in reverse voltage.

- ADVANTAGES OF PHOTODIODE
- When exposed to light, it responds quickly.
- The photodiode has a high working speed.
- It has a linear reaction.
- It is an inexpensive device

- DISADVANTAGES OF PHOTODIODE
- It is a temperature-dependent device. And shows poor temperature stability.
- When low illumination is provided, then amplification is necessary.

- APPLICATIONS:
Photodiodes are commonly used in counters and switching circuits. In an optical
communication system, photodiodes are widely employed. Photodiodes are also used in logic
circuits and encoders. It is commonly found in burglar alarm systems. The current flows in
such alarm systems until the exposure to radiation is interrupted. The device sounds an alarm
when light energy fails to fall on it.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 10

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

- DEFINITION: Light-emitting diodes, or LEDs, are extensively used in electrical devices as a

standard source of light. Furthermore, it has a wide range of uses, ranging from the cell phone
we use every day to large advertising billboards. Furthermore, they find use in gadgets that
display the time. Similarly, we use it to display many types of data.

- SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION:

- WORKING PRINCIPLE: The unbound electrons are in the conduction band, whereas the
holes are in the valence band. When the p-n junction is biased forward, an electron from the
n-type semiconductor material will overflow the p-n junction and combine with the holes in
the p-type semiconductor material. As a result, when we talk about holes, the free electrons
will be in the higher energy bands. When free electrons and holes migrate, the energy level
changes when the voltage drops from the conduction band to the valance band.

The energy is then released as a result of the electron's mobility. Energy is released in the
form of heat in ordinary diodes. However, in LEDs, the release of energy in the form of
photons results in the production of light energy. This entire process is known as
electroluminescence. Similarly, diodes are referred to as light-emitting diodes. In LEDs, the
energy that discharges in light hinges on the prohibited energy gap. We can manipulate the
wavelength of the light which is generated. Thus, from its wavelength, the light colour and its
visibility or cannot be controlled. We can determine the colour and wavelength of the light by
doping it with multiple impurities.

- APPLICATIONS:
- Tv Back-lighting
- Smartphone backlighting
- Displays
- Automotive

- TYPE OF LED
- Miniature LEDs
- Bi and Tri-Colour

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 11

 - High-Power LEDs
- Flash LED
- Alphanumeric LED
- Red Green Blue LEDs
- Lighting LED

SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE

- DEFINITION: The schottky diode is a metal-semiconductor junction diode, often known as

a hot-carrier diode, a low voltage diode, or a schottky barrier diode. The junction of a
semiconductor and a metal results in a schottky diode.

- SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION

- CHARACTERISTIC: Schottky diodes have V-I characteristics that are extremely similar to
PN junction diodes. In the Schottky diode, current is the dependent variable and voltage is the
independent variable. The Schottky diode has a low forward voltage loss of 0.2 to 0.3 volts.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 12

 - WORKING PRINCIPLES:
1. The operation is based on the notion that electrons have various potential energies in
different materials.
2. N-type semiconductors have a higher potential energy than metal electrons.

3. When these two come into contact, electrons flow in both directions across the metal-
semiconductor interface.
4. When a voltage is supplied to the Schottky, the metal becomes positive in comparison to
the semiconductor.
5. The voltage opposes the inherent potential and facilitates current flow.

- APPLICATIONS:

1. RF MIXER
2. Power Rectifier
3. Power OR Circuits
4. Solar Cell Applications

- ADVANTAGES
1. The diode's capacitance is low because the depletion area is insignificant.
2. The diode's reverse recovery time is very fast, which means the transition from ON to
OFF is quick.
3. The diode's current density is high because the depletion region is small.
4. The diode's turn-on voltage is 0.2 to 0.3 volts, which is extremely low.

ZENER DIODE

- DEFINITION: The Zener diode is a severely doped semiconductor diode that is designed to
function in reverse. In other words, the Zener diode is a diode that is specifically engineered
to optimize the breakdown region.

- SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION:

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 13

 - DIAGRAM: The Zener diode circuit diagram is given in the image below. In reverse biasing,
a Zener diode is used. Reverse biasing implies connecting the diode's n-type material to the
positive terminal of the supply and the P-type material to the negative terminal of the supply.
Because the diode is comprised of strongly doped semiconductor material, the depletion
region is rather thin.

- WORKING PRINCIPLE

1. The heavily doped means the high-level impurities is added to the material for making it
more conductive. The depletion region of the Zener diode is very thin because of the
impurities. The heavily doping material increases the intensity of the electric field across
the depletion region of the Zener diode even for the small reverse voltage.
2. When no biasing is applied across the Zener diode, the electrons remain in the valence
band of the p-type material and no current flow through the diode.

3. When a reverse bias is applied across a diode and the supply voltage equals the Zener
voltage, the diode begins to conduct in the reverse bias direction. The Zener voltage is the
voltage at which the depletion area disappears completely.
4. The diode's reverse bias enhances the intensity of the electric field over the depletion
area. As a result, electrons can migrate from the P-type material's valence band to the N-
type material's conduction band.
5.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 14

 - CHARACTERISTIC: The image below depicts the VI characteristic graph of a Zener diode.
This curve demonstrates that when linked in forwarding bias, the Zener diode operates like
any other diode. However, when reverse voltage is applied across it and the reverse voltage
exceeds the preset rating, the diode experiences Zener breakdown.
-

- ADVANTAGES:
1. As Voltage Stabilizer
2. For meter protection
3. For Wave Shaping

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 15