UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Geotechnical Engineering - Applications CEM3D1

Problems, Faults and Precautionary measures in pile Construction

Bored Piles
1. No casing is needed in stiff clay. In sands and silts casing shoe should be kept
below the bottom of the hole. Excavating below the casing show may cause over-
break and water-filled cavities outside the casing. On removing the casing these
bodies of water are released into the wet concrete causing washing out of cement
paste (See Figure 5.1d).
2. Inflow of water through the base of the hole may loosen the ground and reduce
shaft resistance. Use drilling mud to overcome this.
3. Boulders are difficult to remove with small diameter piling equipment. Substitute
a few large diameter piles with larger equipment capable of dealing with boulders.
4. The base of the bore must be thoroughly cleaned out before concreting. Under-
reams should be inspected to see that material has not fallen from the sides.
5. Concreting through water in the base of a bore causes segregation of the concrete.
If water is more than a few centimetres deep, it must be removed. A tremie pipe
should be used in wet bores.
6. Bored piles should be concreted immediately after excavation to avoid softening
of the soil.
7. Concrete should be high slump and self-compacting.
8. Very few cases of deterioration of bored pile concrete have been recorded.
Increase the cover to the reinforcement in very aggressive conditions.
9. Concrete should not be allowed to impact on the sides of the holes or on the
reinforcement cage (See Figure 5.1a) in order to avoid segregation, and concreting
should be continued once started. Delays between lifts cause weak zones.
10. Casing withdrawal may lift the concrete and leave gaps in the shaft, dented or
dirty casing should not be used (See Figure 5.1b).
11. Allow for the slump of the concrete when pulling out the casing. The concrete
level should be generously topped up during casing removal, otherwise the pile

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 head will be below ground level and soil may fall in on the wet concrete.
(Question: How to splice the pile head to the required level?)
12. Flowing ground water can wash out the cement paste from the an unset pile (See
Figure 5.1c).

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Driven piles: precast concrete

1. Cracking caused by bad curing or handling stresses may lead to later corrosion of
reinforcement. Transverse cracks less than about 0.3mm wide are usually
acceptable except in very aggressive conditions.
2. The ends of sectional piles should be square within 1 in 300. Out-of-square ends
may cause eccentric driving forces.

Driven piles: steel

1. Pile sections should be properly aligned when welding, and welds should be
strong enough to resist driving forces.
2. Buckling is seldom critical, even in very soft soils. Light sections may bend
during handling.

Pile driving

1. Drive to set, not to length, otherwise severe head damage may result.
2. Piles can be damaged by heavy driving intended to penetrate hard layers. Check
by driving a test pile.
3. Use a hammer of mass at least equal to the mass of the pile, and applying low
drops. This causes less head damage than a light hammer with high drops. With a
heavy hammer more of the driving energy is effective in moving the pile.
4. Boulders may deflect and buckle or break piles.
5. In difficult cases predrilling may be used, but this reduces the side friction on the
pile shaft.
6. Pile driving may cause a local increase in pore water pressure. If driving stops for
some reason, rapid dissipation of pore pressure may increase the side resistance so
much that the pile cannot be moved when driving restarts.
7. Driving low-displacement piles in soft carbonate rocks e.g. chalk can create a skin
of liquefied material around the pile that reduces the side friction. Piles may have
to be lengthened to achieve the required set.
8. Pile driving in saturated silts may cause negative pore water pressure and a ‘false’
set. It may be necessary to drive piles at intervals of a few days with rests in
between.

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Ground movement caused by pile driving

1. Heave may lift piles already driven, leading to loss of bearing capacity or tension
failure. Heave is worst in clay soils, and it may be reduced by using low-
displacement piles, by pre-boring, or by substituting bored piles. Little heave
occurs in sands and gravels because the volume of the pile is accommodated by
compression. Heave extends for some distance around a driven pile, and it may
damage sensitive structures or buried services.
2. Lateral soil movement can damage retaining walls and river banks. Raised pore
water pressure may re-activate landslips.

Noise from pile driving – Pile driving is noisy. Noise shields can be used.

Vibration – Vibration is difficult to measure, and its effect on structures are very hard
to predict. Surveying of existing buildings should be carried out before driving begins.

BUCE

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 UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Geotechnical Engineering - Applications CEM3D1

PILE TESTING

LOAD TESTS – Essentially tests of the soil and a check on the pile design as well as
workmanship

(i) Maintain Load Test (MLT). The load is increased in stages to some multiple
of the working load. The time-settlement curve is recorded for each stage of
loading and unloading. The load at each stage is held until the rate of
settlement has decreased to less than 0.25mm/hour. The test is suitable for
checking pile head deflection. It can be used for calculating Qult if CRPT is
carried out at the end of test until failure.

(ii) Constant Rate of Penetration Test (CRPT). The load is progressively increased
to cause the pile to penetrate the soil at a constant rate until failure occurs.
Penetration rates are 0.75mm/min for piles in clay and 1.55mm/min for piles
in granular soils. It is essentially a test to determine Qult and hence applies
only to preliminary test piles. This test is not suitable for checking the

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 compliance with the specification requirements for the maximum settlement at
given stages of loading. This method has the advantages of speed in execution
and because there is no time for consolidation settlement of the ground, the
load-settlement curve is easy to interpret.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE OR INTEGRITY TESTS – Check on pile quality and

construction.

TEST PILES
(i) Trial or preliminary piles: one or more piles specially constructed for testing
before the contract to check: a. Design assumptions b. Ability of the contractor
to construct.
(ii) Contract piles: about 1% of total number, chosen at random. Cyclic loading to
1.25 or 1.50Pw.

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TEST RIG

Question: Why is the beam necessary?

Determination of ultimate load and working load from a pile test

In most pile test, failure is usually defined as deflection up to 10% pile base diameter.
Hence, the ultimate load may not be easily found. The Chin’s method is a comon
empirical method used to obtain a value of the ultimate load Qult and hence find a
value of the working load Pw.

The Chin’s method is based on the following assumptions:

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(a) When the deflection w is zero, the load P is zero and the slope of the load-
dP
displacement curve i.e. is positive.
dw
dP
(b) When the deflection increases, P increases monotonically but the slope
dw
decreases monotonically.
(c) When the deflection reaches a very large value i.e. approaching infinity, P
dP
approaches the ultimate load Qult and the slope becomes zero.
dw

Many curves such as hyperbolic curve and exponential curve exhibit the above
aw
properties but for ease of application, the hyperbolic curve P = is used where a
b+w
and b are positive constants. Applying the conditions listed above, we have:
aw 0
(a) When the deflection w is zero, the load P = = = 0 and the slope of the
b+w b
dP a aw a
load-displacement curve i.e. = − = is positive if a/b is
dw b + w (b + w) 2
b
positive.
aw2
(b) When the deflection increases i.e. w > 0, for w2 > w1 > 0 P2 = and
b + w2

aw1 aw2 aw1 aw2 (b + w1 ) − aw1 (b + w2 )

P1 = so P2 − P1 = − =
b + w1 b + w2 b + w1 (b + w1 )(b + w2 )
ab(w2 − w1 )
= > 0 . Therefore P is increasing monotonically but the slope
(b + w1 )(b + w2 )
dP a aw1 dP a aw2
= − and = − . With
dw w= w1 b + w1 (b + w1 ) 2
dw w= w2 b + w2 (b + w2 )2

dP dP a aw2 a aw1
− = − − +
dw w= w2 dw w= w1 b + w2 (b + w2 ) 2
b + w1 (b + w1 )2

a (w1 − w2 ) aw (b + w2 ) − aw2 (b + w1 )
2 2

= + 1
(b + w2 )(b + w1 ) (b + w1 )2 (b + w2 )2
a (w1 − w2 )(b + w2 )(b + w1 ) + aw1 (b + w2 ) − aw2 (b + w1 )
2 2

=
(b + w1 )2 (b + w2 )2

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 a (b + w2 )(b + w1 ) + ab 2 + aw1 w2
= (w1 − w2 ) < 0 therefore the slope decreases
(b + w1 )2 (b + w2 )2
monotonically.
(c) When the deflection reaches a very large value i.e. approaching infinity,
aw
P = lim = a approaches the ultimate load Qult, therefore a= Qult. The slope
w→ ∞ b+w
dP  a aw 
= lim  −  = 0.

dw w→∞ b + w (b + w)2 

Qult w
Therefore the load-deflection equation is P = . Re-arranging, we have
b+w
w w w b
P(b + w) = Qult w or w = Qult − b or = + which is in the form of
P P Qult Qult

y=mx+c. So if the settlement w (or ∆ as given in the figure) at each loading stage P is
divided by the load P at that state and plotted against w/P (or ∆/P as given in the
figure). The inverse slope of the lines gives the ultimate load. For an end-bearing pile,
the plot is a single line. A combined friction and end-bearing pile produces two
straight lines which intersect. The ultimate load can then be divided by a factor of
safety to give a value for the working load.

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BUCE

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 UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Geotechnical Engineering - Applications CEM3D1

4. Piles in Clay
Base capacity
The long term end-bearing capacity of a pile in clay will be considerably larger than
the undrained capacity. However, the settlement required to mobilise the drained
capacity would be far too large to be tolerated by most structures. In addition, the pile
must have sufficient immediate load-carrying capacity to prevent short term failure.
For these reasons, it is customary to calculate the base capacity of piles in clay in
terms of the undrained shear strength of the clay cu and a bearing factor Nc:
qb = cu N c (4.1)

Therefore the end bearing resistance can be given as:

Qb = qb Ab = cu N c Ab (4.2)

For depths relevant to piles, the appropriate value of Nc is 9.

Questions:
1. When is undrained capacity the appropriate strength parameter to be used?
2. How is the undrained capacity parameter obtained?
3. Consider how eqn (4.1) can be derived from the equation for ultimate bearing
capacity of circular footing qult = 0.3γBN γ + 1.3cN c + σ vo (N q − 1) (4.3)

4. Consider how Nc=9 can be found from the Bearing capacity chart of clay
(Skempton 1951).
5. If the undrained shear strength is obtained from field test, how should the value be
chosen the scattered values obtained according to current common British
practice? According to Eurocode 7? Find a distribution of undrained shear
strength with depth from the ground investigation notes.

Skin friction
Most piles in clay develop a high proportion of their overall capacity along the shaft.
Whereas the ratio of end-bearing to skin friction may be typically 50 to 100 for piles
in sand, the corresponding range is 10 to 20 for piles in clay. Therefore, considerably

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more effort has been devoted to developing reliable methods for estimating values of
skin friction for piles in clay, than has been the case for sand. Historically, the skin
friction around a pile shaft has been estimated in terms of the undrained shear strength
of the soil, by means of an empirical factor α:
τ s = αcu (4.4)

So the shaft resistance is given by:

Qs = αcu As (4.5a)

or Qs = ∑ αcu ∆As (4.5b)

or Qs = ∫ αcu dAs (4.5c)

The value of α depends on the type of clay, the method of installation and the pile
material. The appropriate value of α is obtained from results of load tests. Values of α
can range from around 0.3 to around 1.0. (Question: Can the value of α be bigger than
unity?)

Driven piles:
1. The clay around the pile is displaced both vertically and horizontally. Upward
displacement results in heaving of the ground and can cause reduction in the
bearing capacity of adjacent piles.
2. The clay in the disturbed zone around the pile is completely remoulded during
driving. (Question: What kind of soil properties do remoulded clay have in terms
of c’ and φ’?)
3. The excess pore water pressures set up by the driving stresses dissipates within a
few months as the disturbed zone is relatively narrow. Thus the skin friction at the
end of the dissipation is normally appropriate in design.

The adhesion factor α for driven piles (See Figure 4.1) is generally correlated to
cu
i.e. the ratio of the undrained shear strength to the existing vertical effective
σ v'
overburden pressure (Randolph and Wroth, 1982).

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Figure 4.1 Adhesion factors for driven piles in clay (see also Fleming et al., 1985)
Bored piles:
1. A thin layer of clay (usually 25mm) immediately adjoining the shaft will be
remoulded during boring.
2. Gradual softening of the clay adjacent to the pile will take place due to stress
release, pore water seeping from surrounding clay towards the shaft. Water can
also be absorbed from wet concrete. This softening is accompanied with reduction
in shear strength and a reduction in skin friction. Construction should therefore be
completed as soon as possible. (Question: Why does the clay adjacent to the pile
soften? Why is there stress release at the wall of the pile? Why is water absorbed
from wet concrete?)
The value of α for bored piles in clay are usually lower than those for driven piles.
Most of the recommendations of the values of α come from experience. For example,
London clay has been extensively studied and the recommended value of α is 0.45.
For short piles in weathered London clay the value drops to 0.3. For other clays,
Weltman and Healy (1978) produced a variation of α with cu reproduced in Figure
4.2. (Question: Why are the value of α for bored piles in clay usually lower than those
for driven piles?)

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Figure 4.2 Adhesion factors for piles in boulder clay (after Weltman and Healy 1978)
Example: Driven pre-stressed concrete pile in clay
Design the length of a square pile of 0.4m by 0.4m
embedded in the soil profile given in Figure 4.3 using Olson
and Dennis (1982) relationship for adhesion factors for
driven piles in clay to give a working load of 750kN with a
safety factor of 2.5. The profile of undrained shear strength
is given by the equation cu (kPa) = 50 + 5 z (m) where z is the
depth measured from the existing ground level. (Note:
Pw>750kN implies Qult=Pw x F.O.S.>1875kN)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
vertical
effective alpha. Total
4 z z' Cu qb Qb C'u stress s'v C'u/s'v α C'u Qs Qs Qult
5 (m) (m) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kN) (kN) (kN)
6 0
7 1 55 20 2.75 0.39 21.45 68.64 68.64
8 2 60 540 86.4 155
9 3 65 50 1.3 0.46 29.9 95.68 164.3
10 4 70 630 100.8 265
11 6 80 80 1 0.5 40 256 420.3
12 8 90 810 129.6 550
13 10 100 120 0.833 0.55 55 352 772.3
14 12 110 990 158.4 931
15 14 120 160 0.75 0.58 69.6 445.4 1218
16 16 130 1170 187.2 1405
17 18 140 200 0.7 0.6 84 537.6 1755
18 20 150 1350 216 1971

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Large-diameter and under-reamed bored piles
Qs + Qb
1. The work load Pw is the lesser of: (a) or
2.5
Qb
(b) Qs + . Criterion (a) usually governs straight-
3
shafted piles whereas criterion (b) usually governs
under-reamed piles. (Question: why?)
2. τs is ignored on side of under-ream (see Figure 4.4).

3. Qs is assumed fully mobilised at settlement w=d/200 i.e. 0.5%d.

4. Base settlement can be obtained from the following simplified equation:
qb D π
wi =
Eu 4
( )
1 − ν u2 f ( z ) (4.6) where qb is the actual base stress (not the ultimate

value), π/4 is shape factor for a rigid circular base and f(z) is a depth factor which
is roughly 0.85. Using the assumption that the undrained Young’s modulus varies
linearly with the undrained shear strength we have (at the base of the pile):
Eu = Mcub (4.7) where M is a constant. Using eqn (4.2), we have qbult = 9cub

Mqbult
(4.8), therefore Eu = (4.9). With νu=0.5 assumed for saturated undrained
9
clay having no volumetric change during deformation, equation (4.6) becomes:
9q b D π
wb =
Mqbult 4
( ) w
1 − 0.5 2 0.85 (4.10a) or b =
4.5qb
D Mqbult
(4.10b). Taking value of M

wb q
between 250 to 400 we have = 0.01 to 0.02 b (4.11).
D q bult

5. The value of α recommended by Tomlinson (1985) for under-reamed piles

because of length of time taken to construct the pile is 0.3.

Design Steps:
1. Calculate Qs and Qb from assumed d, D and L values. Using eqn (4.5b)
Qs = ∑ αcu ∆As and eqn (4.2) Qb = 9cub Ab calculate the shaft and end bearing

resistance.

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2. The calculation of the actual load reaching the base is estimated by assuming that
d
Qs is fully mobilised. This implies that w ≥ . Then the base stress is
200
Pw − Qs
qb = .
Ab

wb q
3. Calculate base settlement wb from eqn (4.11) above: = 0.01 to 0.02 b
D q bult
d
4. Assume that w=wb. If wb ≥ , design may be satisfactory subject to allowable
200
d
settlement and cost. If wb < , go back to step (1) and adjust dimensions as the
200
settlement is smaller than expected. (Question: How should the dimensions be
adjusted?)
5. Estimate the compression of concrete
pile shaft. The mean concrete stress is
P
σ = where P is the mean load in
A
the concrete (see Figure 4.5) and A
the cross-sectional area. Therefore
Qs
Pw −
σ = 2 .
πd 2
4

wconc σ
Using the uniaxial equation for strain we have = with the Young’s
L E conc
modulus of concrete Econc being approximately 20GPa.
6. The settlement of the pile head is therefore approximately equal to wb+wconc.

Questions:
• How accurately can we determine the load capacity of a pile?
• Which of the following offer the most uncertainty in the calculation of pile
behaviour: 1. Loading 2. Soil properties 3. Calculation method 4. Workmanship?

BUCE

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 UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical Engineering - Applications CEM3D1

3. Single piles in sands

The ultimate bearing capacity of a sand layer depends on its density. When a pile is
driven into a sand layer the density of the sand adjoining the pile changes. Therefore
the soil properties governing the ultimate bearing capacity and settlement of the pile
are different from the original properties prior to driving. In addition to the fact that
sand deposits are in general heterogeneous. This makes the prediction of pile
behaviour in sand by analytical methods extremely difficult and the ultimate bearing
capacity of piles in sand has been estimated from the results of in-situ testing. Hence
it is usual to confirm the results of the design using load tests on selected piles.

End bearing
The ultimate bearing capacity at base level is expressed
as: qb' = σ vb' N q (3.1)

It should be noted that the term Nγ for a pile is

negligible because the width B is small compared with
the length of the pile L. (Question: Consider how eqn
(3.1) can be derived from the equation for ultimate
bearing capacity of circular footing

qult = 0.3γBN γ + 1.3cN c + σ vo (N q − 1) (3.2)).

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Values of Nq quoted in the literature vary considerably, but those (See Figure 3.1)
derived by Berezantzev et al (1961) are used widely for the design of deep circular
foundations. There are at the lower end of a very wide spread and using them limits
pile settlement also.

Side Friction
The average value of skin friction over the length of pile embedded in sand can be
expressed as τ s = σ h' tan δ = Kσ v' tan δ (3.3)

where
δ is the angle of friction between pile and sand with δ less than or equal to φ’ and is
usually taken as 0.75φ’ for concrete and 20o for steel
K is the earth pressure coefficient
σ’v is the average effective overburden pressure along the embedded length
σ’h is the horizontal effective stress acting around the pile shaft after installation and
depends on the type of pile and how it is installed.
Suggested K values
Pile Type Loose sand Dense sand
Large-displacement driven piles 1.0 2.0
Low-displacement driven piles 0.5 1.0
Bored Piles Ko Ko

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Where Ko is the earth pressure coefficient at rest and is
equal to K 0 = 1 − Sinφ ' . (Question: Consider the trends of K values for various

pile types and density of sand and explain why.)

The total shaft resistance can be calculated by multiplying the skin friction by the
perimeter area of the pile: Qs = τ s As (3.4). If there is a change in the property of sand

along the length of the pile, a summation Qs = ∑ τ s ∆As (3.5) or an integral can be

used instead Qs = ∫ τ s dAs (3.6).

The equations above indicate that both the skin friction and base capacity increase
with depth. This is not the case and there are limiting values for both. Maximum
values for unit skin friction and base capacity of 110kPa and 1,100kPa have been
quoted. (Question: Why is there limiting values for unit skin friction and base
capacity? How does progressive failure happen)

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Figure: Progressive failure in friction pile

BUCE

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 UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical Applications CEM3D1

2. DESIGN OF A SINGLE PILE

The ultimate load which can be carried by a pile

is equal to sum of the base resistance Qb and the
shaft resistance Qs (See Figure 2.1). (Question:
Should the peak or the residual resistance be
used?)
Qult = Qs + Qb (2.1)
(Question: What is the unit of ultimate load?)
Qs = τ s As (2.2)

where τs is ultimate shearing resistance per unit

area, generally referred to as ‘skin friction’ and
As is the perimeter area of the pile. (Question:
Under what condition would τs be a constant
value along the length of the pile? What form
should eqn (2.2) take if τs is not constant?)

Qb = qb Ab (2.3)

where qb is the ultimate bearing capacity at base level and Ab is the base area.
(Question: If the pile is bearing close to the interface of two different soil layers,
should the property of the upper or the lower layer be used for its calculation?)

The relative magnitude of shaft and base capacities will depend on the geometry of
the pile and soil profile. Hence piles are sometimes referred to as ‘end bearing’ piles
or ‘friction or floating’ piles. In cohesive soils, the shaft capacity is quite high while
in frictionless soils the base capacity is usually more important. (Question: Why do
‘floating piles’ seem to float?)

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Piles are either installed as single isolated piles (usually for large diameter piles) or in
pile groups. The behaviour of pile groups differs from isolated piles in bearing
capacity and especially (See Figure 2.2) and a pile in a group may induce settlement
in another pile. (Question: Why does pile group behave differently from isolated
piles?)

Mobilisation of bearing capacity

The shaft friction Qs is usually fully mobilised when the settlement w is
approximately 0.5% of the diameter of the shaft ds. But the end bearing capacity is
usually fully mobilised when w=5% to 10% of the diameter of the end db. (Question:
Why does the end bearing require so much settlement to fully mobilise?)

Example (taken from Whitaker and Cooke of BRE – Building Research

Establishment) For a 600mm diameter bored pile in stiff clay, the length L is 10m,
Qs=600kN, Qb=400kN, therefore using eqn (2.1) Qult = Qs + Qb =1000kN. Qs is

mobilised at w = 0.5%d s = 0.005 x600mm = 3mm . But Qb is mobilised at w = 5%d b

= 0.05 x600mm = 30mm .

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For shaft friction is larger or equal to end bearing capacity, then the stiffness at
working load Pw is large (See Figure 2.4).

For end bearing capacity is larger than shaft friction, the stiffness is small at working
load (See Figure 2.5).

Factor of safety
The working load for all pile types is the sum of the base resistance and the shaft
friction divided by a suitable factor of safety. A factor of 2.5 is usually used.

Qs + Qb
Pw = (2.4)
2.5

When a pile test is carried out, the factor of safety is sometimes reduced to two i.e.

Qs + Qb
Pw = (2.5)
2

For large diameter or under-reamed piles, Pw should not be more than

Qb
Pw = Qs + (2.6)
3
It is usually safe to choose the lowest from equations (2.4) or (2.6) unless a pile test is
carried out. The cross-over point for equations (2.4) and (2.6) is, by equating the two
working loads:
Qs + Qb Q
= Qs + b (2.7a)
2.5 3

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3Qs + 3Qb = 7.5Qs + 2.5Qb (2.7b)

0.5Qb = 4.5Qs (2.7c)

Qb = 9Qs (2.7d)

For Qb > 9Qs , eqn (2.6) should be used. And vice versa, eqn (2.4) should be used.

Question: What is the purpose of the factor of safety? How is the value of the factor
of safety chosen?

BUCE

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 UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Geotechnical Applications CEM3D1

PILING
What is a pile? How is it different from a shallow foundation?

What are the main types of piles available?

1. LARGE-DISPLACEMENT PILES
Solid sections or closed-ended tubes driven into the ground which displace the soil as
they enter the ground.
(a) Precast piles – Reinforced or prestressed concrete or timber sections
which are precast before being driven.
(b) Driven cast-in-situ piles – Closed-ended hollow tubular sections of
reinforced concrete or steel which are first driven into the ground and then
filled with in-situ concrete.
2. LOW-DISPLACEMENT PILES
Precast driven piles of small cross-sectional area which can penetrate the ground
without causing much displacement.
(a) Rolled steel sections such as H-piles and sheet piles
(b) Tubular steel piles which are open-ended and in which a soil plug does
not form. If a soil plug does form, this type becomes a large-displacement

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 pile. (Questions: How does a soil plug form? In what type of soil it would
more likely to happen?)
3. BORED PILES
Piles which are formed by first excavating a cylindrical hole and then filling it with
in-situ concrete and a reinforcing cage. (Question: Why is the reinforcing cage
needed?)
(a) Small diameter bored piles up to a metre in diameter are parallel shafted.
Also CFA (continuous flight auger) piles.
(b) Large-diameter bored piles have diameters up to about six metres.
(c) Under-reamed bored piles are large-diameter piles with a conical or bell-
shaped enlargement of the base which can be up to about three times the
shaft diameter. (Question: Why is an enlargement of the base desirable?)
4. MINI-PILES
Very small-diameter piles (say 100-200mm) used for special purposes such as under-
pinning. They may be driven or jacked into the ground.

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How is the choice of pile type made?
• Speed of installation
• Ease of installation
• Effect on the environment – Noise, vibration, heave and displacement
• Cost
• Ground condition – chemical attack, ground water intrusion, hard layers,
boulders, proximity of rock layers
• Load bearing capacity
• Restriction on working space
• Quality of the installed pile
• Availability of material

1. LARGE-DISPLACEMENT PILES - PRECAST

Advantages
(a) Pile can be seen complete before driving
(b) Unaffected by groundwater
(c) Resistance to chemical attack (Question: why not?)
(d) High bending strength
Disadvantages
(a) Length adjustment on site is difficult
(b) Cannot penetrate obstructions e.g. hard layers, bouldery soil
(c) Noise and vibration during driving
(d) Heave caused by soil displacement may life piles already driven or cause
deflection of other piles or structures
(e) Toe enlargement impossible
(f) Cannot be driven with low headroom

2. LARGE-DISPLACEMENT PILES – DRIVEN CAST-IN-SITU

Advantages
(a) Easy adjustment of length on site
(b) Usually unaffected by groundwater
(c) Base can be enlarged with some types
(d) Driving noise and vibration can be reduced by using an internal drop-
hammer
Disadvantages
(a) Pile defects can be caused if the driven tube is withdrawn
(b) Groundwater may affect pile if a permanent casing is not used
(c) Lateral soil displacement may damage nearby unset piles
(d) Noise and vibration may be unacceptable even with an internal drop-
hammer
(e) May be subject to chemical attack
(f) Base enlargement may be small in stiff or dense ground (Question: why?)

3. LOW-DISPLACEMENT PILES
Advantages
(a) Much reduced ground heave
(b) Ease of penetrating thin hard layers
(c) High bending strength
(d) Extensions can be easily welded on

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Disadvantages
(a) Boulders may deflect a pile off-line
(b) Driving noise

4. BORED PILES
Advantages
(a) Length adjustment easy on site
(b) Opportunity to inspect and test the excavated soil or to carry out in-situ
tests in the borehole (Question: Is it safe to go down and inspect?)
(c) Large high-capacity piles can be constructed
(d) Ground obstructions can be penetrated – at a cost
(e) Noise and vibration are much less than with driven piles
(f) No ground heave
(g) Construction possible in low headroom
(h) Enlarged bases can be formed with large-diameter types
Disadvantages
(a) Construction is difficult in water-bearing ground. (Question: why?)
(b) Serious construction faults can be caused when casing is withdrawn
(c) Enlarged bases cannot be formed in cohesionless soils (Question: why?)
(d) In-situ concrete may be liable to chemical attack
(e) Loss of ground and settlement damage to adjacent structures can occur
when a group of piles is formed

BUCE

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 UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Geotechnical Engineering - Applications CEM3D1

PILE GROUPS

A group of piles installed fairly closely together, typical spacing 2B - 4B where B is

the diameter of a single pile, and joined by a slab (pile cap) cast on top of the piles.
The cap is usually in contact with the soil, hence part of the structural load is carried
directly on the soil immediately below the surface. If the cap is clear of the ground
surface, the piles in the group are referred to as free-standing. The design principle of
pile groups also applies to piled rafts. Piles may be installed under a raft for the
purpose of reducing settlement.

Pile groups have to be considered in two ways:

1. Capacity ; 2. Settlement.
Settlement is usually the limiting design criterion.

Load capacity of a pile group

Suppose the group capacity is Qg and there are n piles of individual capacity Qult.

(a) Sand: Qg is considered in relation to n Qult. Qg > n Qult for a driven pile group in

loose to medium dense sand due to compaction and < n Qult for very dense sand due
to dilation.

(b) Clays: A pile group could fail as a series of failures of single piles or as an overall
block failure of the group and the surrounding soil. Both Qg values should be
checked for the lowest:

Qg = n Qult (single pile failure)

or
Qg = Qs + Qb (block failure – See Figure)

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Qs = side area x cu = (2 l B + 2 l L) cu = 2 l cu (B+L)
(Question: Why is there no adhesion factor in the shaft resistance calculation?)
Qb = Ab Nc cu

B  l 
Nc = 5(1+0.2 )f where f = 1 +  ≤ 1.5 .
L  12 B 

Example

Each pile 400mm diameter, 10m long in clay

suppose α = 0.3 on average
_
Single pile Qult = Ab Nc cub + As α c u

= π x 0.22 x 9 x 100 + π x 0.4 x 10 x 0.3 x 75 = 395.8 kN

Qg = 25 x 395.8 = 9896 kN.

Block failure B = L = 4 + 0.4 = 4.4m

As = 4 l B = 4 x 10 x 4.4 = 176 m2
_
Qs = As cu = 176 x 75 = 13200 kN (> n Qult)

Ab = B2 = 4.42 = 19.36 m2

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 10
Nc = 5(1+0.2) (1+ ) = 7.14
12x4.4
Qb = 19.36 x 7.14 x 100 = 13816 kN

Qg = 13200 +13816 = 27016 kN

Thus Qg = 9896 kN (single pile failure)

Pile group settlement:

Free-standing group - general analysis:

For n identical piles, settlement wk of pile k is

n n
wk = w Σ (p j α j ) + w Pk or w k = w Σ α kj p j if α kk = 1
j=1 j=1

j≠ k

The first term in the first equation represents the influence of other piles on
pile k and the second term represents the settlement of pile k alone. These two
contributions can be combined in the form of the second equation.
w = settlement of single pile under unit load
Pj = load on pile j

αj or αkj = influence factor between piles k and j.

Thus n equations may be written, one for each pile, and also vertical equilibrium gives
n
PG = ΣP
j=1
j = total load on group

Solve n+1 equations for either

(a) Equal or known load on each pile; solve for wk (= flexible cap)

or (b) Equal settlement of all piles; solve for wG and Pk (= rigid cap)

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D:\pc6700\doc\cem3d1\01to02\geotech8.doc Page 4 of 7 22/09/01 22:50
wA = w PA + w [ PA (0.27+0.42+0.27) + PB (0.42+0.35)]

wA/w = 1.96 PA + 0.77 PB (1)

wB = w PB + w [ PA (0.42+0.42+0.35+0.35) + PB (0.42)]

wB/w = 1.54 PA + 1.42 PB (2)

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Equilibrium gives 4 PA + 2 PB = 3000 kN

(a) Suppose pile cap is rigid ∴ wA = wB ; PA ≠ PB

Eq. 1 = Eq. 2 1.96 PA + 0.77 PB = 1.54 PA + 1.42 PB

∴ 0.42 PA - 0.65 PB = 0

4 PA + 2 PB = 3000

∴ PA = 566.9 kN ; PB = 366.3 kN

wA/w = 1.96 x 566.9 + 0.77 x 366.3 (=wB/w)

∴ wA = 1393.2 x (15/500) = 41.8 mm

Answers : PA = 567 kN; PB = 366 kN ; w = 40 mm.

(b) Suppose pile cap is flexible ∴ PA = PB ; wA ≠ wB

PA = PB = 3000/6 = 500 kN

wA = 500 ( 1.96 + 0.77) x (15/500) = 41.0 mm

wB = 500 ( 1.54 + 1.42) x (15/500) = 44.4 mm

Answers : PA = PB = 500 kN ; wA = 40 mm; wB = 45 mm

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BUCE

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