Durability of Concrete

Common deterioration mechanisms, Design and Testing for durability (SA approach)

Dr Mike Otieno
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
University of the Witwatersrand
Introduction
§ What is durability?
…ability of a material or structure to withstand its design service
conditions for its design life without significant deterioration
…resistance to degradation processes e.g. weathering action, chemical
attack, abrasion, etc

§ It is mainly a function of concrete penetrability which is

…a function of interconnectivity of the pores, pore size distribution, and
their tortuosity (“twistedness”)

§ Why is durability important?

ü structures need to meet their design service life (and beyond)…
ü economic viewpoint → maintenance, repair, etc
ü sustainability viewpoint…
Introduction
§ How do we ensure concrete durability requirements are designed
for and satisfied in construction?
…develop suitable, robust (reproducible, repeatable) and affordable
durability tests to:

1. assist in concrete mix proportioning → before construction

2. check as-build concrete quality → after construction

§ Key elements in the design for concrete durability:

1. Aggressiveness of exposure environment (characterization)
2. The concrete quality / system
Factors affecting concrete durability
Concrete durability

The concrete system Aggressiveness of Exposure environment

Intrinsic factors Physical attack Chemical attack

ü Concrete penetrability ü Abrasion ü Nature and
ü Binder type (NOT CONTENT) ü Erosion concentration of
ü w/c (or w/b) ratio ü Cavitation aggressive agents
ü Aggregates, admixtures, etc ü Freeze-thaw ü Internal instability
ü Design mix proportioning ü Salt crystallization (incompatibility between
ü Effects of cracking mix constituents)
ü Coupling with effects of
Extrinsic factors temperature and
ü Production processes e.g. relative humidity
mixing
ü Construction processes e.g.
compaction
ü Curing regime (temp & moisture)
ü Early-age temp. history
Concrete quality
“Common deterioration mechanisms in concrete”

Corrosion of reinforcing steel

Sulphate attack
Alkali-silica reaction
Acid (soft water) attack
Abrasion
Corrosion of steel in concrete
§ Corrosion is the greatest cause of durability
failure in RC structures in the world today
§ What is corrosion?
ü is a dissolution process
ü occurs when metals are exposed to corrosive environments
ü an electrochemical process (redox reaction)
Anodic reaction (oxidation): Fe → Fe2+ + 2eˉ
Cathodic reaction (reduction): 2H2O + O2 + 4eˉ → 4OHˉ
§ In addition to anode and cathode, metallic path and electrolyte are
also required for corrosion to proceed
§ Steel embedded in concrete is protected by:
ü concrete cover (thickness, quality and condition)
ü high pH (~12.5) of the pore solution → due to Ca(OH)2
Corrosion of steel in concrete
§ Consequences of steel corrosion in concrete:
ü Loss of aesthetics – rust stains
ü Spalling
ü Delamination
ü Cracking
ü Loss of steel cross-section
ü Reduced load capacity
ü Structural failure!!
Fe

FeO

Fe3O4
Fe2O3
Fe(OH)2

Fe(OH)3
Fe(OH)3·3H2O
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
Volume, cm (relative)
Corrosion of steel in concrete
§ Main causes of steel corrosion in concrete:
ü Carbonation – ingress of CO2
ü Chloride attack – ingress of (dissolved) chlorides

§ Other causes (not covered in this course):

ü Presence of stray currents e.g. in structures
close to electric train lines

ü Presence of dissimilar metals – galvanic corrosion

q …when two dissimilar metals are electrically connected in the presence
of an electrolyte, the metal higher in the electrochemical series
undergoes corrosion
Carbonation-induced corrosion of steel in concrete
§ Due to ingress of CO2
§ Common in inland regions areas e.g. JHB
§ Severe in areas with high CO2 concentrations
ü Car parks
ü Industrial areas
§ Chemical reactions involved:
𝐶𝑂# + 𝐻# 𝑂 → 𝐻# 𝑂' ………………….. (1)
Followed by:
𝐻# 𝑂' + 𝐶𝑎 𝑂𝐻 # → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂' + 𝐻# 𝑂 …...(2)

§ Reactions lead to reduction in pore solution pH from ~12.5 to ~8.5

q …the reduction in pH leads to destruction of a protective layer on the
embedded steel surface rendering it prone to corrosion
Carbonation-induced corrosion of steel in concrete
§ CO2 ingress is diffusion-controlled
§ Fick’s 1st law of diffusion is used to predict rate of carbonation:
Simplified form of solution to Fick’s 1st law of diffusion:
𝑑/ = 𝑘/ 𝑡
dc is the depth of carbonation (mm)
kc is the coefficient of carbonation (mm/√(year))
t is the time of exposure (years)

§ Factors affecting rate of carbonation:

q Temperature ~ 20 ºC
q RH ~50-70%
q CO2 concentration
q Use of cement extenders e.g. FA, slag
q w/b ratio
Carbonation-induced corrosion of steel in concrete
§ How is rate of carbonation in concrete measured?
Ø use of pH indicator - phenolphthalein solution

§ Phenolphthalein solution / indicator:

Ø remains colourless if the pH of the concrete is ~8.5 to 9.0

Ø changes colour to pink/purple if the pH of the concrete is > ~9.0

Chloride-induced corrosion of steel in concrete
§ Due to ingress of chlorides
§ Common in coastal regions e.g. CPT, DBN
§ Corrosion is initiated when the concentration
of chlorides in concrete at the steel level
reaches a critical value i.e. chloride threshold
→ NOT DUE TO REDUCTION IN pH as in
carbonation-induced corrosion

§ Sources of chlorides in concrete:

ü Internal: admixtures, contaminated raw materials
ü External: sea water, contaminated soils, de-icing salts
Chloride-induced corrosion of steel in concrete
§ Chloride ingress is diffusion-controlled
§ Fick’s 2nd law of diffusion is used to predict rate of ingress:
Simplified form of solution to Fick’s 2nd law of diffusion:

𝑥
𝐶4,6 = 𝐶7 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓
2 𝐷𝑡
Cx,t: chloride concentration at the depth x after a given time of exposure t
Cs: chloride concentration at the surface of the concrete
D: chloride diffusion coefficient 2.0
Cs

erf: mathematical error function Chloride concentration

(% by mass cement) 1.5
Chloride
profile curve
1.0

Depth to steel
0.5 in concrete
Clˉ content Cx,t
at steel level
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Depth into concrete (from surface), x (mm)
Chloride-induced corrosion of steel in concrete
§ Factors affecting chloride ingress in concrete:
q Presence of cracks on concrete cover
q Binder type (PC vs. blended cements)
q w/b ratio
q Curing, compaction

§ Synergy between carbonation and chloride ingress:

q Some chlorides are bound by cement (chemically and physically) during
penetration → hence free and bound chlorides
Ø Only free chlorides participate in steel corrosion
q Bound chlorides can be released if pH of pore solution is reduced due to
carbonation → hence more free chlorides available for corrosion of steel

§ Chloride-induced corrosion occurs much faster than

carbonation-induced corrosion, and is also more severe
Sulphate attack
§ Sources of sulphates in concrete:
q Internal: SO3 (mainly from gypsum, CaSO4)
q External: sea water, soils, sewage, industrial
effluents

§ Forms: Na2SO4, MgSO4, KSO4, CaSO4

§ The sulphates attack C3A (from PC) to form ettringite e.g.

𝐶' 𝐴 + 3𝐶𝑆 B 𝐻# + 26𝐻 → 𝐶' 𝐴 B 3𝐶𝑆 B 𝐻'#

(Gypsum) (Ettringite)

§ Resultant chemical product is ettringite which

is expansive and results in extensive cracking
of the concrete i.e. is the reaction occurs
in already hardened concrete
Sulphate attack (cont’d)
§ Note: Ettringite is usually formed in concrete during cement
hydration process – at normal temperatures (<70 ºC). It is only
destructive if formed in already hardened concrete due to its
expansive nature

§ Ettringite can also be formed if concrete is cured at temp. > 70 ºC

e.g. in heat-cured precast elements i.e. Delayed Ettringite Formation
ü At high temperatures, the ettringite that is usually formed is destroyed
releasing SO42¯ which are adsorbed onto CSH
ü In the presence of moisture, the SO42¯ are released and are available
to form expansive ettringite in the hardened concrete
Sulphate attack (cont’d)
§ Prevention of sulphate attack in concrete:
ü Use sulphate resisting PC with low C3A content (<3.5%)
ü Use cement extenders to lower concrete penetrability – mainly GGBS
(50%)
ü Avoid excessive temp. rise due to hydration – careful choice of
blended cement
Alkali-silica reaction
§ Due to reaction between:
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎 𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑆𝑅 𝑔𝑒𝑙
+ →
𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒

§ Source of alkalis (K+, Na+): cement, admixtures, aggregates

§ Driving force: presence of moisture

§ Visual identification:
ü Surface as “map cracking” of concrete
ü Whitish substance around aggregates
ü Large crack widths (0.1 – 10 mm)
ü Fractured aggregates
Alkali-silica reaction (cont’d)
§ Structural effects: loss of strength and stiffness, cracking,
deflections
Alkali-silica reaction (cont’d)
§ Risk of ASR can be minimized by:
ü Minimizing alkali content in cement i.e. %Na2O-eq < 0.6
ü Minimize cement content to ~ 350 kg/m3
ü Use cement extenders
ü Keep concrete “dry” – limit access of water - keep moisture out!
Acid attack (& softy water attack)
§ Low pH destabilizes the calcium silicate, aluminate
and ferrite hydrates
§ How does it occur?
ü Ca(OH)2 in the hardened cement paste (HCP)
is leached out of the concrete due to low pH
ü This occurs in order to re-establish alkalinity
ü Destruction of HCP leads to loss of binding
capacity → concrete disintegrates!
Velocity of dissolution

Before…

After…

1 7 14 pH
Abrasion (similar to erosion & cavitation)
§ Due to sliding, scrapping → abrasive surface wear of concrete e.g.
ü Hydraulic structures – due to solid particles in flowing water
ü Industrial floors
ü Concrete roads, etc

§ Leads to exposure of (coarse) aggregates

§ Abrasion resistance of concrete:

q Ensure good quality surface finish – How?
ü surface finishing techniques
ü early-age moist curing
ü use of surface hardening agents
q Is dependent on:
ü Aggregate strength and hardness – ACV, 10% FACT value, Flak. In.
ü Strength of bond between aggregate and cement paste (measured
by comp. strength)
SA approach to Concrete Durability Design
§ There is need to assess potential durability of concrete:
ü Before construction (laboratory tests – mix design proportioning)
ü After construction (as-built concrete quality tests)

§ Three Durability Index tests are used to fulfil the above objectives:
ü Oxygen permeability test (OP-test) Each of the tests is linked to a
ü Water sorptivity test (WS-test) transport mechanism relevant to a
particular deterioration process.
ü Chloride conductivity test (CC-test)
§ Tests are based on measurement of transport mechanisms
through which aggressive substances (Cl¯, CO2, H2O, etc)
penetrate concrete
§ Tests focus on steel corrosion but results can be used to infer
other deterioration mechanisms
SA approach to Concrete Durability Design (cont’d)
§ Three indices are obtained from the 3 tests:
ü Oxygen permeability index (OPI)
…tests will soon be
ü Water sorptivity index (WSI) incorporated in SANS…
ü Chloride conductivity index (CCI)

§ Indices are used to assess potential durability performance of a

given concrete

§ Tests use concrete discs: 68 ± 2 mm diam. × 30 ± 2 mm thick

ü At least 4 discs are tested per concrete (representative?)

§ Specimens are oven-dried at 50 ºC for 7 days before testing

ü those for CC test are further vacuum-saturated with 5M NaCl solution
before testing
Oxygen permeability test
§ Measures resistance of concrete to ingress of gaseous
substances by diffusion
§ Rate of pressure decay is monitored, and Darcy’s law used to
determine a concrete’s coefficient of permeability (k)
§ OPI is defined as:
𝒘𝑽𝒈𝒅 𝑷𝒐
𝑂𝑃𝐼 = −𝐿𝑜𝑔VW 𝒍𝒏 i.e. 𝑂𝑃𝐼 = −𝐿𝑜𝑔VW 𝒌
𝑹𝑨𝜽𝒕 𝑷

§ Typical range of OPI: ~8.0 ≤ OPI ≤ ~11.0

ü Concrete permeability increases as OPI value
decreases

§ There are empirical formulations relating OPI and

rate of carbonation – carbonation-induced corrosion
Oxygen permeability test (cont’d)
Permeating gas outlet

Clamping cover plate Concrete sample in rubber

collar, in rigid sleeve

Simplified
schematic Pressure gauge

Gas inlet valve

Gas outlet valve

Oxygen permeability test (cont’d)
Top screw

Solid ring
Cover plate
Permeating
Rigid sleeve gas outlet
Compressible collar

Concrete specimen Air-tight seal

Concrete specimen in
compressible collar in
rigid sleeve
Detailed Gas inlet valve connected to
oxygen cylinder
schematic
Pressure vessel
containing oxygen

Connection to pressure
transducer and data
logger

Gas outlet
valve
Water sorptivity test
§ Measures resistance of concrete to ingress of moisture by
capillary suction
§ Mass gain of the specimen is measured at regular intervals (0, 3,
5, 7, 9, 12, 16, 20 and 25 minutes)
∆gh i
§ WSI is defined as: 𝑊𝑆𝐼 = B
6 gjkh lgm

Concrete disc specimen

(68 ± 2 mm diameter, 30 ± 2 mm thick)

Epoxy coating or Capillary rise

Wet paper towels in
packaging tape
(Ca(OH)2 solution

Test surface of concrete specimen

Water sorptivity test (cont’d)

§ Concrete resistance to moisture ingress increases as the WSI

increases

Concrete discs
Scale (after pre-conditioning)

Wet paper towels in

(Ca(OH)2 solution

Stopwatch
Chloride conductivity test
§ Measures resistance of concrete to ingress of chlorides by “diffusion”
§ Involves measuring the current through a concrete sample due to a 10 V
pd applied across the sample
𝒊𝒕
§ CCI is defined as: 𝑪𝑪𝑰 = 𝝆 = → converted to D and used for SLP
𝑽𝑨

§ Concrete resistance to chloride penetration increases as CCI decreases

Voltmeter
V
DC power source
Ammeter
– A
+
5 M NaCl solution

. . . .
Concrete
specimen Luggin
capillaries
PVC
cap-screw

Rubber collar Stainless steel ANODE

Stainless steel CATHODE
Chloride conductivity test (cont’d)
Connection points to power Luggin Connection points to
Silicone / Luggin
supply (–ve terminal) capillary ammeter (mA) and
flexible collars capillary
and voltmeter (COM) voltmeter (V)

Cathode cell Central compartment (where Anode cell

compartment specimen is placed) compartment

Spring-loaded telescopic luggin capillaries

PVC cap-screw

Bleed hole in
the anode /
cathode cell
compartment

Stainless steel anode and cathode electrodes

DI Specification Targets (Example: Targets for SANRAL projects)
In-situ values
Carbonation-induced corrosion (from Atmospheric & Industrial)
In-situ DI values for various cover depths for 100 Year Life
Condition Recommended
Exposure Cover OPI (Log scale) Sorptivity (mm/√hr)
Description of Min. Cover
Class depth Recommended Recommended
Exposure (mm) Min. value Min. value
(mm) value value
Low hum. (<50%);
External conc,
40 mm
XC1a sheltered from 40 N/A N/A 10.0 12.0
min.
moisture, arid areas;
Mild
Interior concrete
40 9.2 9.0 10.0 12.0
Permanently wet or
XC1b 40 50 9.0 9.0 10.0 12.0
damp
60 N/A N/A N/A N/A
40 9.4 9.0 10.0 12.0
50 9.1 9.0 10.0 12.0
XC2 Wer, rarely dry 40
60* 9.0 9.0 10.0 12.0
70* N/A N/A N/A N/A
Moderate
Moderate humidity 40 9.4 9.0 10.0 11.0
(50-80%). External 50 9.1 9.0 10.0 11.0
XC3 40
concrete, sheltered 60* 9.0 9.0 10.0 11.0
from rain in non-arid 70* N/A N/A N/A N/A
40 9.6 9.2 10.0 10.0
50 9.3 9.0 10.0 10.0
XC4 Cyclic wet & dry Severe 45
60* 9.1 9.0 10.0 10.0
70* 9.0 9.0 10.0 10.0
* These covers should be avoided to (i) limit crack widths, and (ii) ensure durable concrete is being specified

Note that there is no focus on binder type (for OPI and WSI values)
DI Specification Targets (Example: Targets for SANRAL projects)

In-situ values
Chloride-induced corrosion (from Groundswater, Seawater & Sea-spray)
In-situ DI values for various cover depths for 100 Year Life
Condition Recommended
Exposure Cover Chloride conductivity index (mS/cm) Sorptivity (mm/√hr)
Description of Min. Cover
Class depth 73:30 50:50 50:50 90:10 Recommended Min.
Exposure (mm)
(mm) CEM I:FA CEM I:GGBS CEM I:GGCS CEM I:CSF value value
Exposed to airborne
40 1.50 1.60 2.10 0.40 10.0 12.0
salt but not in direct
Very
XS1 contact with 50 50 2.10 2.20 2.80 0.50 10.0 12.0
severe
seawater or inland
saline waters 60 2.60 2.70 3.40 0.65 10.0 12.0

Permanently 40 1.00 1.10 1.40 0.30 10.0 11.0

XS2a submerged in sea Severe 50 60 1.40 1.60 2.00 0.40 10.0 11.0
(or saline waters) 60 1.80 2.10 2.50 0.50 10.0 11.0
XS2a + Exposed to
XS2b Extreme 60 (Mandatory) 60 1.45 1.70 2.00 0.40 10.0 11.0
abrasion
40 0.65 0.85 1.00 0.25 10.0 10.0
Tidal, Splash &
XS3a 50 50 1.10 1.35 1.45 0.35 10.0 10.0
Spray zones
Extreme 60 1.45 1.70 2.00 0.40 10.0 10.0
XS3a + Exposed to
XS3b 60 (Mandatory) 60 1.10 1.30 1.55 0.30 10.0 10.0
abrasion

Note the focus on binder type for CCI values

Points to NOTE about Concrete Durability

§ What is concrete durability?

§ Why is it important?
§ What factors affect concrete durability?
ü Factors having positive effects
ü Factors having negative effects
§ How does the type of cement affect concrete durability?
§ Three main factors to consider to achieve durability:
ü Cost – high initial cost
ü Selection of materials – at design stage
ü Testing – appropriate test methods and interpretation of results
§ Why does high concrete strength not always correspond to improved
durability?
Points to NOTE about Concrete Durability

§ South African approach to concrete durability design and testing:

ü DI tests – OP, WS & CC tests
ü Testing procedures – sample preparation, set-up, testing, etc
ü What each test measures
ü Interpretation of results
ü How does the SA approach compare to other approaches around
the world, e.g. India?
Other issues

§ Seminar by Prof. Wolfram – from Germany (14th May, 2015 at 14h15)

“Parameters that affect the workability of fresh concrete from nano- to
centimetre scale”

§ Green Talents competition:

ü Organized by the Germany’s Federal ministry of Education and Research
ü 25 winners from around the world
ü Get a chance to visit Germany and stay for 3 months… (fully paid)
ü See poster by the reception / notice boards or visit www.greentalents.de
Laboratory demonstration: Durability testing

§ Three DI tests to be demonstrated:

ü Date: Thursday 7th May 2015
ü Time: 14h00 to 15h00

§ Students to be divided in groups – check Wits-e for your group

§ Specimens already prepared – ready for OP, WS and CC testing

§ Be familiar with the DI testing manual – check Wits-e