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Hedefler
Bu bölümün hedefleri:
Objectives
Laplace Dönüşümü
Bir sistemden istenilen cevabın alınabilmesi için kontrol sistemi tasarımında ilk adım sistemin
matematiksel bir modelinin oluşturulmasıdır. Fizik kurallarının (Newton yasası veya Kirchoff
yasası) sistemlere uygulanmasıyla elde edilen modeller diferansiyel denklemler şeklindedir
(Zaman alanı). Fakat doğrusal adi diferansiyel denklere Laplace transformasyonu uygulanarak
sistemin Transfer fonksiyon modeli (Frekans alanı) elde edilebilir. Transfer fonksiyonu gösterimi
ile diferansiyel denklem çözümüne gerek olmaksızın sistemin dinamik analizi yapılabilir.
In control systems theory, a mathematical model of the system is required to design a controller in
order to obtain the desired response. When we apply the laws of physics, we obtain the
mathematical model of the system in terms of differential equations (Time domain). In this course
we will use the Laplace transform to obtain the transfer function (Frequency domain) of the system
from the differential representation. The transfer function representation will also help us to analyze
the system dynamics without solving the differential equation. We will talk about concept of
Transfer Function in the following chapter.
The Laplace transform method has the following two attractive features:
1. The Laplace transform converts the differential equation into an algebraic equation in s. It is
possible to manipulate the algebraic equation by simple algebraic rules to obtain the solution in the
s-domain. The final solution is obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform.
The other advantages the Laplace transform method for the analysis of linear-time-invariant
systems are the following:
3. The homogeneous equation and the particular integral are solved in one operation.
7. The transient component and steady-state component of the solution can be obtained
simultaneously.
8. It allows the use of graphical techniques for predicting the system performance without
actually solving system differential equations.
Kompleks Sayılar
𝑠 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏
a: Gerçek kısım
b: Sanal kısım
Kartezyen Koordinatlar:
𝑠 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏
Polar Koordinatlar:
𝑏
𝜃 = arctan (𝑎) (Açısı)
Üssel gösterim:
Şekilden;
𝑎 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ve 𝑏 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Euler teoreminden;
𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Böylece,
𝑠 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗(2𝜋𝑘+𝜃) , (𝑘 = 0,1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛)
Laplace Dönüşümünün tanımı:
Complex Numbers
Before introducing the Laplace transform, we shall give a brief background for complex numbers.
s = a + jb
a: real part
b: Imaginary part
In Cartesian coordinates:
s = a + jb
In Polar coordinates:
𝑏
𝜃 = arctan (𝑎) (Angle)
Exponential representation:
𝑠 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗(2𝜋𝑘+𝜃) , (𝑘 = 0,1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛)
Let us define;
𝑠 : a complex variable
𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔
where j = −1 , σ is the real part and ω is the imaginary part, as shown in Figure
This integral transform has a number of properties that make it useful for analyzing linear
dynamical systems. The most significant advantage is that differentiation and integration become
multiplication and division, respectively, with s. (This is similar to the way that logarithms change
an operation of multiplication of numbers to addition of their logarithms.) This changes integral
equations and differential equations to polynomial equations, which are much easier to solve.
Laplace Dönüşümünün Özellikleri ve Önemli Teoremler
4. Toplama ve Çıkarma
5. Türev
𝑑𝑓(𝑡)
ℒ[ ] = 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑓(0− )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)
ℒ[ ] = 𝑠 𝑛 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓(0− ) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓 (1) (0− ) … − 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (0− )
𝑑𝑡 𝑛
𝑑𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)
Burada 𝑓 (𝑛) (0− ) = |
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑡=0−
6. İntegrasyon
𝑡
𝐹(𝑠)
ℒ [∫ 𝑓(𝜏)𝑑𝜏] =
0 𝑠
𝑡𝑛 𝑡𝑛−1 𝑡2 𝑡1
𝐹(𝑠)
ℒ [∫ ∫ … ∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝜏)𝑑𝜏𝑑𝑡1 … 𝑑𝑡𝑛−1 ] =
0 0 0 0 𝑠𝑛
7. Başlangıç değer teoremi
9. Zaman ölçeklemesi
ℒ[𝑓(𝑡⁄𝑎)] = 𝑎𝐹(𝑎𝑠)
ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠⁄𝑎)] = 𝑎𝑓(𝑎𝑡)
3. Multiplication by a constant
5. Differentiation
𝑑𝑓(𝑡)
ℒ[ ] = 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑓(0− )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)
ℒ[ ] = 𝑠 𝑛 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓(0− ) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓 (1) (0− ) … − 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (0− )
𝑑𝑡 𝑛
𝑑𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)
Here, 𝑓 (𝑛) (0− ) = |
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑡=0−
6. İntegration
𝑡
𝐹(𝑠)
ℒ [∫ 𝑓(𝜏)𝑑𝜏] =
0 𝑠
𝑡𝑛 𝑡𝑛−1 𝑡2 𝑡1
𝐹(𝑠)
ℒ [∫ ∫ … ∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝜏)𝑑𝜏𝑑𝑡1 … 𝑑𝑡𝑛−1 ] =
0 0 0 0 𝑠𝑛
7. Initial-value theorem
8. Final-value theorem
9. Time scaling
ℒ[𝑓(𝑡⁄𝑎)] = 𝑎𝐹(𝑎𝑠)
ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠⁄𝑎)] = 𝑎𝑓(𝑎𝑡)
11. Shift in time
ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] = ∫ 1. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
−𝑠𝑡 = 𝑢
𝑑𝑢
−𝑠𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢 => 𝑑𝑡 =
−𝑠
∞
∫ 𝑒𝑢
𝑑𝑢
−𝑠
1 1 1
|1 1 1
= − ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑒 𝑢 = − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 = − [𝑒 −∞ − 𝑒 0 ] = − [ ∞ − 1] =
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑒⏟
1
𝑠
0 0
Örnek (Example)
ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] =?
𝑡 < 0 → 𝑓(𝑡) = 0
𝑡 > 0 → 𝑓(𝑡) = ℎ. 𝑢(𝑡)
∞
∞ ∞
−𝑠𝑡 = 𝑢
𝑑𝑢
−𝑠𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢 => 𝑑𝑡 =
−𝑠
∞ ∞
ℎ
| ℎ ℎ 1
ℎ ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 = − [𝑒 −∞ − 𝑒 0 ] = − [ ∞ − 1] =
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑒⏟
ℎ
𝑠
0 0 0
Örnek (Example)
ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] =?
𝑡 < 𝑇 → 𝑓(𝑡) = 0
𝑡 > 𝑇 → 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇)
∞ ∞
−𝑠𝑡
ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] = ℒ[𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇)] = ∫ ⏟
𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇) . 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] = ∫ 1. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 1 𝑇
−𝑠𝑡 = 𝑢
𝑑𝑢
−𝑠𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢 => 𝑑𝑡 =
−𝑠
∞
𝑒 −𝑠𝑇
∫ 𝑒𝑢
𝑑𝑢
−𝑠
1 1 1 1
| 1 1
= − ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑒 𝑢 = − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 = − [𝑒 −∞ − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑇 ] = − [ ∞ − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑇 ] =
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑒⏟ 𝑠
𝑇 0
ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] =?
𝑓1 (𝑡) = ℎ. 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑓2 (𝑡) = ℎ. 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
ℎ 𝑒 −𝑡0𝑠 1 𝑒 −𝑡0𝑠
= −ℎ = ℎ[ − ]
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
b) Ani Darbe Fonksiyonu (Sudden Impulse Function)
𝐼 = ℎ. 𝑡0
Eğer (for)
𝐼=0
𝛿(𝑡) (Delta)
ℒ[𝛿(𝑡)] = 1
ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] =?
⏟𝑡 . 𝑒⏟−𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝐴.
0 𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑢 = 𝐴. 𝑡 → 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐴. 𝑑𝑡
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑣 → ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 → 𝑣 = −
𝑠
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
= 𝐴. 𝑡 (−
𝑠
|) − ∫ −𝐴.
𝑠
𝑑𝑡 = −𝐴. 𝑡 (
𝑠
| 𝐴 −𝑠𝑡
𝑠
| 𝑠
𝐴
) − ( 2 𝑒 ) => ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] = 2
0 0 0 0
4. Genel Kural (General Rule)
𝑛!
ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] = ℒ[𝑡 𝑛 ] =
𝑠 𝑛+1
∞
𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 −𝑠𝑡 𝜔
ℒ[sin(𝜔𝑡)] = ∫ ( ) 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 2
2𝑗 𝑠 + 𝜔2
0
∞
𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 −𝑠𝑡 𝑠
ℒ[cos(𝜔𝑡)] = ∫ ( ) 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 2
2 𝑠 + 𝜔2
0
s
Cosinüs (Cosinusoidal) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕
s +2
2
Sönümlü Sinüs (Damped Sinusoidal) 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
( s + a) 2 + 2
s+a
Sönümlü Cosinüs (Damped Cosinusoidal) 𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕
( s + a) 2 + 2
1
Tekrarlı Kök (Repeated Root) te-at
( s + a) 2
n!
Tekrarlı Kökler (Repeated Roots) tn e-at ( s + a) n +1