PT EDUCATION| DONE. cr. nevsorsoreoeven CHAPTER Sociological Theories That Are Useful in the Study of Social Dimensions of Education Sociological paradigms are complex theoretical and methodological frameworks used to analyze and explain objects of social study. te = Craig J. Calhoun ‘Theories are essentially required to explain in an organized way the issues and | problems about school ard society relationship, as well a the numerous concers in eval dimensions of education. They are.the tools of sociologists in understanding Sots, in guiding their search for knowledge, and in contributing to informed decision-making. Theories are world views or general perspectives, which break ddown the complexity of the teal world. They attempt to explain, generate, and predict the patterns and practices of educational systems. In a way, they are like “concrete ;puzile solutions” of problems to a phenomenon under study. Sociological Theories in Understanding Social Dimensions of Education Several distinct socio logical theories may be useful in the study of social dimensionsofeducation. The ‘mditional and more widely ‘wed theories are functional, conflict, and interactionism. On the other hand, the contemporary theories are the critical theory on cultural ‘capital by Pierre Bourdieu and language code by Basil Bemstein. The functional ‘and conflict theories are macro perspectives, while SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGM. Fig. 1 Schematic degram showing the perspective ofthe major sociological heaves the interactionism is a microanalysis. Interestingly, the critical theories of Bourdieu and Bernstein are a combination of the macro and micro levels of analysis, for they argue that structural and interactional aspects of the system should be integrated. All these theories are useful in understanding school society relationship and not one *heory is a perfect tool fer this in’'2st’sation, The; offer different tools of aisalysis, cad they all meaningfully help in unraveling the meaning, purpose, issues, and problems in education, Functional Theory ‘The functional theory is otherwise known as structural functionalism, consensus, ‘or equilibrium theory. It is a comprehensive paradigm originally proposed by Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons. This theory, however, is not the work of any one individual theorist, nor does it exclusively consist of ideas of sociologists. Today, the theory is considered obsolete by critics but remains to be a useful framework for understanding the school, despite its limitations. This is because it usually emphasizes the noble goal, mission, purpose, benefit, and merit of school in a given society. Romantic and Ideal Views on Education and Schooling Emanating from Functional Theory ‘The dominant set of assumptions underlying schooling in our society today isa product of functional theory. As a matter of fact, the very romantic and ideal views we hold about education and schools are products of this framework. Examples of these views, which picture the wholesome image of education and. schools are as follo 1. Education is the great equalizer of the poor and the rich in the society; 2. Education is a solution to all individual, societal, and global problems; 3. Education promotes intercultural harmony, human liberation, and development; 4, Education is an agent toward ending discrimination, conflict, and violence; 5, Education is an essential component in the preparation for national and global citizenship; 6, Education is a tool for the attainment of social efficiency and social ‘effectiveness in a multicultural society; 7. Education isthe country's last straw of hope for catching up with her neighbors; Ealucation isa ticket away from poverty; 9. School promotes politcal integration and develops a sense of national identity; and 10, Schools the institution that fulfills the social responsiblity of preparing the future generation of any modern society. CHAPTER I. Sociologia! Theeres Tht Are Use nthe Study of Social Dimensions of Edueaton ihFunctional View on Society Functionalists view that all societies have néeds. These include, among ‘others, the need for progress, justice, peace, economic sustainability, political stability, and productive human resources, Essentially, social institutions are “needed to unite and collaboratively work fowatd the satisfaction of these basic societal needs, as this is imperative to establish social order. It is in this context why functionaists assert that understanding societies in a holistic sense is more logical, rather than parts or through individual's life experiences, because itis the basis of social order in all societies. This is congruent with their view that society is a whole living organism (or like parts of a machine), which has autonomous, specialized, interrelated, and interdependent parts. Using the human body a5 ‘a metaphor, the society has parts, such as: the head, kidneys, lungs, limbs, and heart, which we cll socal institutions. All these social institutions play a function (its own “job to do”) inthe life of the total organism. Social stability in the society, according to this theory, is achieved through institutions playing their part. Consensus, characterized by common value system, agreement, consent, and harmony of members and groups isan essential requisite to the functional view, as it holds all parts and members ofthe society together. ‘Once consensus is achieved, the society is assured of a well-functioning system. Social problems are then viewed as disruptions, and these may pose danger to the system's total function and equilibrium. Examples are the malfunctioning fof goverment due to corruption and inefficiency; lack of affection and broken relationships in the family; and irrelevant curriculum and poor quality of education of school may affect socal stability, order, andl progress. Functional theory beleves thal sob istutions have Jobs to dot thot ensue the stability andorderof soc. Functional View on School Functional theory states that schools have been positioned as essential to the process of addressing all societal goals and concerns. Specifically, schools participate insolving the economic, political, social, moral, and cultural problems Of the nation. At the macro level, fanctionalism seeks to explain how schools help society adjust and adapt to changing social conditions. The principal task ‘of school is to ensure that every member of the society shall grow to become citizens anid workers who can function in ways that allow the continued survival ‘or maintenance of a society. In a complex and hierarchically organized society, schools act as a rational means of selecting and preparing people to agsume ‘Various positions according to their abilities: This is reflected not only jn the school curricultim, where basic literacy and numeracy are taught, but also in numerous courses that prepare the young for future occupational skills. [At the micro level, functional theory views the school as a system with several interrelated subsystems, such as school administrators, teachers, students, facilitative staf, and parents. The interrelationships of these subsystems make up the image ofthe school and the personality of those who compose it: As a whole, the role of school in this perspective is to explain the different parts of society (its social institutions) in terms of their functions and how their interelationships contribute to societal well being and progress. Key Ideas Associated with Functional Theory ‘Two key ideas are associated with functional theory to ensure the fulfillment of society's order, stability, and harmony. These major roles are: role differentiation and social solidarity. Role diferentiation stresses that there are various roles that have to be fulfilled in a given society, which may require different knowledge, skills, or attitudes. Examples of these roles include, among, others, policing, teaching, health servicing, moralizing, entertaining, selling, lawmaking, and researching. These roles may not be equally attractive or ‘valued, but schools have the function to ensure that every member of the society is competent and trained to fulfill these roles. Social solidarity, on the other hand, ‘guarantees that people occupying different roles in the society have a fair level ‘of importance as there is interdependence with one another for societal survival and development. Such stability is established when people accept their roles ‘and positions and view them as mechanisms to establish an orderly and fully functioning society. ‘The challenge here is that some roles and positions do not hhave high prestige, status, and rewards, so, in this regard, competition may not be avoided. Presuppositions of Functional Theory It is important to note that functional analysis of schools is grounded on some presuppositions. If these assumptions are true and accepted in a given society, then the arguments of the theory make sense. ‘The first basic assumption is that there is “meritocratic society” where high status positions are achieved on the basis of merit, rather than ascribed or passed ‘on from parent to child. Meritocracy emphasizes the equal chances of everyone to obtain educational success in the society. If individuals study and work hard, they ‘an achieve anything since rewards and success commensurate with hard work and competence. Significantly, meritocrcy is made possible through schooling because the intelligent, talented, and skills are elevated in the social hierarchy as compared to their counterparts. ERNIE) 201. ncxcons cr xcmon aie aac nerieruininsnokmanieaniees ato‘The second assumption of functional theory is that there is an “expert society,” which depends preeminently on rational knowledge for economic jrowth and smooth running society. This assumption stresses the requirement ofa more highly trained or specialized individuals to fulfill the majority of job yositions, espedally in post modern society. Education, in this regard, creates ew occupations and new specializations and places selected people to occupy them. For example, there were no sports psychologists, medical transcriptionists, pharmacologists, economists, sociologists, geneticists, and accountants before {niversties set up these specialized bodies of knowledge. But because of schools, cxperts are trained to perform these roles for the society. ‘Thethird assumption isthe existence ofa “democraticsociety.” Functionalists telieve that with a democratic society, people are able to move gradually toward the achievement of humane goals, cial justice, acceptance of diversity, and a ‘nore fulfilling life for al. Its through democratic principles that society creates a humanizing atmosphere, whereby individuals develop themselves to the fullest and become tolerant to individual differences, The Role of Schools According to Functional Theory From the functional ive, the role of schools is to enhance the operation and stability of society. Schools teach the young the vital functionsiof the ‘diferent institutions like family, government, military, church, business sector, and mass media in the making of a society. Curriculum content, socialization. process, as well as teaching and learning processes are seen to be the means in ting the value and purpose of these institutions. It is the job of schools to develop trust and respect to these social institutions and to teach the young, how to cooperate with the people in charge of carrying out the functions of these institutions, For example, schools teach, the young how to respect and trust tlected officials, government leaders, court judges, school authorities, church leaders, businessmen, policemen, soldiers, and media practitioners. In addition, schools are expected to socialize the students to trust their democratic processes, and instrumentalities by providing school campus election, writing in school paper, and establishing clubs and other interest groups. In s0 doing, the school plays in helping children make the transition in coing adult roles in the broader fommunity, like allegiance to political orders and learning the basic laws of the society. Confict Theory Conflict theorists like Karl Marx and Christopher Hum posit that the key to understanding social life and human history is through class struggle. In their view, dlasssraggle is brought about by competition over scarce resources in the society, that fs too many people are competing over few resources available, The focus of conflict theorists is #9 analyze how social actors compete and how they use their power to contol, dominate, and exploit groups inthe society Views of Conflict Theory on Education and Schooling Like functional theory, conflict perspective has developed a set of views on education and schooling, These views are more or Tess critiques that unmask (HONE 021 onconsereoverton } the defects of school as a social institution. Generally, these take an opposing perspective from the functional theory as follows: 1. Education reinforces the cultural mechanisms for perpetrating “__ oppression and expleitation e* th~poor and.otber marginalized groups: in the society (eg. indigenous people, the unschooled, and the women); 2. Education promotes foreign worship instead of being an instrument to develop nationalism, identity, and culture; 3. School is a biased social institution favoring the elite (cich), with the ‘curriculum reinforcing oppressive structures of society; 4. School does not provide equal educational opportunities but perpetuates the existing inequality in the society; 5. School mirrors and reinforces the inequality and gender stereotyping in the society; 6. School is an arena of competition and struggle over scarce resources like money, power, position, and honor; School is punitive rather than a humanizing agency; and School resembles the prison cell (with school administrators and teachers acting as wardens and police officers, respectively) strictly enforcing policies on wearing uniforms and identification card, cutting classes, attendance to school activities, and the like. Conflict View on Society Proponents of conflict theory assert that society is like a jungle where the principle of the “survival ofthe fittest” applies. Human beings live in a divided and conflict-ridden society, where groups compete for the control of scarce resources, such as wealth, occupations, positions in government, as well as power and prestige. In their view, itis the society and its instrumentalities (¢. government, business, courts, mass media, school) that cause the corruption of the moral values of men, whom they believe are created to be inherently good. ‘What really happens in the society is that institutions (like schools) are controlled by groups with power. The concept of order that is stressed by these institutions is just part of the illusion that they advocate to hide their personal interests (Mooney et al., 1997). Conflict theorists assert that students go to school to arm them. with credentials needed to obtain money and compete to occupy various occupations land positions in the business sector, government, military, media, and church in the future. In this competition, they contend that socio-economic status (uppet, middle, and lower classes) is the most critical determinant of success, Students who have the financial means are able to hurdle the challenges of schooling, ‘while the poor are more likely to fail. This makes the conflict theorists aver that Whenever such condition occurs or whenever people are related in different ‘ways to the means of production (who owns much of the land, labor, capital, and jr ering tenn et ea al ae itechnology), there isa class society, and each particular class is defined in terms ‘of this concept. In contrast to functional theory, which focuses on integration, harmony, and stability, the conflict theorists view conflict and change as natural and ‘unavoidable. Conflict is expected in the society as itis the engine of change and development: It should not be viewed as disruptive to social systems and human. interaction, rather, itis an important force for progress. Conflict View on School b Conflict theotists criticize schools for using the illusion of equality to protect the status quo since the biggest predictor of success in school is stil the parents’ socio-economic status. They are skeptical of the view that the school is the equalizer of thesociety. Rather than serving asleveler, the transmission of learning, has often reinforced the inequalities of society, reproducing the students’ socio- economic status. Conflict theorists contend that poot students who go to school remain poor after graduation as their credentials, knowledge, and skills could ‘not approximate the kind of education of the rich or middle class students who obtained it from costly, well-equipped, high standard, and, quality schools. They Assert that quality education is costly, which is only within the purchasing power of the rich, This makes schools continue the existing conditions of inequality, In real practice, they make inequality as an accepted rule and standard of life by establishing a customary practice that maintains it. Elite groups who compete for control of schools use the rhetoric andl myths of societal needs (eg. equality, justice freedom, and progress) to conceal the fact that its their interests and their demands that they are trying to advance. The point is that the ruling group (elite) tuse schools to advance their interests and retain their power. Thus, what really happens in school isa struggle on whose values and ideals will be taught to the young and whose children will obtain the most prestigious jobs. Conteary othe functionalist ive on the real aim of eo on your crecicn apie heeib. ( seerbaroin oy tet believe that schools sort students (through selection process or gatekeeping) into different categories according. to their ability and falent. This is evident fn the school's practice such as sectioning, seating arrangement, admission examinations, and ‘other screening, processes, ‘The ‘unintended effect ofthis selection process is that middle and upper schools sortindivluals based on ther socio-economic class studenis are assigned to onigin and os rere the inquniy beeen tech ~ higher sections, academicclasses, adhe porn tha socket, college preparatory courses; whereas, lower class and minority students are Frequently assigned to lower sections, mult-grade classes, and vocational study programs. This is the general picture a the rich and middle class students are provided with the essential requisites to hurdle the selection process of school Suich as go0d food that nourishes their brains, ample schoo! allowance, adequate investments for Internet usage, books, encyclopedia, tutorial services, and other educational opportunities, which are not usually accessible for poor students. ‘The Role of Schools According to Conflict Theory Conflict theory believes that the school's jobistoidentify competing interests in the school system or in the society and determine how those in power maintain their position. With this role, the teachers help the students determine the instrumentalities used by the school system or the society, especially in teaching, the dominant social, economic, and political status groups. Schools must discuss, for example, how the rich become richer and the poor become poorer. This must be analyzed in the context of how the rich control the ideas (political ideology that the country subscribes), information (selective release or contents of mass ‘media), technology (recent developments, especially monitoring devices), and the maintenance of social network (the networks, business contact, and other associations that link the elites to one another). In the same way, itis the role ‘of teachers to connect classroom discussions to the rallies and challenges faced by social movements in the streets. Discussions should translate their private troubles and concerns into public actions and arouse public interests over ‘pressing social problems. In this way, students are able to ascertain the process of reprodiicing the attitudes and dispositions that are required for the continuation of the prevailing system dominated by the privileged class. Among conflict theorists, the focus of choolison conflict management, which is viewed as a major factor that can lead to change. This implies that schools are responsible for preparing students to acquire skills to accept and resolve conflict. ‘At the macro level, schools are to be critical about the relationship between the school system and the work place to determine mismatch of knowledge and skills. They have to identify conflicting relationships and competing roles between public and private schools and between rural and urban schools. At the micro level, conflict analysis may investigate the kind of relationship that ‘exists between principal-faculty, faculty students, and faculty-parents. Analysis of these relationships must be focused on how they manipulate school structures and processes to push their own personal agenda in education. In such case, schools become catalyst of change through violent or revolutionary overthrow of the dominant class and its ideology. Interactionist Theory Functionalism and conflict theories are macro-sociological and their approaches are said to be deterministic. Determinism means a perse.s behavior is controlled by ‘an external force or forces. This argues that what happens to an individual (either chub tek entation eonesimainawnds ona Asuccess oF failure) is a product of the existing structures in a given society. For example, determinism asserts that one is poor because ofthe unjust social structure of ‘society and not simply of his own making, The scarcity of job due to the government's nestligence to uplift the life ofthe poor isthe real cause of poverty and not because of the individual’ laziness or lack of ambition. However, not all sociologists believe that human behavior is determined or controlled by extemal forges— these sociologists are known as interactionists or interpretiists, Interactionists believe that human beings are net always shaped by external force, because they are free to make a choice and to define themselves. Central to interactionist theory is its focus on the interpretation (social meaning) thatis given to behavior, and the way such interpretation helps to construct the social ‘world, the identities of people, and, ultimately how people behave. Using a metaphor, interectionists are interested in seeing individual trees not the whole forest. They are concerned with the way an individual meaning is constructed that is founded on the following basi principles: (1) humans have capacity for thought; 2) thought is shaped by social interaction; 3) through interaction, people learn symbols and meanings that allow them to think; (4) meanings and symbols allow for human action; (5) people cant interpreta situation and modify their action or interaction; (6) people can freely create their own meanings; and (7) groups and societies are made up of pattems of action and interaction. (publish iwo.cal-pakvis/Symbolicinteractionism) To elucidate these principles, take the example of financial problem. The problem con financial inadequacy at any time in an individual's life is a reality. But how the {individual reacts and feels about his circumstance, as well ashow he solveshis problem depend on the meaning he attaches to this reality. In this case, the individual has the bility to think his thought is influenced by his lived-experiences; and he freely makes ‘a choice to resolve his condition. Interactionist’s View on Society Fundamentally, interactionists view society as an ongoing process of interaction based on symbolic communication. Symbols are considered the foundation of society as they are the basis upon which people construct meaning, establish their interaction, and develop their attitude, as well as their belief system. In their view, life is essentially a product of interaction with the people individuals meet and work with every day. Through face-to-face interaction. in everyday life, individuals make sense of the world or construct meaning, about themselves, their society, and life in general, For instance, one may view fociety as nurturing, friendly, challenging, and peaceful, or destructive, unjust oppressive, lifeless, and so on, based on his day-to-day experiences and struggles in life. Interactionism also stresses that society is a network of interlocking roles ‘manifested in the exercise of one’s position and status, These interlocking roles fare seen, for example, in the interaction and relationship between a teacher and student; parent and child; businessman and customer; military and civilians; rulers and subjects; and many more. Social order in the society is constructed through shared meaning, which is developed through day-to-day interaction. ANNIE) cow. onerions oF eovcarion A striking fact about interactionism or interpretivism is that individuals ‘choose how they want to behave because of the way they perceive themselves from the interaction with other people. How they define themselves and perceive _ life, society, education, schooling, government, and social life are based on their interpretation and understanding of the meaning of their socio-cultural life or the “rules of the game.” For example, a lady thinks that she does not have the right to express her feelings to the man she truly loves, because she is taught not to do 0 in her interaction with people around her. Or a student cannot just cal his or her teachers with their first names as they are taught to say ma‘am orsit to school authorities, Interactionist's View on Man What would people do when they are with one another's presence? What do poor students do when they do not have money to pay their tuition fee? Interactionism answers these questions with the assumption that much of human behavior is guided not by instinct or stimuli but by the meanings that ‘people ascribe to their experiences. This happens because humans, as social beings, are interpretative and interactive. They make meanings about theit day-to-day experiences or encounters, and they make choices that define their actions, thinking, and decisions in life. The concem of interactionism is how ‘to use symbols and experiences to create social life. For instance, meanings are created by students when a teacher regularly uses a stick in teaching; consistently asks them to lineup; and uses punishment and maximum security. Meanings are also developed among stucents when emphasis is made on praying the rosary, holding masses on first Friday and holidays of obligation in school. All these are possible experiences in the interaction process, but each individual creates different meanings out of them. However, these meanings are also handled and modified from time to time depending on the interaction process, Interactionist’s View on Schools ‘As a social-psychological frame of reference, intetactionism focuses on the internal processes within the school. Its central concer is the everyday behavior and interpersonal relationships of students, teachers, and administrators as they interact with and adjust to one another. Interactionists see the classrooms as a litle society or a smaller picture of society, teeming with behavior. In their view, school, particularly the classroom, is a site of interpretations, because everyday realities and interactions in the classroom are replete with meanings and definitions. They try to find explanations in the social interactions of the classroom by understanding the communication-action-reaction of students and teachers. For instance, the scenario when some students feel sleepy in class cannot be explained in terms of the structural conditions of the classroom, but seen as 1 product of a boring classroom interaction. Interactionists believe that the same holds true with the problem of absenteeism. Students are not motivated to go to ‘school Lecause they do not find the classroom interaction ‘un and meaningful. In this way, interactionists, therefore, call forth teachers to reinvent themselves from their traditional teaching methods, and infuse new learning approaches that will {Tren ecg Peer th ty Sn rmcensure a classroom interaction, animated with the spirit of enjoyment, inquiry, liberation, dialogue, creative thinking, and quest for more meanings about life. ‘re schoo sate of dering interpretations Usual defntons are based on ‘ones everyday experiences ad interactions. Teacher Expectancy i ‘Teacher expectancy is an important concept associated with interactionism theory. It conveys that teachers’ interactions with their students play a crucial role in the personality development and academic success of the students, ‘This happens because students leam to evaluate themselves according to their teacher's standards and attribution. at them If teachers expect students to make good academically and to treat accordingly, they may be more likely to make such gains. Students who fare expected to do well perform better, and those whom teachers expect to achieve less, perform at low level. The direct relationship between the teacher's ‘expectation and the student's behavior is cleveloped based on how the teachers folate, teach, and express their attitudes or beliefs about their students. For instance, teachers tend to have lower expectations from students in lower sections ‘as they are perceived to have unfavorable attitude toward studying, manifested through their poor study habits and misbehavior during class Inasmuch as this ‘expectation is consciously or unconsciously communicated, students tend to live : up to this expectation. “the teacher expectancy theory also posits that by setting up situations in the classroom, students come to evaluate themselves negatively or positively ‘as troublemakers, messy, bad student, smart, or good student, etc. With such . evaluation, they tend (full these expectations, which is refered to as the . ion effect or self-fulfilling prophecy. Itis a belief or prediction that a pe emt haven scoring his belies an, thus, confeming the prophecy. ‘The self-fulfilling prophecy shows that merely applying a label has the effect of justifying the label. RUINIRAIY.soc0 overoons oF eovearen Buthow does the self-fulfilling prophecy work? How are teacher expectations transformed into reality? According to Recio et al, (2004), self-fulfilling prophecy operates on a three-step process. First, a teacher forms an impression of the student early in the school year. This impression may be based on an IQ test < scor, 05 on stiden’’s sex, background, reputation, -o:physical aypearance. Second, a teacher behaves in a way that is consistent with the impression. Thitd, the student adjusts his or her behavior according to the teacher's action, In table form, Alias (2009) summarized numerous factors which can lead teachers to hold lower expectations from students. These factors include sex, socio-economic status, ethnicity, type of school, appearance, oral language patterns, messiness, readiness, halo effect, and seating position. It is noteworthy that this summary was generated from the researches made by Brookover etal (1982), Cooper (1984), and Good (1987). The table is presented below. ‘Table 1. Factors that influence teachers’ expectations by Alias (2009) Factor Explanation ‘Sex Tower expectations are often held for older girls, particularly in scientific and technical areas, because of sex role stereotyping. ‘Sokio-economic_ | Teachers sometimes hold lower expectations on students from status ower socio-economic backgrounds. Race/ethnicity | Students from minority races or ethnic groups are sometimes ‘viewed as less capable than students from majority races or ethnic groups. ‘Type of school | Students from either inner cily schools or rural schools are sometimes presumed to be less capable than students from suburban schools. “Appearance | The expense or style of students’ clothes and grooming habits can influence teachers’ expectations. ‘Oral language | The presence of any nonstandard English-speaking patie can | patterns sometimes lead teachers to hold lower expectations. “Messiness) | Stuclents whose work areas or assignment are messy are disorganization | sometimes perceived as having lower ability. Readiness Immaturity or lack of experience may be confused with learning ability, leading to inappropriately low expectations, Fialo effect | Some teachers generalize from one characteristica student ‘may have, thereby making unfounded assumptions about the students’ overall ability or behavior. ‘Seating position | If students seat themselves atthe side or back of the classroom, some teachers perceive this asa sign of lower learning, motivation and/or ability, and treat students according it |q } Labeling Theory Closely related to teacher expectancy is the labeling theory or name- calling. Labeling happens when teachers attach label to their students as dull or _bright_ hardworking or Jazy, smart or stupid, and troublesome or disciplined. Toliovers ofthis theory contend that students define thenseives based Of how tthers (teachers and classmates) look or label them. This classification affects the way they perceive themselves and, consequently, behave in accordance to these labels. Onoe labeled, the label persists, regardless of its truth andl accuracy. Interestingly, the teacher's judgments and labels in the school have great effects on the educational success ofthe students. Negative labels breed stdent alienation, schol falure, and foster atitudes that lead to mocking, taunting, ad ostracism. ‘According to David Hargreaves (1967), one of the most important aspects of she interactionist theory of education concerns the ways in which teachers make sense and respond to the behavior of the pupils, In his landmark research titled Deviance in Classroom, he investigated how teachers classified pupils. He found out that rather than categorizing pupils in the acaclemic parameters, teachers initially categorized them through non-academic way of stereotyping, such as categorizing their appearance, ability, and enthusiasm for work, likeableness, their personality, their relationship with other students, and their conformity to discipline. Significantly, he discovered that social class or one’s socio-economic standing in the society played a major role inthis classification. Furthermore, labeling theory is akin to the laoking-glass self of Charles Horton Cooley. In the early 1900s, Cooley asserted that it is through the individual’ interaction with others that they lear to know who they are. He tised the metaphor looking-glass self to capture the idea that the development of the self isa result of individual’ social interactions with other people (Schaefer, 2000), In this concept, he argued that human beings acquire their sense of self by seeing themselves reflected in the behavior of others and their attitudes toward them. The way others treat them is like a “mirror” reflecting their personal qualities, They imagine how they appear to other persons and based on that imagination, they judge their appearance. The development of identity in this process, according to Cooley (1956), consists of theee elements; (1) how actors {imagine their appearance; (2) how actors believe others judge their appearance; and (3) how actors develop feelings of shame or pride, feelings that become an inner guide to behavior. This process is not a conscious process, and the stages ‘anoceurquickly. The results can either be a positive or negative self-evaluation. ‘One critic against this theory is the possibility of distortion, Because the looking {lass comes from one’s imagination, it can be distorted. The “mirror” may not fccucately reflect other’s opinion of oneself, Unfortunately, regardless of whether or not others are correct or incorrect about their perception, the consequences are just as real asif they were. Role of the Schools According to Interactionist Theory Interactionists generally focus on micro-level classroom clynamics, such as the teachers’ expectations of their students and how these affect the students’ actual achievements, The role of school, in this paradigm, is to observe and record the social drama in the school, especially inside the classroom. For instance, schools must record: the life in school from the students’ perspective; the stereotyping done by the teachers and students, particularly children of ethnic minority, children-~sith color, and children of the: poow the know!-dge that counts most for students; and the rewards and punishments given to them. Interactions believe that awareness of these issues create a high chance of 1 students to greater equality in the classroom and better int aeiecmue geet ied _In their analysis of education, interactionists stress that the best tool to ‘understand education is through the socialization process. Hence, they believe that it is the duty of the school authorities and teachers to examine their expectations and social interaction with the students as they are the strong forces in the making of their students’ character and academic success. They should help the learners develop a shared system of meanings by providing socialization ‘where the students lear how to interpret and take part in the social process. Possible Meanings Constructed by Students in Their School Interaction Students construct numerous meanings about life through their lived seveaey Gulas te wanes: ss pesos Gees on etiae pe they behave and relate them with their teachers or fellow students It also acts as standards to which they define their success or failure in school. Few examples ‘of possible meanings derived inside the school are elucidated as follows: 1. The teacher dominated classroom atmosphere makes students form cir identity as passive receivers of knowledge and empty receptacles tobe filled with lifeless information by the teacher. Moreover, this type of set up conveys that knowledge comes only from the teacher, and students cannot generate their own knowledge. 2. The strict implementation of disciplinary rules and regulations conveys that to succeed in school, students must become conformists and obedient: Doing the contrary leads to poor grades and unfavorable experiences with the teacher, principal, security guards, and prefect of discipline, You are realy naughty! Stay here! Students ere madeto understand that hey could int suceedin school they ‘donot folow the rules and ‘egulations implemented nse the dlassoom. ee | ‘ | RIB soc ners or esoEES ’ ? 3. ‘The emphasis on testing after teaching implies that students have to learn in order to pass the test to obtain good grades. Teaching is done for testing, not for the enjoyment of seeking knowledge and the ‘sublime purpose of learning. Also, using test to discipline students can tecinccepreied- ae. form of punishment ty them cl -ot to men=-2 their learning: 4, The common usage of lecture method by the teacher conveys that lecturing is the only and the best method to teach and learn. In the lecture method, students are expected to listen patiently to the lecturing, teacher, paying attention to every detail he says; 5. ‘Thedominant use of paper-and-pencil fest to evaluate learning makes the students believe that the only way to measure and evaluate learning is through waitten test, It is only through this assessment that one’s academic performance, skills, and intelligence are determined; 6. ‘The everyday conduct of classes inside the classroom makes the students believe that the classroom is the only learning place. They do not realize thatthe world is a huge learning place; 7, Theteachers inability to integrate concepts in different subjects makes students conclude that Math, Science, Filipino, English, Social Studies, and other subjects are not interconnected but simply isolated bits and pieces of instruction; and 8, The highly regimented and programmed lessons in school make the students think that they are not capable of independent learning, without the school and the teachers. Non-Verbal Interaction and Other Symbolic Languages Used in School In interactionist perspective, the tool people use to develop and modify meanings is through the use of non-verbal and symbolic language, which may constitute physical, social, and abstract ideas. The stick used by the teachers, for instance, is symbolic of their power and authority. Similarly, dropping the names of the university president, principal, and school authorities to demand compliance and {o persuade other ‘members of the academic community reveals the strength of their power and authority, Symboli¢ languages, such as non- verbal communication (body language), are used during interactions in school. ‘These are so-called paralanguage, which are used as auailiary communication devices of interaction by the teachers. Gestures, glances slight changes in tone of voice, facial expression, »nd postures are examples of paralanguage. These Teachers must besnstive othe non-verbal ‘onmunications siete csso0m. They must be seas feedbacks torre eect enjayable and ‘eaningfl casa teaching ondlearning, | VOMRHIME. coon owesensoreormen body languages in the classroom may be ditect and explicit, For instance, there is a difference between saying “Sit down, be quiet, and finish your work NOW,” as compared to saying, "Please sit down, be quiet and finish your work.” ‘The fist statement is a direct and explicit display of the teacher's high regard to personal power in the’ ciassioom; tie second manifests the teacher's ivairedt command’ and implicit use of his authority Critical Theory Critical theory traces its origin back to the writings of Frankfurt School, an institution of neo-Marxist interdisciplinary social theory. It is concerned with unmasking the forms of oppression to bring about the liberation of members and groups in society. Central to critical theory is an emancipatory imperative directed toward the abolition of social injustice, inequality, and exploitation. Educators who adopt this theory see both the oppressive and liberating aspects of society and schooling. They exhort that knowledge must be used as a practical and powerful tool for change. They also focus on analyzing the mechanisms used in the domination and power in schools or society by the authorities. They believe that schools should focus principally on a critique of ideology, showing how repressive the system that underlies the seemingly neutral, equal, and reasonable structures and policies of society and schools, To further understand these assumptions, the following critical theories are discussed highlighting the habitus and cultural capital of Pierre Bourdiew and the elaborated and restricted code of Basil Bernstein. ‘Habitus and Cultural Capital of Pierre Bourdiew Pierre Bourdlien’s View on Society The critical theory of Pierre Bourdieu (a french sociologist), which he developed in the early 1960s with various colleagues, centers on the concept of cultural capital as a way to address a particular empirical problem. He attempted to understand social inequality and inquired why people yield to power and domination without resistance. He did not find the answer primarily in economic ‘lasses or in the state but in culture and ideology. Bourdieu views the society to be composed of people equipped with four types of capital: (1) economic capital (what you have, like money and property); (2) social capital (whom you know, like social connections and networks); 3) cultural ‘capital (what you know, like knowledge of high culture and refined manners); and () symbolic capital (what you enjoy, like honor and prestige). He argued Marx's idea by asserting that economic status alone does not influence students’ success in school and society but numerous cultural factors, which are acquired in the family. In this context, he showed interest in the role of culture in the educational achievement of students. The essence of his analysis is to reveal that culture and education are meaningfully interwoven, and that they should not be conceived ‘as mere activities of life, with litle impact to life. They are rather immensely essential in developing differences between and among groups of peorle in the society and in transmitting those differences from one generation to the next. OWPTER Sec Tt Tt Unt nh StS nhc,ae Definition of Habitus and Cultural Capital ‘According to Bourdieu (1984), each class has its own cultural background, knowledge, dispositions, and tastes that are transmitted through the family. This is called she habitus to signal its deep routinization, innateness, and embedding ‘within a person's body, language, and tastes. |Habitusis a person's character and ‘way of thinking (belief system, worldview, and consciousness) that tells ‘what he is and what he can be. Its an acquired disposition that he has learned from his social world, like the family, community, school, culture, and media. It also refers to the mental or cognitive structures through which people deal ‘with the realities, problems, and issues in their Social world, This is eloquently articulated on how a student performs his role as student in school, how he resolves his problems, and how he defines teaching and learning, Perhaps a clearer example of habitus is the etiquette in public places (restaurant, cinema, ‘church, school, ete) Students learn that danicing or laughing during graduation ceremony is inappropriate through studying social behavior. This is something, they can easily do because they are able to realize acceptable or unacceptable ‘behaviors in that instance. ‘Gutta capital, on the other hand, is the social assets that are valued socially, or culturally by society as a whole or by those in power, This may constitute knowledge, systems, aptitude, tastes (music, art, food, dress, recreational activities, etc), manners, linguistic. interpersonal | skills, attitudes, and dispositions, The study of habitus cannot be separated from cultural capital as the latter is a reflection of the former. One can certainly know a person's habitus from what he shows in his cultural capital. Remarkably, habitus and cultural capital differ from individual to individual based on their family background, educational attainment, ethnic group, social class, and so on, For example, high and middle classes use their time effectively by devoting themselves to reading magazines, books, and the like, which are’ not generally a shared taste by the lower class. Upper and lower classes also difer in upbringing, made of speech, topics for conversation, and competencies in language and culture, because these differentiate their cultural capital, For this reason, a highly valued cultural capital ina given society is more likely to provide comparative advantage to individuals, ‘who possess it and, thus, becomes a vehicle for power to ianpose its definition of reality. Family's Culévral Capital and Educational Achievement. Students gathered in school come from various families that differ in terms of language, ethnic identity, economic class, geographic location, and the like They show these differences in school and serve as the basis of their interaction ‘with fellow students and teachers. They also use these as guides in solving their academic concerns. In Bourdieu’s research, he found out that family influences (particularly culture) re the strongest predictor of students’ grades and positive achievement than all other variables. To him, success in education depends fundamentally con one’s exposure to the cultural capital ofthe dominant or favored culture, The greater degree of cultural capital individuals possess, the more successful they | BNRIEBE, socu cmon or emo will bein the educational system. Simply put, the more absorbed the individuals are to the dominant culture, the greater is their chance to educational success. He concluded that schools are biased against the culture of the poor and favor the colture of the rich and the middle class. Schools use social constructs, language, books, ins‘ruction-t-rcsteriss,.an:*_ other educational activities th-'=#00-me: familiar to the latter. For example, the information used in textbooks in schools reflects the interests, values, and tastes of the rich and middle class groups, helping those students to be placed in higher educational sections, with a more demanding curriculum, The middle- and upper-class children are equally more likely to have the “tight” values, attitudes, and trainings in cognitive skills, a8, ‘compared to their counterpart. These help them to easily adapt to school demands, and_allow higher educational achievement than the poor ones. Therefore, cclture, which is acquired in the family, reinforces social class, and schools play 4 pivotal role in strengthening this inequality as they distribute cultural capital based on students’ socio-economic grouping. As a result, education leads to the domination and advantage of those in the upper class, leaving the poor at the ‘Good academic ‘marginalized position, = oe ‘Occupational wth high é ‘economic and cultural Figure 2. The relationship between high cultural capital education credentials and occupation High cultural capital High educational ‘credentials capital The Role of Schools According to Bourdieu ‘The central thesis of Bourdieu is that an individual's educational success {s closely linked to social class background and class bias, which are present in the school. For instance, schools require cultural resources with which only the upper class students are endowed. Such condition contributes to the transfer of power and privilege in favor of the students from upper class. Bourdieu contend that the culture of the dominant group (rich and middle classes) forms the knowledge and skills that are most highly valued and taught in school. To possess this cultural capital means one is considered educated, smart, or talented; not having this means one is considered stupid, ignorant, or uneducated. English language, for example, which is the common language of the middle and upper class families is the preferred language of schools, and teachers think highly of students who have a good command of it. In other words, schools appear to 'be neutral in evaluating students; but because the knowledge and dispositions they value correspond to the habitus and cultural capital ofthe elite group, they Lear otis ie ion ete eo ote coeare likely to become biased. In this view, some students (usually the poor) are at the disadvantage in the classroom, because their values and beliefs are not ‘with that of the school. Therefore, what really happens in school is that educational procedures are advantageous for the upper and middle classes, and not for the poor, ==. Bourdieu added that students in schools compete for educational access and credential. He interestingly viewed the competition for educational ‘access and credentials (especially those obtained from prestigious schools) ike iploma, transcript of records, honors, and awards to represent institutionalized ‘apital, which provides high position and good paying jobs in later life. These ‘educational proofs, according to him, signify economic and social power, as they enable students to obtain future membership to cettain powerful social networks or connections in the society, such as communities of professionals and ‘ss0ciations of dite graduates, In short, educational institutions not only become producers of economic and social capital but they also extend the formation of ‘uch capitals outside the walls of school. This conveys that the type and kind ‘6f school where students graduate from ate influential factors in their future ‘employment and the attainment of power, prestige, and affluence in the society. in the words of Bourdieu, schools that are ecoriomically, socially, and politically structured, influence, to a great extent, how students develop themselves in the society. {Code Theory of Basil Bernstein Like Bourdieu, Basil Bernstein's work on pedagogic discourse is concerned ‘with the production, distribution, and reproduction of “official knowledge” and how this knowledge is related to structurally determined power relations. Bernstein sees that society is divided into two social classes--a dominant upper/ tiddle class and a subseryient working class. With these social classes, he asserts that two distinet cultures are formed in society: the “high” culture of the upper/ nifddle class and the “low” culture of the working class. Bernstein's View on Language, Culture, and Social Class Bernstein linked language and culture with social class. He believed that analyzing the relationship between language and social class would have far reaching implication to the academic success of students in school. Specifically, he avered that the poor, middle, anel upper classes have different sets of vocabulary, accent, and expressions that reflect their cultural capital and social class origins. Eventually, these pre-given language competencies become the bases of their school performance, Bemstein added thateducational degrees and awards are forms of “symbolic tapital.” As symbol, they carry meaning or stand for an idea. As a consequence, they are traded for money, good jobs, and social prestige. Symbolic capital is one of the most significant forms of capital as it carries and determines the value of tne’s education. Possessors ot symbolic capital are not only able to justify thei possession of ather forms of capital but are able to change the structure and rules for their advantage. Accordingly, higher education can be seen as a valued. commodity, which reproduces the four different elements of capital (econo ‘aultural, symbolic, and, social) and maintains status quo among the upper, ‘middle, and lower classes. For example, a medicine degree carries high prestige and can command higl: payers compare?-to education course. This is the-eace because the former requires higher financial investment and is usually afforded by the well-to-do families only. Bernstein's View on Society and Language Codes ‘As there are two cultures in society, there are also two language codes, namely: the elaborated \code of the upperfmiddle class, which is formal and considered acceptable in the classroom; and the restricted.code of the working ‘lass, which is informal and considered inappropriate and deviant in the classroom. The high culture is associated with the elaborated code, which is the language code of the school. Speakers use Standard English vocabulary, commit less grammatical lapses, and have weak local accents. Besides, this code is more analytical and narrative, and characterized to have creative linguistic ability, richer employment of both adjectives and adverbs, and a considerable use of symbolism of a higher order to discriminate and distinguish between meanings within speech sequences, Obviously, children brought up in elaborated code will easily find the manipulation of abstract ideas and thoughts inside the classroom, as their language code is the same with what the school utilizes. (On the other hand, the low culture is associated with the restricted code, Which is culturally deficient. Itis a working class speech, whichis more descriptive and narrative, and characterized to be grammatically incorrect, Itis considered to have more restricted vocabulary, repeated use of short comments/questions, use ‘of slang or regional words, use of uncomplicated words, incapacity to verbalize abstractions, and with strong local accents, Also, this code is characterized to have limited use of adjectives and adverbs, simple and repetitive conjunctions, such as $o, then, and because. As this does not conform to the language code of the chool users oft nate to hurdle the demande a chalengey of the 00 ‘expect al of you to speak English, Anyone who The language code favored n most Philippine hos Enaith the lnguage othe upper lass. This reflects blas aginst poor andthe cultural minty groups who are usualy at ‘tsadvantage, because they donot have .good command of ths language Inefect they generally havethe ifculytosucceedn school as comparedto ther counterpars Fuchitt odLigGieets mes iesiie mine eorncl esti AlSe se Bernstein's View on School For Bemsiein, the social class differences in the language or communication codes of working class and middle class children reflect class and power relations in school. He argued that the communication codes of the upper class are transmilted by schools at the disadvantage of the poor. inerefore, couidren trom upper lab are aleady aed, becnine hey come from exlsive schools with advance lang yrograms, congruent to the expectation of the education tyne, Once in chal, hosed that the sytem it tallored fo exclude the Working class and guarantees the success of the upper class, What really happens in school is that the poor are|at a disadvantage because their Janguage style is different from that of the school, and they find learning difficult, as they cannot decode the language tsed by their teachers. They obtain low grades and find less ‘meaning to their school experiences, because they can hardly understand the language used in school, Similarly, they could not write or speak grammatically correct sentences, as this is completely different from what they use at home and intheir community, Asa consequence of this language barrier they tend to have poor academic performance and low educational aspirations, manifested by absenteeism, tatdiness, bullying, and the like, In contrast, the upper class already possess the code of the message and, therefore, have the access to knowledge Fecessary to succeed in school. This leads Bernstein to conclude on two important points about education: (a) schools reproduce what they are ideologically committed to eradicating; and (b) success in eduication depends fundamentally com the language childten acquired in their earliest years. Issues for Discourse 1. It is said that not one paradigm is a perfect tool for the analysis of schooling, and society relationship. What do you think are the merits (strengths) and demerits (weaknesses) nf.the following theories: (a) functional theory; (b) conflict theory: (c) {nteractionism theory; and (A) critical theory? | Ea les, cha: “Ae mala alin pL ay varie hoi kkatawan” relate in explaining the theoretical assumptions of functional theory? Based (on the functionalist view, ifthe children you are teaching are to gain maximum benefit from school, you must link the school with the community. How can you maintain this link asa teacher? 3, Using conflict and critical theories, how does the use of standardized tests contribute to the problems of inequality in our schools today? Are standardized ‘examinations really prejudicial to the poor? Why? 4, ‘The functional paradigm tends to dominate educational thinking even today. In your own opinion, how does this paradigm explain the schools’ role in addressing the issues, such as: (a) environmental degradation; (b) moral decadence; (6) government corruption; (A) population explosion; and (e) social oppression and inequality? 5, _ Interactionist paradigm argues that understanding human behaviorinvolves seeing the world through the eyes of those being studied. How do you think could interactionism through labeling and teacher's expectations understand the following; (a) school drop-out, (b) absenteeism, and (c) low academic performance? 6. Critical theorists view schools as social institution, which is created by the society to ensure its continued existence. Would you say that schools’ are used by ‘various social classes to defend their respective interests? Explain and give evidence to support your answer. 7. Think of any incident in your school career where a teacher has labeled a student in some ways. How did this label affect the life ofthe student? Was the concept of self fulfilling prophecy observed? How? 8. React on the following statements: ‘a. Education and revolution are one and the same (Fidel Castro). 'b. Society as a whole must become a huge school (Che Guevara. 9. What are the school characteristics that promote equality and excellence? Can our schools provide both equality and excellence? 410. Which of the four (4) sociological theories do you prefer in explaining the realities of schooling and education? Why? elirren diana revel eli tie emeeliceaeliei ses