INTRODUCTION TO Pg#01

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF

METROLOGY
Arshan Shahzad (70111477)
Muhammad Hassan Ali (70111510)
Abdul Haseeb (70111671)

Salman Abubakar Bugvi

Assistant Professor MED, UOL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SECTION – A
THE UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE
Table of Content Pg#02

► Introdution
► History
1. Linear Measurement 2. Displacement Measurement
▪ Gauge Blocks ▪ Potentiometer

▪ Vernier caliper ▪ Linear variable differential

transformer
▪ Screw Gauge
3. Measurement of mass
▪ Dial Indicator
▪ Analytical Balance
▪ Interferometer
4. Measurement of vibration
▪ Cathethometer
▪ Seismic Transducer
▪ Piezoelectric accelerometer
▪ Strain gauge accelerometer
 Metrology Pg#03
► The word metrology is derived from two Greek words ‘Metro’ =
Measurements & ‘Logy’ = Science. Metrology is the science of
measurement.
► It allows manufacturers to produce products more accurately, more quickly
and to a higher standard.
Introduction Pg#04
► Metrology is the science of precision measurement.
► It is the science of measurement of lengths, angles and all related quantities..
► The development of the industry totally depends on the metrology.
► Its purpose in industries is to check whether a component has been
manufactured to the requirement or not.
History Pg#05
► According to oldest standard of measurement
of mass was bega, a unit of mass used in
Egypt in 7000 to 8000 B.C.
► It was believed that the weights were probably
seeds, beans or grains
► The measurement of length known as a cubit.
► The word came from the Latin cubitum,
meaning elbow,.
► Later, the Romans introduced measurements
called the uncia and the mile.
Linear Measurements Pg#06
Definition:
We can define length as: “Total gap measured between the leftmost and
rightmost end of an object in the respective system of units.”

Some of these measurements are given below:

Gauge Blocks.
Vernier Caliper.
Micrometer Screw gauge.
Dial Indicator.
Interferometer.
Cathetometer.
Linear Measurements Pg#07
Gauge Blocks:
Gauge blocks are precision-machined blocks.
These are designed for calibrating measuring devices for precise
measurement.
The main means of gauge blocks in industry is length standardization.

Working:
► Slip gauge surfaces undergo lapping
► Observation of bottom of gauge blocks.
► Wringing process.
► The block is then slid across a 2 in (51 mm) while applying moderate
pressure.
Application: Pg#08

Automotive Industry
Instrumental Calibration Purposes in
Industries:
Casting Industry

Working of Gauge Blocks

► Slip gauge surfaces undergo lapping

► Observation of bottom of gauge blocks.
► Wringing process.
Vernier Caliper Pg#09
Definition:
A measuring device that is used for the measurement of linear dimensions.
With the help of measuring jaws we can measure the diameter of any object.

Working of vernier caliper:

► The vernier scale provides accuracy to the measurement of the main
scale
► By further dividing the lowest reading of the main scale into
increments gives the accuracy level
► Negative and positive zero error must be in involved while working on it.
Application: Pg#10
Medical usages
Industries such as steel
Aerospace
Education Sectors

Animation:
Pg#11
Micrometer Screw Gauge: Pg#12
Definition:
❑ A micrometer, is a device which is calibrated screw widely used for accurate
measurement of components in engineering.
❑ It is also used in machining, along with other metrological instruments.

Principle:
A Micrometer screw gauge works on the principle of the screw.
By rotating the screw head , we get the linear movement of the main
scale.
The linear movement is used to calculate the diameter of wire or
thickness of the metal plate.
Working of Micrometer Screw Gauge : Pg#13
A Micrometer screw gauge works on the principle of the screw.
By rotating the screw head , we get the linear movement of the main
scale.
This linear movement is used to calculate the diameter of wire or
thickness of the metal plate.
Pg#14
Application: Pg#15
It has vast applications in mechanical engineering, machining.
To measure the diameter of a given wire and hence its radius.
To measure the thickness of a glass slab or a metal sheet.
To measure the diameter of a given lead shot and determine its volume.
Dial Indicator: Pg#16
Definition:
Dial indicators are small measuring instrument that can be used in several
mechanical means to measure a certain deviation of a mechanical component.
Principle of Dial Indicator:
The working principle of the Dial Indicators is the movement of the spindle
multiplied with the reading of the main scale.
The needle is used for the indication.
The main scale rotation of pinions and gears is indicated.
Application: Pg#17
The precision level of the milling arbours.
Parallelism present within the ram of a shaped machine.
work piece alignment in various machines.
Automotive disc brakes
Interferometer: Pg#18
It is an instrument used to measure waves through
interference patterns.
The interference of two beams of light is employed to make
precise measurements is termed as Interferometer.
It the process by which two waves are combined so they can
be studied for differences in their patterns.

Construction And Working:

Interferometry depends on the construction of superposition to
combine waves
The combine waves cause the result of their combination to
have some meaningful property.
The data collected is diagnostic of the original state of the
waves
Industrial Applications: Pg#19
The fields in which applications of interferometry is used are:
Astronomy,
Physics,
Optics
Oceanography.
Cathetometer: Pg#20
► A cathetometer is an instrument for measuring vertical distances.
► The instrument consists of an accurately scale and a horizontal telescope
capable of being moved up and down a rigid vertical column.

Construction And Working:

► First, attach a proper cathetometer to a height gauge.
► Place the height gauge on flat surface
► Try to look through the eyepiece and turn the knurled knob with the
eyepiece until the cross-hair comes into a sharp focus.
► Then try to adjust the height of the cathetometer
► Readjust the height to bring the starting point in line for the cathetometer.
► The technician takes a Vernier reading on the beam of the height gauge
which needs to be noted.
Industrial Application: Pg#21
Cathetometer has wide applications in reading the levels of a liquid
in a capillary tube such as in measurements of surface tension.
A cathetometer also measure changes in liquid level.
Displacement Measurements Pg#22

Definition:
It is the displacement sensor which measures the distance between a start
position and an end position.
It can be used to measure velocity and acceleration.
They can also be used to measure a whole range of measured quantities such
as deformation, distortion, thermal expansion, thickness.etc
Some of the displacement measurements are:
Potentiometer.
Linear Variable Differential.
Transformers.
Displacement Measurements Pg#23
Potentiometer:
The potentiometer is an instrument used for measuring the
unknown voltage by comparing it with the known voltage.
It can be used to determine the emf and internal resistance of the
given cell.

Construction And Working:

Potentiometers work by varying the position of a sliding contact
across a uniform resistance.
In a potentiometer, the entire input voltage is applied across the
whole length of the resistor.
The output voltage is the voltage drop between the fixed and sliding
contact.
Industrial Applications: Pg#24
Industrial OEM also uses potentiometers, from fork lifts, hydraulic lifts,
industrial molding equipment, and oil drilling equipment.
The potentiometer is used in medical equipment.
It is used in wood processing machine.
It is used in injection mold machines.
Pg#25
Displacement Measurements Pg#26
Linear Variable Differential Transformer:
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is an Electromechanical
type Inductive Transducer that converts rectilinear displacement into the
AC Electrical Signal.
LVDT is a secondary transducer, the physical quantities such as Force,
Weight, Tension, Pressure, etc. are first converted into displacement by
a primary transducer
The converted primary transducer measures the corresponding
electrical signal.
Construction And Working : Pg#27
► The working principle of LVDT is based on mutual induction.
► When an AC excitation of 5-15 V at a frequency of 50-400Hz is applied to the
primary winding, P, a magnetic field is produced.
► This magnetic field induces a mutual current in the secondary windings, S1
and S2. As a result, the secondary windings have induced voltages of E1 &
E2, respectively.
► Both secondary windings are connected in series. The net output voltage
becomes the difference between the induced voltages in the secondary
windings.
► The differential output voltage of the LVDT will be E0 = E1 – E2.
Industrial Applications: Pg#28
Some more specific applications for LVDTs include:
❖ Power turbines
❖ Hydraulics
❖ Aircrafts
❖ Satellites
❖ Nuclear reactors
❖ Factory automation
Pg#29
Measurement of Mass Pg#30
Definition:
It is defined as the measure of the amount of matter in a body.
The gram and kilogram are two units used to measure mass in the metric
system .
The SI unit of mass is Kilogram (kg).
In this section we discuss only about:

Analytical Balance
Measurement of Mass Pg#31
Analytical Balance:
Analytical balance is defined as an accurate and precise instruments
to measure weights.
It occupy a free location on a solid bench that is free of vibrations.
Construction And Working:
Analytical balance use an electromagnet to generate a force to counter the
sample and output the result by measuring the force needed to achieve
balance
Analytical balances have a draft shield or weighing chamber to prevent
the very small samples from being affected by air currents
They're meant to detect very fine increments, so the slightest vibrations or
breeze can impact the results.
Industrial Applications : Pg#32
These accurate weighing instruments are used to control quality and ensure
GMP compliance in pharmaceutical manufacturing.
They are used in quantitative chemical analysis
Interval weighing
Animal weighing
Measurement of Vibration Pg#33

Measurement of Vibration :
A device that senses the vibration (accelerometer), and an instrument to
measure the level of vibration.
This equipment also has settings for measuring frequency, a frequency-
weighting network, and a display such as a meter, printer or recorder.
Some of devices related to this are given below:
Seismic Transducer
Piezoelectric Accelerometer
Strain Gauge Accelerometer
Measurement of Vibration Pg#34

Seismic Transducer:
The seismic transducer is used for measuring the vibration of the
ground.
The spring mass damper element and the displacement
transducer are the two main component of the seismic
transducer.
Vibrometer and the accelerometer are the two type of the
seismic transducer.
Vibrometer :
It is used for measuring the displacement and high frequencies
Accelerometer:
The accelerometer measures the acceleration of the measuring
body.
Measurement of Vibration Pg#35
Construction And Working of Seismic Transducer:
The mass is connected by the help of the damper and spring to the housing.
The housing frame is connected to the source whose vibrations need to be
measured.
The arrangement is kept in such a way so that the position of the mass
remains same in the space
A transducer within the pickup senses the motion of the mounting base and
converts it into a proportional signal upto 10 Hz.
Measurement of Vibration Pg#36
Industrial Applications:
❖ Oil Exploration
❖ Directional Drilling
❖ Earthquake Monitoring
❖ Seismic Imaging
❖ Intruder Detection
The high precision seismic accelerometers are installed at a constant distance from each other in a
tectonic border zone; this enables an instant earthquake wave’s detection and fast alert to nearby
populations.
Pg#37
Measurement of Vibration Pg#38
Piezoelectric Accelerometer:
A charge that accumulates in a solid material(often ceramic) in response to applied mechanical
strain is known as piezoelectric accelerometer.
A force to a piezoelectric material and the subsequent stress caused the material outputs which
are proportional to the force.
The force is affected by the mass size as well as the acceleration level.
They are often used for measuring dynamic pressure, for example in turbulence, blast, and
engine combustion.
Measurement of Vibration Pg#39
Industrial Applications:
Piezoelectric measuring devices are widely used today in the laboratory, on the
production floor, and as original equipment for measuring and recording
dynamic changes in mechanical variables including shock and vibration.
Cell phones, diesel fuel injectors, grill igniters, ultrasonic transducers, acoustic
guitar pickups, vibration sensors, certain printers, and musical greeting
cards etc. utilizes piezoelectricity.
Their sensitivity and low power consumption also makes them useful for
some medical applications.
Measurement of Vibration Pg#40
Construction And Working:
► The faces of piezoelectric material, usual quartz, is coated with a thin layer of conducting material
such as silver.
► When stress has applied the ions in the material move towards one of the conducting surface
while moving away from the other.
► This results in the generation of charge. This charge is used for calibration of stress.
► The polarity of the produced charge depends upon the direction of the applied stress.
► Piezoelectric coefficient d of quartz crystal is around 2.3 * 10 -12 C/N.
Pg#41
Measurement of Vibration Pg#42

Strain Gauge Accelerometer:

Strain gauge accelerometers use strain gauges to convert mechanical strain to
a DC output voltage that varies with the applied acceleration.
Compare to other types of accelerometers, strain gauge accelerometers can
measure accelerations down to zero Hertz.
Industrial Applications : Pg#43
❖ They are widely used in automobile industry and applied in securing safety
performance of a vehicle, including anti-lock braking system, automotive safety
air-bags and traction control system.
❖ Meanwhile, low frequency strain gage accelerometers with compact design are
ideal for laboratory and light industry environments.
❖ They are more sensitive with the use of semiconductor gauges and stiffer
springs, allowing higher frequency response and output signal amplitude.
Measurement of Vibration Pg#44
Working:
When a cantilever beam attached with a mass at its free end is subjected to
vibration, vibrational displacement of the mass takes place.
Depending on the displacement of the mass, the beam deflects and hence the
beam is strained.
The resulting strain is proportional to the vibration displacement of the mass
and hence the vibration/acceleration being measured when calibrated.
Pg#45
Thank You…