Adama Science and

Technology University

PCE6101 Linear and

Nonlinear Systems Theory
(Signal and Systems)

ASTU
Department of EPCE

1. Introduction: Definition
What is a System?
- Consisting of some components Material
(parts or elements)
- Existing relationship between
components
- Achieving a specific purpose System
as a whole
Energy Information

Environment

1
 Cont…
Simple representation of I/O
relationship of a system
Environment

Input System Output

(material, (Components) (material,
energy, energy,
information) information)

Cont…
Electric heater
Objective: adjusting indoor
temperature
Components: heater coil, fan
& motor, SCR, thermocouple,
case, cable , dial, etc.
Relation: expressed by some
mathematical models

2
 Cont…
Fan &
Thermo- Motor
couple Heater AC
(t) coil power

m(t) SCR

Controller r(t)
u(t)

DC control signal AC Power(110V/220V)

(e.g., -10V ~ +10V)

Cont…

Relation between
components

Controller: u(t)= Kp[r(t) - (t)]

SCR: m(t)= Ksu(t)

Heater+Fan motor: (t )  a (t )  bm(t )

3
 Cont…
AC Power Source

Reference Error Actuating Signal Power Signal Output

Input Signal u(t) m(t) (t)
r(t) e(t) Heater
+ Controller SCR
- ( Fan+Motor)

Sensor
Feedback Signal (thermocouple)

DC control signal
(-10V~+10V)
AC Power(110V/220V)

Cont…
AC Power Source
Reference Error Actuating Signal Power Signal Output
Input Signal
e(t) u(t) m(t) (t)
r(t)
+ 50
2 10
- s+0.1

0.02
Feedback Signal

4
 Cont…
Heating Calorifier
u(t) yr(t)
C o n t ro l l e r

y(t)

Cont…
Setpoint Error Actuating Signal Steam Output
(Reference Signal u(t) Flowrate y(t)
Input) e(t) Pneumatic m(t) Heater
yr(t) + Controlle
Control Exchanger
- r
Valve

Sensor
Feedback Signal (Transmitter)

5
 Cont…
Tank level control
Level
Unit
sensor
u(t)
(t)

u(t)
qi(t)
qi(t)

qo(t)

Cont…

e(t) u(t) ua(t) y(t)

ys(t) Reference Actuator
+ Controller (Motor Plant
Element - unit))

ym(t) Level
Sensor

6
 Cont…

Cont…
Blood sugar
Blood pressure
Temperature
Digestion
Nervous system
Posture control
Blood sugar level

7
 Cont…
Control is a hidden technology
When it works well, nobody notices!
Fields Loops Types
Espresso machine 1 or 2 temp., pressure
Automobile 5~20 speed, door, etc
Mars rovers 10~20 navigation, etc
Aircraft 50 or more auto landing, etc
Process control 100~1000 level, pressure, etc

Cont…
Mixing two or more chemical
materials to make another
material
Removing Heat generated in
reaction process

8
 Cont…

LNG regasification:
-162C liquid at room
temperature
Use seawater or air as
heating source

Cont…
Unstable system
Measuring tilt angle and angular speed
and driving wheel motors
Different speed for each wheel

9
 Cont…
Conventional Control Techniques
Control systems consist of the plant (or process), actuator,
controller, and sensor. Energy
Open-loop u(t) y(t)

control Actuator Plant

Energy

yr(t) + e(t) u(t) y(t)

Controller Actuator Plant
-
Closed-loop
control Sensor

2. Signals
(Definition) Rectangular pulse function
The rectangular function is a function that produces
a rectangular-shaped pulse with a width of  and a
height of 1/ at t0.
 1
 , t0  t  t0  
  (t  t0 )   
 0 , elsewhere

Area= 1

10
 Cont…
(Definition) Impulse(delta) function
If  approaches zero, the rectangular pulse function
becomes impulse at t0.

 (t  t0 )  im   (t  t0 ) (t-t0)
 0 1
, t  t0

 0, t  t0 t
0 t0

Cont…
The impulse function satisfies the following
conditions:
f(t0)

(1) 
 (t  t0 )dt  1 f(t)

 t
(2)  f (t ) (t  t0 )dt 0 t0


 f (t0 ) 

 (t  t0 )dt (t-t0)
 f (t0 ) t
0 t0

11
 Cont…
(Definition) Periodic function
A function is said to be periodic with period T if the
following is true:

f(t+T)= f(t) for all t

Cont…
For example, sin(x) is a periodic function with a period
T= 2.
sin(x+2)= sin(x)

12
 Cont…
(Definition) Orthogonal signal
A set of signals {n(t)} are said to be orthogonal on
0 t T if
T  0, n  m
0 n (t )m* (t )dt  
Kn , n  m

where * means the complex conjugate.

If Kn= 1 as a special case, they are said to be
orthonormal.

Cont…
Example 1: Show that 1(t) and 2(t) are orthogonal
at t[0,2].

1(t) 2(t)
1 1

t t
0 1 2 0 1 2

Solution: (1) When n= m= 1

2 1
0 0
1 (t )1* (t )dt  (1)(1)dt 1  K1

13
 Cont…
1(t) 2(t)
1 1

t t
0 1 2 0 1 2

(2) When n= m= 2
2 2
0 2 (t )2* (t )dt  1 (1)(1)dt 1  K 2

Cont…
1(t) 2(t)
1 1

t t
0 1 2 0 1 2
(3) When n= 1, m= 2
2 1 2
0 0
1 (t )2* (t )dt  (1)(0)dt  1 (0)(1)dt 0
(4) When n= 2, m= 1
2 1 2
0 0
2 (t )1* (t )dt  (0)(1)dt  1 (1)(0)dt 0

14
 Cont…

2 0, n  m
0 n (t )m* (t )dt 
1, n  m

1(t) and 2(t), t[0,2] are orthogonal and

orthonormal.

3. System Classification
(Definition) Linear and nonlinear systems
A system is said to be linear if it satisfies the
superposition property. Otherwise it is said to be
nonlinear.
S{1u1(t)+2u2(t)}= 1S{u1(t)}+2S{u2(t)}

15
 Cont…
Example 2: Show that the superposition property
holds
du (t ) 2
(1) y (t )  2 (2) y (t )  u (t )
dt
(3) y (t )   ay (t )  bu (t ), x(t0 )  0
Solution: (1) If y1(t) and y2(t) are the outputs of the
system for the inputs u1(t) and u2(t), respectively
du1 (t ) du2 (t )
y1 (t )  2 y2 (t )  2
dt dt

Cont…
The output of the system for the combined input of
1u1(t)+ 2u2(t) yields

d [1u1 (t )   2 u2 (t )]
y (t )  2
dt
d [1u1 (t )] [ u (t )]
2 2 2 2
dt dt
du (t ) u (t )
 1 2 1   2 2 2  1 y1 (t )   2 y2 (t )
dt dt
Linear

16
 Cont…
(2) If y1(t) and y2(t) are the outputs of the system for
the inputs u1(t) and u2(t),

y1 (t )  u12 (t ) y2 (t )  u22 (t )
The output of the system for the combined input
1u1(t)+2u2(t) yields
y (t )  [1u1 (t )   2 u2 (t )]2
 12 u12 (t )  21 2 u1 (t )u2 (t )   22 u22 (t )
 1u12 (t )   2 u22 (t ) Nonlinear

Cont…
(3) The solution of the ODE is
y (t )   ay (t )  bu (t ), x(t0 )  0
t
y (t )  0 e  a ( t  ) bu ( ) d
If y1(t) and y2(t) are the outputs of the system for the
inputs u1(t) and u2(t),
t
y1 (t )  0 e  a (t  ) bu1 ( )d
t
y 2 (t )   e  a ( t  ) bu 2 ( ) d
0

17
 Cont…
The output of the system for the combined input
1u1(t)+ 2u2(t) yields
t
0 e
 a (t  )
y (t )  b[1u1 ( )   2 u2 ( )]d
t t
 1 0 e  a (t  ) bu1 ( ) d   2 0 e  a (t  ) bu2 ( )d
 1 y1 (t )   2 y2 (t )
Linear

Cont…
(Definition) Time-invariant (TI) and Time-varying
(TV) systems
TI system: If the input u(t-) shifted by  is applied,
the output is shifted by  but the output shape does
not change.
TV system: output shape changes

u(t) TI y(t)
system

18
 Cont…

u(t) TV y(t)
systems

Cont…
(Definition) Static and dynamic systems
Static system- The output y(t) is affected by the
present input u(t).
Dynamic system- The output depends on the
present input as well as the past input and past
output.

u(t) Static y(t)

system e.g. y(t)= u(t)

y(t)= S{u(t)}

19
 Cont…
u(t) Dynamic y(t) e.g. yሶ (t)= -y(t)+u(t), y(0)
system
y (t )  e  at y (0) 
t
0 e
 a ( t  )
bu ( ) d

u(t) + yሶ (t) y(t)


-

4. System I/O Relationship

(Definition) Impulse response
The response of the relaxed system to the impulse
input (t-) is called the impulse response and is
denoted by h(t,)= S{(t-)}

u(t) y(t)
System

20
 Cont…
Response for any input
u(t) y(t)= S{u(t)}
System

u(t) is represented by a u (t )   u (ti )  (t  ti )
sequence of pulses. i 

u(t)
  (t  ti )
1/

ti ti+1 ti

Cont…
Thus, y(t) excited by u(t) is given by

y (t )  s{  u (ti )  (t  ti )}
i 

  s{  (t  ti )}u (ti )
i 
If 0, then  d, ti= 

y (t )   s{ (t   )}u( )d

  h(t , )u ( )d


21
 Cont…
Linear Time-Varying (LTV) system

y (t )   h(t , )u( )d : convolution integral

Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system


y (t )   h(t   )u( )d
Replacing t-=  yields

y (t )   h( )u (t   )d

Cont…
time
t0 t
initial time current time
If a LTI system is relaxed and causal,
t
y (t )  t h(t   )u( )d
0

 Relaxed: y(t) is zero at the initial time t0

 Causal : y(t) depends on past and current inputs but
not future inputs.

22
 Cont…
For example, the impulse response h(t) and an input
u(t) are given by
h(t )  e 2t , t  0 t
u (t )  1, t  0
y (t )  0 h(t   )u ( )d
h(t) h(-)
1
t 

h() h(t-)

 
t

Cont…
1) When t < 0
t
y (t ) 0 h(t   )u( )d
t
  h(t   )  0d  0
0

h(t-) u()
1

t 0

23
 Cont…
2) When t  0
t t
0 e 2(t  ) d  e 2t 0 e
2
y (t )  d

e 2t  2  t 1 2t 2t 1
=  e   e ( e  1)  (1  e 2t )
2 0 2 2

h(t-) u()


0 t

Cont…
Thus
1 2t
 (1  e ) for t  0
 y (t )   2
 0 for t  0

y(t)

1/2

t
0

24
 5. Fourier Series
x1(t)
x2(t)
x3(t)

x(t)= a1x1(t)
+a2x2(t)
+a3x3(t)

Frequency domain: Time domain:

frequency and magnitude amplitude and change
information of the signal (What Information of the signal
frequency signals are
combined?)

Cont…

1 Scope1
Sine Wave1 Gain1

Sine Wave Gain Add Scope

Sine Wave2 Gain2 Scope2

Scope3

x(t )  sin(t )  5sin(5t )  3sin(15t )

25
Cont…
sin(t )
Time domain

+
5sin(5t )

x(t )  sin(t ) 
5sin(5t )  3sin(15t )
3sin(15t )

Cont…
x(t )  sin(t )  5sin(5t )  3sin(15t )

Frequency domain
14

12

10

 |X(f)| 8
f=
2 6

0
0 2 4 6 8 10

f[Hz]

26
 Cont…
Review of complex z= a+jb
Im
z= a+jb, j= −1 b

z*= a-jb 
Re
b 0 a
z  a 2  b 2  0, z  tan 1 ( )
a
zz*= (a+jb)(a-jb)= a2+b2= |z|2
e j  cos( )  j sin( )
e  j  cos( )  j sin( )

Cont…
(Question) When a signal f(t) is expressed as a linear
combination of N known orthogonal signals {n(t)}, n=
1,2, ..., N and t[0,T], how do we set f1, f2, ..., fN to be
best?
N
f (t )  f11 (t )  f 22 (t )  ...  f N  N (t )   fnn (t )
n 1
Defing the error as
N
e(t )  f (t )   fnn (t )
n 1

27
 Cont…
If we define the integral of the squared error as
N N

0 [ f (t )   f nn (t )][ f (t )   f nn (t )] dt

T T
0
2 *
J e(t ) dt 
n 1 n 1
N

 fn*n* (t )dt 
T T
0 0
2
 f (t ) dt  f (t )
n 1
N T N N

 0   fn*n* (t )dt
T
0 f * (t )
n 1
f nn (t )dt 
n 1
f nn (t )
n 1

2
e(t )  e(t )e* (t )

Cont…
Last term of integral becomes

T N N N N

0    0
T
f nn (t ) f n*n* (t )dt  f n f m*n (t )m* (t )dt
n 1 n 1 n 1 m 1
N

 fn
2
 K n2
n 1

T  0, n  m
0 n (t )m* (t )dt  
Kn , n  m

28
 Cont…
Substituting the result yields
N N N

   fn
T T T
0 0 0
2 2
J f (t ) dt  f (t ) f n*n* (t )dt  f * (t ) f nn (t )dt  Kn
n 1 n 1 n 1
N N N

 fn* 0  fn 0  fn
T T T
0
2 2
 f (t ) dt  f (t )n* (t )dt  f * (t )n (t )dt  Kn
n 1 n 1 n 1
N

 [ fn* 0
T T T
0 0
2 2
 f (t ) dt  f (t )n* (t )dt  f n f * (t )n (t )dt  f n K n ]
n 1
2 2
N
1 0 1
[
T T T
0 0 0
2
 f (t ) dt  Kn fn  f (t )n* (t )dt  f (t )n* (t )dt ]
n 1 Kn Kn

J is the minimum when the middle term is zero

Cont…
Thus, if fn is set by
1 T
 fn 
Kn 0 f (t )n* (t )dt , n  1, 2,..., N

then, the left and right sides of the following equation

are best equal.
f (t )  f11 (t )  f 22 (t )  ...  f N  N (t )
N
  fnn (t )
n 1

29
 Cont…
(Summary) A signal f(t) can be represented by a
linear combination of N orthogonal signals {n(t)},
(n= 1,2, ..., N and t[0,T]) and is best when fn is as
follows:
N
f (t )   fnn (t ) : Fourier
series
n 1
1 T
where f n 
Kn 0 f (t )n* (t )dt : Fourier
coefficient

Cont…
For example, consider f(t)= sin(t) and two orthogonal
signals 1(t), 2(t), t[0, 2].
sin(t) 1(t) 2(t)
1 1
1
t t t
0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2
When n= m= 1 and n= m= 2
2 2
0 0
1 (t )1* (t )dt  2 (t )2* (t )dtdt 1  K1  K 2
Otherwise
2 2 1(t) and 2(t) are
0 
1 (t )2* (t )dt  2 (t )1* (t )dtdt 0 orthogonal.
0

30
 Cont…
1(t)
1 2
1 f1 
K1 0 f (t )1* (t )dt
t
0 1 2 1
 0 sin( t )dt
sin(t)
1
1  cos( t )10
t 
0 1 2
1 2
 (1  1) 
 

Cont…
2(t)
1 2
f2  0 f (t )2* (t )dt
1

K2
t
0 1 2
2
 1 sin( t )dt
sin(t)
1
1  cos( t )12
t

0 1 2
1 2
 (1  1) 
 

31
 Cont…
Thus
2
 f (t )   fnn (t )  f11 (t )  f22 (t )
n 1
2 2
  (t )  2 (t )
 1 
1 No methods
0.5 can represent
sin(t) & f(t)

f(t) more
0
accurately
-0.5 with 1(t) and
-1 2(t).
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t

Cont…
Complex exponential (Eulers formula)
e j  cos( )  j sin( )

| e j | cos 2 ( )  sin 2 ( )  1
sin( )
e j  tan 1 ( )
cos( )
 tan 1 (tan( ))  

32
 Cont…
Consider a set of signals

n (t )  e jn0t (n  0, 1, 2,...)

Periodicity check e j0t  cos(0 t )  j sin(0 t ),
2
0  2 f 
n (t0 )  e jn0t0 T

n (t0  T )  e jn0 (t0 T )  e jn0t0 e jn0T  e jn0t0

They are periodic signals with period T

Cont…
Orthogonality check

(1) When n= m
t0  T t0  T
t 0
n (t )m* (t )dt  t 0
e jn0t  e jn0t dt
t0  T
 t 0
(1)dt  T

Kn= T

33
 Cont…
(2) When n m,
t0  T t0  T
t 0
n (t )m* (t )dt  t 0
e jn0t  e  jm0t dt
t0  T 1 t T
 t 0
e j ( n  m)0t dt   e j ( n  m)0t  0
j (n  m)0   t0
1
 [e j ( n  m )0 (t0 T )  e j ( n  m )0t0 ]
j (n  m)0
1
 [e j ( n  m )0t0  e j ( n  m )0t0 ]  0
j (n  m)0
They are orthogonal signals.

Cont…
(Question) Given a set of orthogonal and periodic
signals n (t )  e jn0t (n  0, 1, 2,...), when a signal
f(t) is expressed as a linear combination of

f (t )  f  (t )    f 00 (t )    f  (t )


  f nn (t )
n 

how do we set fn to be best?

34
 Cont…
Applying the results obtained earlier,
1 T
 fn 
Kn 0 f (t )n* (t )dt

1 t0  T

T t 0
f (t )e  jn0t dt

If the above fn is set, the left and right sides are almost
equal.
f (t )  f  (t )  ...  f 00 (t )  ...  f  (t )

  f nn (t )
n 

Cont…
Summary: A signal f(t) can be represented by a
linear combination of infinite signals {n(t)= ejn t} 0

(n=0,1, 2,...) and it is best when fn is set as follows:

 
 f (t )   f nn (t )   f n e jn0t : Complex
Fourier
n  n 
series
1 t0  T
where f n 
T t 0
f (t )e  jn0t dt : Complex
Fourier
coefficient

35
 Cont…
Example 3: Express f(t) using a set of complex
exponential signals {n(t)= ejn0t}.
f(t)
 1, 0  t  1 1
f (t )  
 1, 1  t  2
t
0 1 2
-1

Solution: T= 2, 0= 2/T= 2/2= 

1 t0  T
fn 
T t 0
f (t )e  jn0t dt

Cont…
1 t0  T
fn 
T t0  f (t )e  jn0t dt

1 1 1 2

2 0 (1)e  jn t dt 
2 1 
(1)e  jn t dt

1
 (1  2e  jn  e  j 2 n )
j 2n
Thus 
f (t )   f n e jn0t
n 

1
  j 2n
(1  2e  jn  e  j 2 n )e jn0t
n 

36
 Cont…
0.7

|Fn|
0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 0n= n

6. Fourier Transform
Complex Fourier series 2
0  2 f 
 
T
1 T /2
f (t )   fn e jn0 t
  [T T /2 f (t )e jn t dt ]e jn t 0 0

n  n 

Assuming that an aperiodic function is a periodic

function with T, n  0  is a continuous
variable, and letting 0 d yields

1 T /2
f (t ) 
2  [T / 2 f (t )e jn t dt ]e jn t0 0 0

n 
1  
 [ f (t )e
 jt
 dt ]e jt d 
2

37
 Cont…
Summary: Fourier Transform
Express f(t) as a linear combination (sum or integral)
of orthogonal signals
1 
f (t ) 
2  
F ( )e jt d 

F ( )  
f (t )e jt dt

In 1822, “The phenomenon of heat

Joseph Fourier
conduction by an infinite series of
(1768-1830)
sinusoids”

Cont…
function [f, mag]= MyFft(x,fs)
% MYFFT computes the FFT of a vector signal x
%
n= fix(log2(length(x)));
N= 2^n;
fftx= fft(x,N); % Calculate the FFT X(f)
numpts= ceil((N+1)/2); % Number of data points taken
fftx= fftx(1:numpts); % Select X(f) of numpts
mag= abs(fftx)/fs; % Calculate scaling magnitude of X(f)
f= (0:numpts-1)*fs/N; % Calculate frequency f[Hz]

38
 Cont…
For example, x(t)= 2sin(2t)+0.4cos(13t), f= /2

x(t) 2 |X(f)| 10

8
1
6
0
4
-1

2
-2

-3 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 25

t f

7. Laplace Transform
Fourier Transform
 2
F ( )   f (t )e  jt dt   2 f 
T

Substituting s= j and letting f(t)= 0, t < 0 yields

Laplace Transform

L{ f (t )}  F ( s )  0 f (t )e st dt

39
 Cont…
Simple functions
f(t) F(s) function
(t) 1 impulse
1 1/s unit step
t 1/s2 ramp
eat 1/(s-a) exponential
e-at 1/(s+a) “
te-at 1/(s+a)2

Cont…
Time shift
L{f(t-L)}= e-LsF(s)
Differential function
df (t )
L{ }  sF ( s )  f (0)
dt
d n f (t )
L{ n
}  s n F (s) When all initial conditions
dt
are zero

40
 Cont…
Integral function

F ( s) 1

L{ f (t )dt} 
s

s 
f (t )dt |t 0

F ( s ) When all initial

 
L{ ... f (t )(dt ) n }  n
s conditions are zero

Cont…
Example 4: Find the LT of
de(t )

(1) u (t )  K p e(t )  K i e(t )dt  K d
dt
(2) y (t )  2 y (t )  u (t  L)
Solution: (1) Taking the LT
K
U ( s )  K p E ( s )  i E ( s )  K d sE ( s )
s
K
 ( K p  i  K d s) E (s)
s

41
 Cont…
(2) Taking the LT on the both sides yields
y (t )  2 y (t )  u (t  L)

sY ( s )  2Y ( s )  e  LsU ( s )
Y ( s ) e  Ls
 
U (s) s  2

Cont…
Example 5: Find the LT of the system and then
sketch the response for u(t)= sin(t). The initial value
is zero.
y (t )  2 y (t )  3u (t )
Solution: Taking the Laplace transform yields

( s  2)Y ( s )  3U ( s )

Y ( s) 3 U(s) 3 Y(s)
G (s)  
U ( s) s  2 s2

42
 Cont…
3 3 3
G ( j )   G ( j ) 
s  2 s  j j  2 2  4

2
G ( j )
1.5

0.5

0
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
 10

Cont…

Frequency response U(s) 3 Y(s)

G(s) 
s2

u(t)= sin(t) G ( j ) y(t)

1 1
0
-1
=1 2 0
-1
0 5 10 1.5 0 5 10
1
1
0
=3 1 0
-1
-1
0 5 10 0.5 0 5 10
1 1
0 =15 0 0


-2 -1 0 1 2
-1 10 10 10 10 10 -1
0 5 10 0 5 10

43
 Cont…
Final value theorem

lim f (t )  lim sF ( s ) Find f() from F(s)

t  s 0 instead of f(t)

Initial value theorem

lim f (t )  lim sF ( s ) Find f(0) from F(s)

t 0 s  instead of f(t)

Cont…
Example 6: Given the Laplace transform of y(t), find
y(0) and y().
3s  2
Y (s) 
s ( s  1)( s  2)
Solution: (1) find y(0)
3s  2
lim y (t )  lim sY ( s )  lim
t 0 s  s  ( s  1)( s  2)

3 / s  2 / s2
 lim 0
s  (1  1 / s )(1  2 / s )

44
 Cont…
(2) find y()

lim y (t )  lim sY ( s )
t  s 0
3s  2
 lim 1
s 0 ( s  1)( s  2)

Cont…
Example 7: Given the following ODE and u(t)= 1 (t >
0), find y(). All ICs are 0.
y (t )  2 y (t )  3 y (t )  4u (t )

Solution: Taking the LT becomes
s 2Y ( s )  2 sY ( s )  3Y ( s )  4U ( s )
4
Y (s)  2 U ( s ) and
s  2s  3
1
U ( s) 
s

45
Cont…

4 4 1
Y (s)  U (s)  
s 2  2s  3 s 2  2s  3 s

lim y (t )  lim sY ( s )
t  s 0
4 4
 lim 
s 0 s 2  2s  3 3

Cont…
Example 8: Given the following ODE and u(t)= e-t
(t > 0), find y(). All ICs are 0.
y (t )  3 y (t )  2u (t )
t
Solution: Taking the LT becomes 2
2 y (t )  u (t )
sY ( s )  3Y ( s )  3
s 1
2
Y ( s) 
( s  3)( s  1)
2
 lim y (t )  lim sY ( s )  lim s 0
t  s 0 s 0 ( s  3)( s  1)

46
Q&A

47