Adama Science and Technology

University

EPCE6101 Linear Systems

Theory
(System Stability)

ASTU
Department of EPCE

1. Stability of Zero-Input Response

LTI System
u(t)
x  Ax  Bu, x (t0 ) x(t)
System
y  Cx  Du
x(t0)
t
t e
A(t  )
x (t )  e A(t t0 ) x (t0 )  Bu( )d
0

0-input response 0-state response

u(t) u(t)
xh(t) xh(t)
System System
x(t0) x(t0)

1
Cont…
Open-loop System Regulator
x  Ax  Bu, x (t0 ) u   Kx
y  Cx  Du
+ u y
r= 0 Plant
-
K x

Feedback System
x  ( A  BK ) x  Ax , x (t0 )
y  (C  DK ) x

Cont…
Open-loop System Tracking Controller
x  Ax  Bu, x (t0 ) u   Kx  Fr
y  Cx  Du
r + u y
F Plant
-
K x

Feedback System
x  ( A  BK ) x  BFr  Ax  Br , x (t0 )
y  (C  DK ) x  DFr

2
 Cont…
(Definition) Equilibrium state
Given a system with zero input, if a state xe satisfies the
following condition for t  t0, it is called equilibrium at
t= t0.
x  Ax , x (t0 ) x e  0  Axe
• External input is
regarded as 0
• A zero vector, i.e. xe= 0,
is the equilibrium of all
systems

Cont…
Examples of equilibrium state
• Stable - spring+mass, RLC circuit
• Neutral – DC motor, hydraulic cylinder
• Unstable - scooter, missile, bicycle

Stable Neutral Unstable

3
 Cont…
For example,
0 1 0
x    x    u , x0
 1 2  1 
Substituting u= 0 and x= xe in the equation yields

 0   0 1   xe1  xe 2  0 
x e       
 0   1 2   xe 2   xe1  2 xe 2  0 

Solving equations ,  yields

xe1= xe2= 0 or  xe  0 

0 

Cont…
   0.5
 0  1   x0   
x0     0.8
 0.8 0.5 Equilibrium
point
x2(t)

-0.5

-1
 
 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 
  0.5   0 
x0   
x1(t) x0   
 0.8  0.8

4
 Cont…
Example 1: Find equilibrium states.
0 1  0
x    x    u , x0
 0 2  1 
Solution: Substituting u= 0 and x= xe in the above
equation yields
 0   0 1   xe1  xe 2  0 
x e       
 0   0 2   xe 2  2 xe 2  0 
 
Thus, xe1= , xe2= 0 or  xe   
0
This system has infinite equilibrium points including
xe= 0.

Cont…
 0 
x0    1
   0.5
 0.8  x0   
Equilibrium  0.8
0.5
points
x2(t)

-0.5

  0.5-1   
 0 
x0   -1

-0.5 0 0.5 1 x0   
 0.8 x1(t)  0.8

5
 Cont…
Example 2: Find equilibrium states.
0 1  0 
x    x   1  u , x0
 2 1  
Solution: Substituting u= 0 and x= xe in the above
equation yields
 0   0 1   xe1  xe 2  0 
x e       
 0   2 1  xe 2  2 xe1  xe 2  0 
0
Solving ,  yields xe1= xe2= 0 or  xe   
0
This system has one equilibrium at xe= 0.

Cont…
 0 
x0    1  0.5
 0.8 
  x0   
Equilibrium  0.8
0.5 points
x2(t)

-0.5

 
  0.5 -1 
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1  0 
x0    x1(t) x0   
 0.8  0.8

6
 Cont…
Example 3: Find the equilibrium of a two-tank
system below:
dx1 (t ) A 1
  1 2 g[ x1 (t )  x2 (t )]  qi (t )
dt S1 S1
dx2 (t ) A1 A2
 2 g[ x1 (t )  x2 (t )]  2 gx2 (t ) ]
dt S2 S2
qi (t )

where S1
S2
x1(t)= h1(t) h1(t)
h2(t)
x2(t)= h2(t)
h1(t) h2(t) A2
A1

q1 (t ) qo (t )

Cont…
Solution: Substituting qi(t)= 0 and x= xe in yields

dxe1 (t ) A
 0   1 2 g[ xe1 (t )  xe 2 (t )] 
dt S1
dxe 2 (t ) A A2
0 1 2 g[ xe1 (t )  xe 2 (t )]  2 gxe 2 (t ) ] 
dt S2 S2

From , xe1= xe2. Substituting this in  yields xe1=

xe2= 0. Thus,  xe= 0.

7
 Cont…
Example 4: Find the equilibrium of a Continuous
Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) Process
x2
x1  x 1
 Da (1  x1 ) exp( ) 
1  x2 / 

x2
x 2  (1   ) x 2
 HDa (1  x1 ) exp( )  u 
1  x2 / 

where Da= 0.072, H= 8, = 0.3, and = 20.

Solution: Substituting u(t)= 0 and x= xe
in  and  yields
(1   )
x e1  xe 2 
H

Cont…
Substituting  into  yields
(1   ) 1  x
f ( x2 )   x2  Da (1  x2 ) exp( 2
)0
H H 1 x 2
/

Solving this nonlinear function results in its solution.

Finally, we have
7

• two stable equilibrium points: 6

xe1= [0.1446, 0.8860]T 5

xe3= [0.7646, 4.7050]T 4

xe3
x2

xe1 xe2
• one unstable equilibrium point:
2

xe2= [0.4472, 2.7517]T 0

0 0.2 0.4 x 0.6 0.8 1
1

8
 Cont…
A vector x whose distance from the
equilibrium point xe is less than or
x
equal to .
||x - xe||2  

x  x 
x   1  , xe   e1 
 x2   xe 2 
|| x  xe ||2  ( x1  xe1 ) 2  ( x2  xe 2 ) 2  
( x1  xe1 ) 2  ( x2  xe 2 ) 2   2

Cont…
(Definition) Internal stability
The equilibrium is said to be internally stable if, for
any x0 in the region of ||x0-xe||   < , the trajectory of
x starting from x0 stays in the region of ||x-xe||   < 
for t  0.

x  Ax, x (t0 )

x (t )  e A(t t0 ) x (t0 )

9
 Cont…
Test of internal stability
The E.S. xe is said to be internally stable if the
following conditions are met:

1. Re(i)  0 for i= 1,2,…,n and

2. For multiple eigenvalues i of ri existing on the
complex axis
• (A-iI)= n-ri or
• A= P-1AP must have all 1st-order Jordan blocks.

Cont…
1= -2 j 1= -2 j Internal
2 = 0 2= j2 stability
3= -j2
 
0 0
Re(i)  0
1= -2
2= j0 j 1= j2 j Need
3= j0 2= j2 confirmation
 = -j2
 3= -j2 
4
0 0

10
 Cont…
Jordan block j
A ()= 3= 0

A= P-1AP 0

3th-order 2nd-order 1st-order

Jordan +1st-order Jordan
block Jordan block block

Cont…
For example, given a zero-input system
0 1 
x    x , x0
 0 2 
Eigenvalues
0 1   1 0    1 
A I        
 0 2  0 1   0 2   
 1
Δ( )  A   I    (  2)  0
0 2  
1= 0, 2= -2
Since Re(1)= 0 and Re(2)< 0, the zero-input system
is internally stable.

11
 Cont…
For example, given a zero-input system
 0 0
x    x , x0
 2 0 
Eigenvalues
 0 0 1 0    0 
A  I         2   
  2 0   0 1   
 0
 ( )  A   I   2  0
2  
 0 𝑟 2
Re(i)  0, it has multiple eigenvalues

Cont…
Method 1: n= 2, r= 2(multiplicity)
Obtaining (A-I) and n-r gives
  0   0 0
A  I      ,
 2      0  2 0 
(A   I)  1
n-r= 2-2= 0

 Since (A-I) n-r, it is unstable.

12
 Cont…
Method 2: To obtain A, inserting  0 gives

  0   0 0
A  I      2 0  ,
  2     0  
 ( A   I )  1,  ( A   I )  2  1  1
0 0 
( A   I )2   ,
 0 0 
 ( A   I )  0,  ( A   I )  2  0  2  r

Cont…
 0 0 2 0 0 
A  I    , ( A   I )  0 0 
 2 0   
Selecting a vector x such (A-I)2x 0 but (A-I)x  0
and letting x2= x gives
1 
x2  x   
0
From x2
 0 0  1   0 
x1  ( A   I ) x2       
 2 0   0   2 

13
 Cont…
Transformation matrix is
0 1
P  [ x1 x2 ]  
 2 0 
From P
1
0 1  0 0   0 1  0 1 
Aˆ  P 1 AP    2 0   2 0    0 0 
 2 0      

Since = 0(r= 2) and A has a 2nd-order Jordan

block, it is unstable.

Cont…

 0 0
x    x , x0
  2 0  j

 0 𝑟 2

0 1  
xˆ    xˆ , xˆ 0 0
 0 0 
 0 𝑟 2

14
 Cont…
Example 4: Check the stability of a zero-input system.
0 1 0 
x   0 0 1  x , x0
 0 0 2 

From ()= |A-I|

= 2  2 0

 = 0(r=2), = -2

Cont…
0 1 0 
( A   I )   0   0 0 1  , Unstable
 0 0 2 
(A  I)  2  n  r  1

or
0 1 0  Multiple eigenvalue
Aˆ  P 1 AP   0 0 0  (= 0) and 2nd Jordan
 0 0 2  block in A, Unstable

15
Cont…
10

8 Unstable
variable
6

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Response with x(t0)= [1 0 0]T

Cont…
Example 5: Check the stability of a zero-input
system.
 0 0 1 
x   0 0 0  x , x0
 0 0 2 

From ()= |A-I|= 2  2 0,

, = 0(r= 2), = -2 and n= 3

16
 Cont…
 0 0 1
( A   I )   0   0 0 0  ,
 0 0 2 
(A   I)  1  n  r Internally stable

or
0 0 0 
Aˆ  P 1 AP   0 0 0  All 1st-order Jordan block
in A Internally stable
 0 0 2 

Cont…

Response with x(t0)= [1 0 0]T

1.5

0.5

Internally stable -0.5

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5

17
 Cont…
(Definition) Asymptotical stability
The equilibrium is said to be asymptotically stable if,
for any x0 in the region of ||x0 - xe||   < , the
trajectory of x starting from x0 always converges to xe
for t  0.


x
xe

Cont…
Test of asymptotical stability
If all the eigenvalues of A have negative real parts, that
is,
Re( ) < 0 (i=1,2,...,n), j
i

then the system is

asymptotically stable

Remark: Be in the shaded 0
area, not on the imaginary
axis.

18
 Cont…
For example,
0 1  0 
x    x , x0   
 2 2   0.5
Eigenvalues of A
 1
 ( )  A   I    2  2  2  0
2 2  
= -1+j, -1-j
Since Re(i) < 0, asymptotically stable.
0 1
x e  0    xe E.S. is xe= 0
  2  2 

Cont…
For any initial state x0, x(t) always converges to xe= 0,
that is, the origin for t.
x2
x0
0.5

x1
xe= 0

19
 Cont…
(Definition) Instability
The equilibrium is said to be unstable if, for any x0 in
the region of ||x0 - xe||   < , the trajectory of x
starting from x0 grows infinitely for t  0.

2. Stability of Zero-State Response

(Definition) BIBS stability
The state x(t) is said to be BIBS (bounded-input
bounded-state) stable if, for bounded input, that is,
||u(t)|| < k, there exists  such that satisfies ||x(t)||  .

Test of BIBS stability

If all the poles of the TF X(s)/U(s)= (sI-A)-1B have
negative real parts, we say BIBS stability.

20
 Cont…
For example, given a zero-state system
 1 0  1
x    x  1 u , x0  0
 0 2   
The TF X(s)/U(s)= (sI-A)-1B is given by
 1 0   1 0   s  1 0 
sI  A  s  
  
 
 0 1   0 2   0 s  2 
 1 
0 
1  s  2 0   s 1
( sI  A) 1    
( s  1)( s  2)  0 s  1  1 
0
 s  2 

Cont…
 1   1 
 s 1 0 
1 1  s  1 
( s I  A) B     
 0 1  1  1 
 s  2   s  2 

From this, s+1= 0, s+2= 0, that is,

s= -1<0, s= -2<0. BIBS stable

21
 Cont…
(Definition) BIBO stability
The state x(t) is said to be BIBO (bounded-input
bounded-output) stable if, for bounded input, that is,
||u(t)|| < k, there exists  such that satisfies ||y(t)||  .

Test of BIBO stability

If all the poles of the TF Y(s)/U(s)= C(sI-A)-1B+D

have negative real parts, we say it is BIBS stabile.

Cont…
Example 6: Consider a zero-state system. Is the
system BIBS, BIBO stable?
1 0  0
x    x   1  u , x0  0
1  2   
y  1 1 x

Solution: Obtaining the TF X(s)/U(s)= (sI-A)-1B gives

1 0  1 0   s  1 0 
sI  A  s  
  
  
 0 1  1 2   1 s  2 

22
 Cont…
1 s  2 0 
( sI  A) 1   1
( s  1)( s  2)  s  1
Thus
1 s  2 0  0 
X ( s ) / U ( s )  ( sI  A) 1 B   1
( s  1)( s  2)  s  1 1 
 0 
 1 
 
 s  2 

Since s= -2 < 0 from the TF, the system is BIBS stable.

Cont…
Obtaining TF Y(s)/U(s)= C(sI-A)-1B+D gives

Y ( s ) / U ( s )  C ( sI  A) 1 B  D
1 s  2 0  0 
=
( s  1)( s  2)
1 1 
s  1 1 
 1
1  0  1
  1 1   
( s  1)( s  2)  s  1 s  2

Since s= -2 < 0, BIBO stable.

23
 Cont…
Responses x1(t) and x2(t) Response y(t)
0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4
x1(t) y(t) 0.3
0.3
x2(t)
0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
t t

3. Lyapunovs Direct Method

Mechanical system

Aleksandr Lyapunov
Motion equation (1857-1918)
Russian mathematician
My  By  ky  0

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 Cont…
Define x1= y, x2= y as state variables
x1  x2
k B
x2   x1  x2
M M
The total energy stored in this system is the sum of
kinetic energy and potential energy.
1 1 1 1
 ( x1 , x2 )  M ( y ) 2  ky 2  Mx22  kx12
2 2 2 2
kinetic energy potential energy

Cont…
1 1
 ( x1 , x2 )  Mx22  kx12  0
2 2
Differentiating to see the energy change over time
gives
 ( x1 , x2 )  Mx2 x2  kx1 x1
k B
 Mx2 (  x1  x2 )  kx1 x2   Bx22
M M
If the friction coefficient B is positive,
 ( x1 , x2 )   Bx22  0
thus, energy eventually dissipates.

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 Cont…
(Theorem) Lyapunov stability
A system
x  f ( x , t ), x0
is said to be Lyapunov stable if a scalar Lyapunov
function V(x) satisfying the following conditions
exists.

1. V(x)  0 for x, and V(x)= 0 for x= 0.

2. V(x) < 0 for x 0 and V(x) = 0 for x= 0.

Cont…
(Definition) Definiteness
For xTAx defined by x 0 and a real symmetric
matrix A,
1. If xTAx >0, A is a positive definite(PD) matrix or
shortly PD
2. If xTAx 0, A is positive semi-definite(PSD)
3. If xTAx <0, A is negative definite(ND)
4. If xTAx 0, A is negative semi-definite (NSD)
5. If xTAx is negative or positive, A is indefinite.

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 Cont…
Test for matrix definiteness
Determinants i= |Ai| (i = 1,2,..,n)
a11 a12
1  a11 , 2  ,..., n  | A |
a21 a22
1. If 1>0, 2>0,..., n>0 A is PD
2. If 10, 20,..., n0 A is PSD
3. If 1<0, 2>0, 3<0, 4>0... A is ND
4. If 10, 20, 30, 40... A is NSD
5. Otherwise A is ID

Cont…
Test for matrix definiteness
Eigenvalues of A, i(1 i  n)

1. If i > 0  A is a PD matrix or shortly PD

2. If i  0  A is PSD
3. If i < 0  A is ND
4. If i  0  A is NSD
5. Otherwise A is ID

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 Cont…
(Theorem) Asymptotical stability
A LTI system x  Ax , x0 having a point of
equilibrium at xe= 0 is asymptotically stable if, for
any PD matrix Q, the Lyapunov equation
ATP+PA= -Q
has a unique solution P and P is a PD matrix.
(Proof)
Choose V(x)= xTPx as the Lyapunov function, where
P is a PD symmetric matrix. Differentiating V(x)
gives

Cont…
V ( x )  x T Px  x T Px  ( Ax )T Px  xT P ( Ax )
 xT ( AT P  PA) x 
In order for the system to be asymptotically stable, it
must be V(x) < 0 for a PD matrix Q.
V ( x )   x T Qx 
Comparing equations  and  yields
ATP+PA= -Q
Therefore, if a PD matrix P that satisfies the above
equation exists, the system becomes asymptotically
stable.

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Cont…
Example 7: Show that the system is stable using the
Lyapunov direct method.
 0 1
x    x AT
P  PA  Q
-1 -1
Solution: Let P and Q be
p p2  1 0 
P  PT   1  , QI  
 p2 p3  0 1 
then
0 1  p1 p2   p1 p2   0 1   1 0 
1 1  p  
  2 p3   p2 p3   1 1  0 1

Cont…
  p2  p3    p2 p1  p2   1 0 
p  p  
 1 2 p2  p3    p3 p2  p3   0 1

Solving the above equation is given by

-2p2= -1
2(p2-p3)= -1
p1-p2-p3= 0 1.5 0.5
P   
p1= 1.5, p2= 0.5, p3=1 0.5 1 
Determinants 1= 1.5>0, 2= |P|= 1.25>0
Since P is PD, the system is asymptotically stable.
Eigenvalues of A: i= -0.5j0.866
Since Re(i) < 0, the system is asymptotically stable.

29
 Cont…
Example 8: Code a program for checking the
stability of the system using the Lyapunov direct
method.  0 1 0
x   0 0 1  x
 6 11 6 
AT P  PA  Q   I

Program:
>>A= [0 1 0;0 0 1;-6 -11 -6];
>>Q= eye(3,3);
>>P= lyap(A',Q)
>>Lam= eig(P)

Cont…
P=
1.8167 1.1500 0.0833
1.1500 2.0083 0.1500
0.0833 0.1500 0.1083
Lam =
0.0965
0.7610
3.0759
Since i > 0, P is a positive definite matrix and the
system is asymptotically stable.

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 Cont…
Example 9: The following is an unstable open-loop
system. When it has a feedback with u= -[17 9]x,
check the stability of the feedback system using the
Lyapunov direct method.
 2 1 0 
x    x    u, x0
 0 3 1 
Solution: The feedback system is

 2 1 0  2 1
x  
0 3  x  1  17 9  x   17 6  x, x0
     

Cont…
Program:
>>A= [2 1;-17 -6];  2 1
>>Q= eye(2); x    x, x0
 17 6 
>>P= lyap(A',Q)
>>Lam= eig(P) % Eigenvalue
P=
8.2500 1.0000 Since P is a PD matrix, the
1.0000 0.2500 feedback system is
Lam = asymptotically stable.
0.1269
8.3731

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 4. Lyapunov's Method for N.S.
(Definition) Radial unboundness
A function V(x) which is positive definite is called
radially unbounded if V(x)→ +∞ for ||x|| → +∞.

(Theorem) Asymptotical stability of nonlinear

systems
If there is V(x) that is globally positive definite and
radially unbounded such that V(x) is globally negative
definite, then xe= 0 is said to be globally
asymptotically stable.

Cont…
Example 10 (Local stability): Consider the zero-
input pendulum system and its state equations.
J (t )  (t )  MgLsin (t )  0
x1  x2
MgL 
x2   sin x1  x2
J J
(1) Obtain the equilibrium point of the system.
(2) Check the stability.
Solution: (1) From the state equations, xe= [n 0]T
(n= 0, 1, 2,…) including xe= 0.

32
 Cont…
(2) Consider the following scalar function.
MgL 1
V ( x)  (1  cos x1 )  x22
J 2
Note that V is positive semi-definite, that is, V(x)  0.
As a matter of fact, this function represents the sum
of the potential energy and the kinetic energy. Its
time-derivative is easily found to be
MgL
V ( x )  x1 sin x1  x2 x2
J
MgL MgL  
 x2 sin x1  x2 ( sin x1  x2 )   x22
J J J J

Cont…

V ( x )   x22
J
=0
Equilibrium point (x= xe= [0 0])
• V(x)= 0 for x= 0
• V(x) < 0 for x 0
 xe= 0 is locally and asymptotically stable.

Equilibrium point (x= xe= [ 0]T) =

• V(x)= 0 for x= 0

• V(x)=  (0)2 = 0 for x= xe  0.
Since xe= [J 0]T violates the second condition, one
cannot draw conclusion on the asymptotic stability of
this system.

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 Cont…
Example 11 (Global stability): Consider the
nonlinear system.
x1  x2  x1 ( x12  x22 )
x2   x1  x2 ( x12  x22 )
(1) Obtain the equilibrium point of the system.
(2) Check the stability.
Solution: (1) From the given state equations,
0  xe 2  xe1 ( xe21  xe22 )
0   xe1  xe 2 ( xe21  xe22 )
Solving these equations gives xe= 0.

Cont…
Let V be the positive definite function
1
V ( x)  ( x12  x22 )
2
The derivative of V is
V ( x)  x1 x1  x2 x2
 x1[ x2  x1 ( x12  x22 )]  x2 [ x1  x2 ( x12  x22 )]
 ( x12  x22 )2  0
which satisfies Condition (2).
The system is a globally asymptotically stable. Note that
the origin is the only equilibrium point of the system.

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 Cont…

1 x 1(t)
x 2(t)

0.5

-0.5

-1

0 10 20 30 40 50
t

Cont…
Example 12 (Instability): Consider the nonlinear
system. Check the stability of xe= 0.
x1  2 x2  x1 ( x12  x24 )
x2  2 x1  x2 ( x12  x24 )
Solution:
Let V be the positive definite function

1 2
V ( x)  ( x1  x22 )
2

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 Cont…
The derivative of V is
V ( x)  x1 x1  x2 x2
 x1[2 x2  x1 ( x12  x24 )]  x2 [2 x1  x2 ( x12  x24 )]
 ( x12  x22 )( x12  x24 )  0

Then, xe= 0 is unstable.

Cont…

1 x 1(t)
x 2(t)

0.5

-0.5

-1

0 10 20 30 40 50
t

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 Cont…
Example 13 (Stability of linearization system):
Consider the nonlinear system.
x1  ln(2  x22 )
x2  exp( x1 )  exp( x2 )
(1) Find the equilibrium points.
(2) Check their stability.
Solution: (1) From the state equations, there are two
equilibrium points:

x1*  1 1 , x2*   1 1

T T

Cont…
The Jacobian of the right hand side is
 f1 f1 
 x x   0 2 x2 
f  1 2  
  x22  2 
x  f 2 f 2   x
   e 1 e x2 

 1x x 2
where f  ln(2  x 2 )
1 2
f 2  exp( x1 )  exp( x2 )
Its matrices in x1* and x2* are
f  0 2  f  0 2 
A1    A2   
x x  x1*  e e  x x  x2* 1 / e 1 / e 

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 Cont…
The eigenvalues of A1 are
1 1
 e  j 8e  e2
2 2
that are conjugate complex numbers with negative real
parts. Therefore we observe stable spiral around the
equilibrium point x1* . The eigenvalues to A2 are
1 1
 ( 8e  1  1), ( 8e  1  1)
2e 2e
*
that are one postive and one negative. Therefore, x2 is a
saddle point and is unstable.

Cont…

2
2 1

0
1
-1

0 -2

-3
-1 -4

-2 -1 0 1 2 -5
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4
x1
x1

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 Cont…
Example 14: Consider a system given by
x1  x2
x2  2 x1  3x2  u  d
d is the disturbance with d= 0.1sin(x1) and |d(t)|  0.1.
The sliding surface is defined as
s  cx1  x2
The sliding mode control law is chosen
u  2 x1  (3  c) x2   sgn( s)
Check the stability of the closed-loop system.

Cont…
Define the Lyapunov function as
1
V  s2
2
The derivatives of V and s give x1  x2
x2  2 x1  3x2  u  d
V  ss

Then, the use of u results in

V  s (cx1  x2 )
 s (cx2  2 x1  3x2  u  0.1sin( x1 ))
u  2 x1  (3  c) x2   sgn( s)

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 Cont…
ss  s( sgn( s )  0.1sin( x1 ))  | s | (  | 0.1sin( x1 ) |)
 | s | (  0.1)

If  > 0.1 is chosen, ss  0

The system is stable. 1
1
0.5

x 1 (t)

x 2 (t)
0
0.5
-0.5

0 -1
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
t t

2 2
Switching function

1.5 0

u(t)
1
-2

0.5
-4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
t(sec) t

Q&A

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