MA2002D-Mathematics IV

Taylor Series and Maclaurin

Series

National Institute of Technology, Calicut

Functions given by Power Series
Let we have a power series: σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑛
… … … (1)

Then (1) has a radius of convergence 𝑅 > 0, its sum is a function of 𝑧, say 𝑓 𝑧 . Then we

can write

𝑓 𝑧 = ෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝑅.
𝑛=0

We say that 𝑓(𝑧) is represented by the power series.

1
e.g. Geometric series represents the function 𝑓 𝑧 = , 𝑧 < 1.
1−𝑧
Theorem: If a function 𝑓(𝑧) can be represented by a power series (1) with radius of
convergence 𝑅 > 0, then 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 .

Theorem: (Uniqueness of Power series): If a function 𝑓(𝑧) can be represented by a power

series with any center 𝑧0 then this representation is unique.

Operations on Power Series:

1. Two power series σ∞

𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑛
and σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑏𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑛
can be added and subtracted
by adding or subtracting like terms

σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑛
± σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑏𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑛
= σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑏𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑛
… … . (2)

If both series have the same non-zero radius of convergence 𝑅, then the radius of
convergence of (2) is 𝑅.
and if one series has radius of convergence 𝑟 > 0 and other has radius of convergence 𝑅 >
0, where 𝑟 ≠ 𝑅, then the radius of convergence of (2) is the smaller the two numbers 𝑟 and 𝑅.

2. Two power series can be multiplied and divided.

3. Term wise differentiation of a power series

Let the power series given by

σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑛
= 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 𝑎2 𝑧 − 𝑧0 2
+ ⋯, 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝑅…….(1)

The derived series of the power series (1), is obtained from (1) is by term wise differentiation

σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑛−1
= 𝑎1 + 2 𝑎2 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 3𝑎3 𝑧 − 𝑧0 2
+⋯
Theorem: The derived series of a power series has the same radius of convergence as the
original series.
𝑛
Example: Find the radius of convergence of the series σ∞
𝑛=2 2
𝑧𝑛.

Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 = σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑧 𝑛
= 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2
+ 𝑧 3
+ ⋯ 𝑧 < 1 ……..(1)

Differentiate both sides twice we get, σ∞

𝑛=2 𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)𝑧 𝑛−2
= 2 + 6𝑧 + 12𝑧 2
+⋯

Multiply both sides by 𝑧 2 /2 we get

𝑛
σ∞
𝑛=2 2
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 3 + ⋯ .….(2)

We have the circle of convergence of (1) is 𝑧 < 1. Hence the radius of convergence of (3)

is 𝑅 = 1
Term wise Integration of Power series

∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑧−𝑧0 2 𝑧−𝑧0 3

The power series σ𝑛=0 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 𝑎0 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 3 +⋯
𝑛+1

2
Obtained by integrating the series 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 𝑎2 𝑧 − 𝑧0 +⋯

term by term has the same radius of convergence as the original series.

Power Series represents Analytic function

Theorem: A power series with a non zero radius of convergence 𝑅 represents an analytic
function at every point interior to its circle of convergence.
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
The Taylor series of a complex function 𝑓(𝑧) is

𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧0 )
𝑓 𝑧 = σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛
𝑛
𝑧 − 𝑧0 , where 𝑎𝑛 = ……(1)
𝑛!

1 𝑓 𝑧
Or , 𝑎𝑛 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑧 … … . . 2
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧−𝑧0 𝑛+1

In (2), we integrate counter clockwise around a simple closed path 𝐶, that contains 𝑧0 in its
interior and is such that 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a domain containing 𝐶 and every point inside 𝐶.

• A Maclaurin series is a Taylor series with center 𝑧0 = 0, which is

𝑓 𝑛 (0)
𝑓 𝑧 = σ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 , where 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛!
• We have see that a power series with a non-zero radius of convergence 𝑅 represents an
analytic function. On the other hand we can ask the following question:

Question: If we are given a function 𝑓 that is analytic in some domain 𝐷, can we represent it
by a power series of the above form?

• Since a power series converges in a circular domain 𝐷 and a domain 𝐷 is generally not
circular, then the question comes down to: a power series that converges at 𝑧 and the
number to which the series converges is 𝑓 𝑧 in circular domain that are all contained in
𝐷?

The question is answered in the following theorem:

Taylor’s Theorem:

Statement: Let 𝑓 be analytic within a domain 𝐷 and let 𝑧0 be a point in 𝐷. Then 𝑓 has the
series representation

∞ 𝑛
𝑓 𝑧0 𝑛
𝑓 𝑧 =෍ 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑛!
𝑛=0

valid for the largest circle 𝐶 with center 𝑧0 and radius 𝑅 that lies entirely within 𝐷.

Important Special Taylor Series

1 𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛
1) Geometric series: 𝑓 𝑧 = 1−𝑧
. Then we have 𝑓 𝑧 = 1−𝑧 𝑛+1
, so 𝑓 0 = 𝑛!
Hence the Maclaurin series of 𝑓(𝑧) is the geometric series

∞
1
= ෍ 𝑧𝑛 = 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 + ⋯
1−𝑧
𝑛=0

2) Exponential series: Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 , 𝑓 𝑛

𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 , so 𝑓 𝑛
0 =1

𝑧 𝑓 ′ (0) 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓𝑛 0
Therefore, 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 = 𝑓 0 + 1! 𝑧 + 2!
𝑧 + ⋯ + 𝑛! 𝑧𝑛 + ⋯

𝑧2 𝑧𝑛 𝑧𝑛
=1+𝑧 + 2! + ⋯+ +⋯= σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑛! , 𝑧 < ∞.
𝑛!

𝑥 𝑛
If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖. 0 (i.e. 𝑦 = 0) then 𝑒 = 𝑥 σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑛! , −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞.
Problem: Find the power series expansion of the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 𝑒 3𝑧

𝑧 𝑛
𝑧
Solution: Put 𝑧 = 3𝑧 in 𝑒 = σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑛! , we get

∞
3𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
𝑒 3𝑧 =෍
𝑛!
𝑛=0

Multiply both sides by 𝑧 2 , we get

∞ 𝑛 𝑛+2 ∞
3 𝑧 3𝑛−2 𝑧 𝑛
𝑧 2 𝑒 3𝑧 =෍ =෍
𝑛! 𝑛−2 !
𝑛=0 𝑛=2
3) Trigonometric and Hyperbolic series

∞
𝑛
𝑧 2𝑛 𝑧2 𝑧4
cos 𝑧 = ෍ −1 =1− + +⋯
2𝑛 ! 2! 4!
𝑛=0

∞
𝑛
𝑧 2𝑛+1 𝑧3 𝑧5
sin 𝑧 = ෍ −1 =𝑧− + −⋯
2𝑛 + 1 ! 3! 5!
𝑛=0

∞ 2𝑛 ∞
𝑧 𝑧 2𝑛+1
cosh 𝑧 = ෍ , sinh 𝑧 = ෍
2𝑛 ! 2𝑛 + 1 !
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
Few formulas: sin 𝑧 = −𝑖 sinh(𝑖𝑧), cos 𝑧 = cosh(𝑖𝑧)

sinh 𝑧 = −𝑖 sin 𝑖𝑧 , cosh 𝑧 = cos(𝑖𝑧)

Problem: Find the power series expansion of 𝑓 𝑧 = sinh 𝑧

Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 = sinh 𝑧 = −𝑖 sin(𝑖𝑧)

2𝑛+1
σ∞ 𝑛 𝑧
We know that, sin 𝑧 = 𝑛=0 −1 ……….(1)
2𝑛+1 !

Replace 𝑧 by 𝑖𝑧 in (1) and multiply by −𝑖, we get

∞ 2𝑛+1 ∞
𝑛
𝑖𝑧 𝑧 2𝑛+1
−𝑖 sin 𝑖𝑧 = (−𝑖) ෍ −1 =෍
2𝑛 + 1 ! 2𝑛 + 1 !
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
 1+2𝑧 2
Problem: 𝑓 𝑧 = expand into series involving powers of 𝑧.
𝑧 3 +𝑧 5

1+2𝑧 2 1+2𝑧 2 1 2 1+𝑧 2 −1 1 1

Solution: 𝑓 𝑧 = = = = [2 − ]
𝑧 3 +𝑧 5 𝑧 3 (1+𝑧 2 ) 𝑧3 1+𝑧 2 𝑧3 1+𝑧 2

We can not find a Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) since it is not analytic at 𝑧 = 0

1
But = 1 − 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 4 − 𝑧 6 + ⋯ ., 𝑧 < 1
1+𝑧 2

When 0 < 𝑧 < 1,

1
𝑓 𝑧 = 3 [2 − 1 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 6 − 𝑧 8 + ⋯ ]
𝑧
1 1
= + − 𝑧 + 𝑧3 − 𝑧5 + ⋯
𝑧3 𝑧