Environmental Psychology Semester I

Module 1

1.1 Emergence of environmental psychology and its growth

1.2 Definition and scope.
1.3 Human environment relationship
1.4 Different worldviews to understand human-environment relationships.
1.5 Salient features of environmental psychology
1.6 Recent trends and future directions in environmental psychology I
1.7 Indian views on human-environment relationship

1.1 Emergence of environmental psychology and its growth

The impact of human behavior on global ecological problems cannot be denied. Time and
again, energy savings and efficient production lose the race against the ever-increasing
consumption of energy and resources. It is all about individual and collective behavior
change – and, therefore, about psychology. This raises various important questions: How can
we motivate people to adopt a more environmentally-conscious behavior? How do we get
from knowledge to action? And how can we turn good intentions into deeds?
In order to work on an environmentally benign world, we first need knowledge and methods
with which we can successfully foster effective environmental behavior and break
psychological barriers. It is important that we equip ourselves with the psychological
knowledge necessary for planning and implementing small projects and large campaigns.

• Environmental psychology studies the interactions and relations between people and
their environments.
It is the study of transactions between individuals and their physical settings. In these
transactions, individuals change their environments, and their behavior and experiences are
changed by their environment. It includes theory, research, and practice aimed at making the
built environment more humane and improving human relations with the natural
environment. Considering the enormous investment society makes in the physical
environment (including buildings, parks, streets, the atmosphere, and water) and the huge
cost of misusing nature and natural resources, environmental psychology is a key component
of both human and environmental welfare.
• Much recent environmental research has stressed the other side of the coin - how
human actions affect the environment.
Traditionally environmental psychology has emphasized how the physical environment
affects human thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. However, much recent environmental
research has stressed the other side of the coin - how human actions affect the environment.
The task of psychologists interested in the environment is to examine a great variety of topics
besides the issues involved in extreme actions aimed at defending the natural environment.
Environmental psychologists study not only how the physical environment (e.g., buildings,
weather, nature, noise, pollution, street arrangements) affects our behavior, thinking, and
wellbeing but also how our behavior (e.g., energy conservation, vandalism, activism,
automobile use, recycling, water use) affects the environment (climate change, water
shortages, pollution, and reduced biodiversity).
• Ecological issues of people's relationship to their environment, both natural and
human-made, have assumed importance to our quality of life, and even to the survival
capacity of humanity.
A study conducted by Katherine Chang et al (2020) found that less satisfaction with
environment spaces affected Quality of Life negatively in both physical and psychological
aspects and that poor environmental quality affected all domains of Quality of Life. The
environment is an important factor that affects individuals’ overall well-being and that the
interaction between environmental conditions and the individual, is extremely important
when assessing its impact on Quality of Life.
• Is a reasonably new 'discipline'
Environmental psychology was not fully recognized as its own field until the late 1960s when
scientists began to question the tie between human behavior and our natural and built
environments.
• Grew out of social psychology
There are social psychological aspects to many topics examined by environmental
psychologists such as violence in jails; weather and altruism; the design of the built
environment in relation to crime, privacy, crowding, and territoriality; the effects of noise and
lighting on interpersonal relations; spatial arrangements in offices and schools; and social
aspects of managing natural resources and our role in climate change
• Wherever you go, there you are
This old saying is another way of conveying the idea that no matter what you do—whether
you are interacting with others or are alone, and no matter what behavior or thought you are
engaged in—you do it somewhere. This somewhere is the physical environment, and it is
often a crucial influence on our actions, thoughts, and well-being. But our actions, both
individually and collectively, also have an enormous impact on the physical environment—
sometimes beneficial, but sometimes harmful.
• Is interdisciplinary, e.g., related to anthropology, architecture, urban planning,
politics, sociology
• Environmental psychologists work at three levels of analysis:
(a) to analyse the psychological processes like perception, cognition, and personality and how
they are affected and structured by your environment. For example, how does the
environment affect one’s personality, level of perception, attention and other psychological
processes. For a few people, studying or working in open spaces help them focus better and
enhance their concentration as compared to when they are in closed rooms or spaces.
(b) to enhance the management of social space: Social space considers personal space,
crowding, and privacy, and the physical setting. Environmental psychologists work to
understand these aspects of complex everyday behaviours, such as working, learning, living
in a residence and community. For example, they tend to focus on questions like how can we
build better social spaces so that we have better learning, working and living.
(c) human interactions with nature and the role of psychology in climate change. Emphasizes
on our role, as psychologists – both individually and within our sub disciplinary groups –in
reducing, and adapting to the impacts of climate change. Environmental psychologists try to
understand what people currently believe and know about climate change and whether they
have any insight about their contributions to climate change.

Origin of Environmental Psychology

The early 20th - century psychologists studied the effect of noise (United States) and heat
(England) on work performance, while scholars in Germany and Japan explored concepts
related to environmental psychology. By mid - century, environmental psychology was a
clearly established discipline with work on topics such as personal space, and building design
In real life, our behaviour occurs in the context of an environment, one that is constantly
changing and rich in information. Our environment includes all of our natural and built
surroundings, and is a delicately balanced system that can easily be damaged. Whenever we
change some part of it, other parts also change. Concerns about what we are doing to our
environment reached importance in the 1960's and continue to be an issue of serious concern
even in the 2lSt century.
And thus, a new area developed within the field of psychology at the end of the 1950s and
during the 1960s. Still other designations that remain, such as – Ecological Psychology and
Architectural Psychology.
• One of the most important initiatives was taken in 1958 with the formation of a
research group by William Ittelson and Harold Proshansky at the City University of
New York.
The purpose of this group was to study how the spatial/architectural setting of a psychiatric
hospital can affect patients’ behaviour. It is no secret that patients are influenced by their
surroundings. They found that hospital designs directly impact patient health in more ways
than one might think. They wanted hospital designers to evolve hospitals beyond their
infamous sterile decor and eventually found ways in which a hospital design influences
patient health. They observed that hospital layouts are a very important factor for patients and
that patients should be able to have a sense of location without ever feeling lost. It was found
that having a sense of place keeps patient stress levels low. They also found that a major
problem within hospitals today is noise. Often patients cannot sleep throughout the night as
medical carts screech through the halls and doors open and close. So closer attention needs to
be paid to acoustics within hospitals as noisy environments generate more stress for patients.
Use of colour in hospital design has a multitude of uses. Colour can help patients have a
sense of orientation. Colour has been found to be associated with mood. Using the right
colours in waiting areas, examination rooms, hallways or patient private rooms can have a
definite effect on patient motivation and stress levels. Over the next eight or nine years, the
group continued to work on Environmental psychology areas; In 1970 the group's first
volume was published, the term ‘Environmental Psychology’ was explicitly used in the title
{Environmental Psychology: Man and His Physical Settings).
• In 1936, a man named Kurt Lewin wrote a simple equation that changed the way we
think about habits and human behavior. The equation makes the statement that
Behavior is a function of the Person in their Environment.
He proposed that it is not just your personal characteristics, but also your environment that
drives your behavior. In many cases, your environment will drive your behavior even more
than your personality. One example of where this principle is applied is in grocery stores. The
products the store wants to promote most (i.e., the products they want you to buy) are
presented at eye-level. Conversely, less popular or lower demand items are shelved very low
or very high.
• One of the promoters of this collaborative approach between planning and psychology
was Winston Churchill.
In this area, he showed himself to be particularly shrewd and far-sighted. As an example, we
can recall Churchill's words in the House of Commons, as he said that 'we give shape to our
buildings and they, in turn, shape us. He pointed out several characteristics that the
architectural setting of the House of Commons should present following its reconstruction. In
particular he stated that 'it should be large enough so that it can hold all of its members at
once, at the same time not give the impression of overcrowding. Churchill insisted that the
shape of the old Chamber was responsible for the two-party system which is the essence of
British parliamentary democracy and thus, 'we shape our buildings and afterwards our
buildings shape us.' Environmental psychology has often quoted Churchill to illustrate how
the people–place relationship can be a transaction.
What sets environmental psychology apart is its commitment to research and practice that
subscribe to these goals and principles:
(a) Improve the built environment and stewardship of natural resources: It aims to learn
and teach about the different ways by which we can enhance the management of our natural
resources and build the environment.
(b) Study everyday settings (or close simulations of them),
(c) Consider person and setting as a holistic entity: Does not only focus on one aspect
like person or the environment; but rather viewing them as a complete unit.
(d) Recognize that individuals actively cope with and shape environments; Aims to
identify that we do not passively respond to environmental forces but also play a role in
shaping the environmental factors.
(e) Work in conjunction with other disciplines. Environmental psychology relies on
interaction with other disciplines in order to approach problems with multiple perspectives.
The first discipline is the category of behavioral sciences, which include: sociology,
anthropology (the study of human societies and cultures and their development), and
economics. Environmental psychology also interacts with the inter-specializations of the field
of psychology, which include: developmental psychology, cognitive science, industrial and
organizational psychology. In addition to the more scientific fields of study, environmental
psychology also works with the design field which includes: the studies of architecture,
interior design, urban planning.

Environmental psychologists apply their knowledge in many different ways, including:

• Conducting research on messages that motivate people to change their behavior.
• Spreading the word about environmental solutions.
• Uncovering why people may not adopt positive behaviors.
• Encouraging people to rethink their positions in the natural world.
• Helping clients to live more sustainable lives
1.2 Definition and scope.

Definition
• According to the Journal of Environmental Psychology, the field can be defined as:
“The scientific study of the transactions and interrelationships between people and
their physical surroundings (including built and natural environments, the use and
abuse of nature and natural resources, and sustainability-related behavior).”
• Environmental psychology is the study of how we, as individuals and as part of
groups, interact with our physical settings — how we experience and change the
environment, and how our behaviour and experiences are changed by the
environment.

Scope and role of Environmental Psychology

Environmental psychologists have a significant role to maintain the balance between man and
the environment. They can work in almost all areas because we, the human being, live in an
environment and always interact with it.

a) Urbanisation and Environmental Psychology

Urbanisation is a historical incident depending on the socio-economic status of the society, its
level and rate of its development. When populations grow, the population of a place may spill
over from the rural areas to nearby cities. Growing urban population has increased
environmental demands and also affects human health. As the global population becomes
more urbanized, there is a concern that it will negatively affect not just physical health, but
also mental health. According to the World Health Organization, the urban population of the
world is now at approximately 54% of the total global population and continues to
grow (WHO, 2016). As more and more people become urbanized, personal physical and
mental health changes, where understanding of environmental psychology is becoming a
more pressing issue to human health. Urbanisation has increased at an accelerated rate over
the past century. Urban settlements are called the "engines of economic growth" and centre of
economic activity. The living conditions of rural living compels people to flock to towns and
cities in search of better economic prospects. The continuous movement of people from the
countryside to the city in poor countries like India is creating a serious social crisis which
affects the quality of life of the inhabitants.
Rapid urbanisation in developing countries like India has brought enormous problems of
housing shortage and even deteriorating quality of housing, characterised by highly dense
conditions also. Such countries have a special stake in the issue of crowding, especially on
the psychic and behavioural consequences of continued living in slums, which are heavily
overcrowded. The effects of high density living in slums on human behaviour has been a
topic of much interest to researchers in various fields like biology, criminology, sociology,
anthropology, geography and psychology. Environmental psychologists take an important
role in this regard.
A study conducted by Wang Cheng et at in 2016 explored the impact of The Urban Built
Environment on Human Mental Health. They found that urban habitants are more prone to
certain personality traits that can be detrimental to a person’s mental health. The results show
neuroticism is more likely to develop in urban areas than in a rural environment. Neuroticism
is a long-term tendency to be in a negative or anxious emotional state. It is not a medical
condition but a personality trait. This means that people from the urban areas are more likely
to develop depression and anxiety than their rural counterparts.
Psychoticism is another type of personality which is a dimension of personality characterized
by aggression, impulsivity, aloofness, and antisocial behavior, indicating a susceptibility to
psychopathic disorders The result shows only two (2) people with a psychoticism personality
and both of them are from the urban environment.

b) Slum Environment and Environment Psychology

Slum environment is another important area where environmental psychologists take a
significant role for improvement of the environmental condition. Slum environment is
predominantly characterised by highly crowded neighbourhoods. Generally, slum consists of
a hut, group of huts or buildings or areas characterised by overcrowding, deteriorating,
unsanitary conditions and also absence of facilities and amenities like proper toilets etc.,
which endanger the health, safety of the inhabitants of the slums. There is often a lack of
interest in formal education. Environmental deficiency produces differentials in the
development of perceptual and cognitive skills (Rath, Dash and Dash, 1978). The individuals
who live in the slum environment are always suffering from various types of deprivation. For
proper development of the child, an organised and effective environment in his family and
social world are prerequisites. It is also observed that the basic psychological processes,
especially cognitive functioning, are influenced by environmental factors in the sense that
they provide the source and variety for various experiences and thereby enrich the
development of the individual. For example, a child from a well-to-do family has more
chances for formal education, meeting new people, going outside of his home, visiting new
places as compared to a child from the slum area who is most of the time at home with the
same people. Thus, it can be said that an impoverished environment retards the development
of cognitive and perceptual skills.

c) The Effects of Crowding and Environmental Psychology

The concept of crowding has recently gained a great deal of interest for behavioral scientists.
One reason being the non-stop world population growth rate. As the population of many
countries moves more and more toward urban or suburban areas, increased concerns about
the effects of crowding mount. Crowding refers to having too many people in one place at the
same time and the result of it is the feeling of discomfort and edginess.
Crowding generally occurs in large informal groups of people wherein you may or may not
know the people who surround you. And illustrates how the physical environment can affect
human behavior. It is when psychological tension is produced in environments with high
density, especially when individuals feel that the amount of space available to them is
insufficient. Crowding is not due to the large number of people, but rather because of density,
that is, the number of people within the space available.
There are both positive and negative views of crowing but is generally inclined towards the
negative side. The situations wherein you might view crowding positively are very different.
Crowding may not have the same negative effects as when you go to a fair or a party. This
explains why a high-density social event (e.g., party) is fun, whereas a high-density living or
work space can be negative. When you need more space and can’t have it, you experience
crowding. Nevertheless, crowding may have a damaging effect on mental health and may
result in poor performance of complex tasks and increased physiological stress.
when people experience crowding, their social interactions change. Two results are common:
They withdraw from others, creating more psychological space when physical space is
limited, and they become more irritable and potentially aggressive. The natural tendency to
cope with crowding by social withdrawal may become a characteristic way of interacting
with others.
One of the ways researchers mark whether a situation is stressful or not is to use
physiological measures like blood pressure. If crowding is a stressor, then it should affect
these physiological measures. Both laboratory research, usually with college students, and
community studies provide evidence that crowding can cause physiological stress. If you
carefully observe yourself or others who are in a crowded situation, you can also see
nonverbal indicators of stress. For example, when it’s crowded, people will fidget; adjust
their clothes, hair, jewellery, and so on; and often avoid eye contact. Next time you are in a
very crowded setting (e.g., elevator, train), see if you notice a link between how crowded the
setting is and how much these behaviors occur.
The effects of crowding on human beings can usually be divided into:
1. Decrease in privacy
2. Negative view of space
3. Loss of control in social interaction
If we do not understand crowds and crowd behaviour, we are left with random attempts at
crowd control and crowd management which may result in serious losses of life, health,
property and money. Those involved in crowd management and crowd control must foresee
the nature of the crowd that will be in attendance and must be able to observe the behaviour
of a crowd while an event is taking place, and make timely decisions for effective action.
There is also evidence that having some space in your home where you can at least
temporarily be alone (refuge) can offset some of the negative impacts of crowding. Crowding
is but one example of the many ways in which human behavior and the physical environment
can influence one another.

d) Work Environment and Environment Psychology

Office employees spend a lot of their time inside a building, where the physical environments
influence their well-being and directly influence their work performance and productivity. In
the workplace, it is often assumed that employees who are more satisfied with the physical
environment are more likely to produce better work outcomes. Temperature, air quality,
lighting and noise conditions in the office affect the work concentration and productivity.
Numerous studies have consistently demonstrated that characteristics of the physical office
environment can have a significant effect on behaviour, perceptions and productivity of
employees. Work environment is also an important environment where environmental
psychologists have a significant role. We know that a favourable quality of work environment
affects the individual in many ways.
The physical setting of an office has direct effects on the psychological state of employees
and can be significant in particular kinds of work. Three kinds of influence will be considered
here.
First, aspects of work such as heat, noise, and lighting have been shown to affect a number of
psychological processes in both direct and indirect ways. Noise, for example, may impair the
cognitive performance of certain kinds of tasks.
Second, the physical setting impacts on the level and nature of social interaction between co-
workers. The design of open- plan offices, for example, and other aspects of the physical lay-
out may determine the kinds of interactions that can take place.
Third, the physical environment may offer more or less physical safety. Concerns about
accidents or injury are likely to have some effect on psychological well-being.
If the environment is good and healthy, then the employee perceives the work environment
favourable and if there exists a reverse picture, then we can say that the environment is
unhealthy.
A counterproductive work behavior, is any employee behavior that undermines the goals and
interests of a business. Counterproductive work behaviors come in many different forms, but
can include theft, fraud, sexual harassment, workplace bullying, absenteeism, workplace
aggression. These types of behavior not only impact the quality of work produced by the
employee engaging in CWBs but also can negatively affect the productivity of other
employees in the company. Job Stress, High Employee Turnover Rates, Lack of Productivity.
These are the significant features which need to be observed if we want to associate the work
environment and behaviour.
A study conducted by N. Kamarulzaman et al (2011) on the Overview of the Influence of
Physical Office Environments Towards Employee found several factors of environments such
as the effects of workplace design, indoor temperature, colour, noise and also interior plants
influenced employee’s well-being and performance.

e) Quality of Life and Environmental Psychology

The term quality of life is generally used to refer to an overall evaluation of the conditions of
life as experienced by an individual or a set of individuals. Quality of life is an inclusive
concept which covers all aspects of living including material satisfaction of vital needs as
well as aspects of life such as personal development, self-realisation and healthy ecosystem.
For survival, man not only needs adequate housing, clothing and nutrition but he also craves
for security, employment, education and proper environment. Similarly, at societal level, an
individual needs proper socialisation, sense of participation, recognition of achievement etc.
Thus, undoubtedly environmental psychologists have ample opportunities to do something
for human beings and also for maintaining the environment properly without any destruction.
In a study conducted by Kyung-Young Lee on the relationship between Physical
Environment Satisfaction, Neighbourhood Satisfaction, and Quality of Life, it was found that
higher satisfaction with the physical and neighbourhood factors positively affected QoL.
Many developing countries tend to focus on quantitative growth with an aim to grow
economically. However, recent urban management has also emphasized qualitative growth,
such as resident QoL, as being just as important for urban sustainability and management.

f) Residential Environment and Environmental Psychology

Residential environment refers to a facility building or any portion of a facility building that
is used for living, for people with special needs and environments such as day care and
schools. Residential environment is "a term that represents both home and housing,
neighbourhood and community". Healthy residential environments are known to be an
important determinant of quality of life and well-being. The multiple components of a house
(e.g., bed room, living cum drawing room, dining and kitchen, bathrooms/ toilets, balcony,
etc.) and outdoor areas (e.g., courtyard / children play area, community hall, shopping centre /
market place and other infrastructural measures) need to be considered in terms of their
potential and effective contribution to physical, social and mental well-being.

In principle, there are eight main components that ought to be considered including:
1) The characteristics of the residential site in ensuring safety from "natural" disasters
including earthquakes, landslides, flooding and fires, and protection from any potential
source of natural radon.
2) The residential building as a shelter for the inhabitants from the extremes of outdoor
temperature; as a protector against dust, insects and rodents; as a provider of security from
unwanted persons.
3) The effective provision of a safe and continuous supply of water that meets standards for
human consumption, and the maintenance of sewage and social waste disposal.
4) Ambient atmospheric conditions in the residential neighbourhood and indoor air
ventilation.
5) Household occupancy conditions, which can influence the incidence of injury from
domestic accidents.
6) Accessibility to community facilities and services (education, employment, leisure, and
medical care) that are affordable and available to all individuals and groups.
7) Food safety including availability of uncontaminated fresh foods that can be stored with
protection against spoilage.
8) The control on the use of toxic materials for housing and building construction.
1.3 Human and Environment relationship

The human-environment interaction has five major components:

1. Physical Environment: It includes both physical reality such as the noise, the
temperature, the quality of air and water, and various objects and things that constitute the
physical world around us. Physical environment includes all the geographical features that
have an effect on the individual. Food, temperature, climate, resources for comfortable living,
the natural belief features – are all included in it.
2. Social –Cultural Environment: It includes all aspects of the cultural environment such as
norms, customs, process of socialization, etc. It includes all the aspects dealing with other
people. The cultural environment consists of the influence of religious, family, educational,
and social systems. It includes the aspects of social interaction including its products such as
beliefs, attitudes, stereotypes, etc. Every individual inherits the cultural traits from the social
environment. The term ‘social heredity’ is this significant, as it emphasises the act of
transmission of social and cultural patterns to each new generation. It is a form of an
educational environment that affects more than a single generation. We are not born with
social heredity but rather develop it as we grow. It includes social etiquettes, norms, customs
& traditions, social heritage, etc.
3. Environmental Orientations: It refers to the beliefs that people hold about their
environment. For example, some people hold the environment equivalent to God and
therefore they perceive all its aspects with respect and reverence and try to maintain it in a
perfect form and do not degrade it.
4. Environmental Behaviour: This behavior refers to adapting attitudes and behaviours
aiming to minimise any adverse effects on the natural environment. It involves how people
efficiently make use of the environment. For example, making use of our natural resources
such as coal, natural gas and oil to make in a way that is sustainable to the environment.
5. Products of Behaviour: These include the outcomes of people’s actions such as petrol
stations, building homes, dams, schools, etc. That is, these are products or outcomes of
dealing with the environment.
All the above aspects of environment depict the important constituents of the study of
interaction between environment and the human beings. It is very important to understand
that human beings are part of the environment and degrading the environment will result in
adverse effects and the extinction of many forms of life. Therefore, it is the responsibility of
human beings to maintain the environment in good condition, its destruction means
destruction of human life

Effects of the Environment on Human Behaviour

The environment can increase or decrease stress, which in turn impacts our bodies in multiple
ways. This is because our brain and our nervous, endocrine, and immune systems are
constantly interacting. Thus, the stress of a noisy, confusing hospital room might result in a
patient not only feeling worried, sad, or helpless, but experiencing higher blood pressure,
heart rate, and muscle tension. In addition, hormones released in response to the emotional
stress could suppress the patient's immune system, causing his wounds to heal more slowly.
Stress is an important consideration, and creating an environment that reduces stress is vital
to improve health outcomes.
A study was conducted by Peter J. O. Aloka et al (2016) on the School Physical
Environmental Factors Responsible for Stressful Experience among Teachers in Special
Primary Schools. The study found that 57% of the respondents strongly agreed that they were
stressed because of inadequate infrastructure, 64.5% of the respondents were stressed due to
inadequate informal furniture arrangement. The study found that 31.4% of the respondents
strongly agreed that they were stressed because of inadequate and untidy toilets. In addition
70% of the respondents accepted that they were stressed because of congested classrooms
with wheelchairs and ramps that make it difficult to move around.
Environment has both nourishing as well as destructive effects on human beings. Throughout
human history, people have been threatened by floods, earthquakes, and other natural
disasters. In Spite of enormous scientific development, we have not been able to control the
effect of natural calamities and disasters. Disasters are a complex global problem; it is an
inevitable truth of our life. Every year individuals and communities are being affected by
disasters, which disrupts their mental health and well-being.
The earthquakes at Latur and Bhuj (2001) and Super cyclone in Orissa (1999) not only
caused extensive damage to property and physical environment (uprooting of trees etc) but
also had long-term effect on the lives of the people. Research studies indicate that the
survivors of such disasters suffer from anxiety, withdrawal symptoms, depression, stress,
anger and nightmares. Along with the social and economic losses, the individuals and
communities experience a mental instability which might precipitate Post Traumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD), Anxiety and Depression in the population. Generally, the disasters are
measured by the cost of social and economic damage, but there is no comparison to the
emotional sufferings a person undergoes post-disaster. Psychological distress is common in
the victims, along with socio-economic distress.
India is vulnerable to natural disasters and other types of disasters which leads to a significant
loss in the affected population. The aftermath of disasters has a significant impact on the
socio-economic and mental state of the victims. Apart from the government interventions,
which focuses on the socio-economic condition, the psychosocial interventions are also being
emphasized. It comprises acceptance as a coping skill, which helps the victims to maintain
social relationships positively and also protect and enhance their well-being. Thus, it helps
the victims to adapt to the changes they experience post-disaster. These interventions assist
the victims in normalising their mental health despite their loss.

Effects of Human Behaviour on the Environment

Human behaviour can either make or break, protect or destroy his environment. Man grows
in the environment and lives in the environment. Human activity has had an effect on the
environment for thousands of years, from the time our very earliest ancestors came into
existence. Since we first walked the earth, we have been modifying the environment around
us through agriculture, travel and eventually through urbanization and industrialization.
Sometimes people destroy the environment for their own selfish interest, through
deforestation, due to laziness like throwing garbage here and there, instead of putting it in the
dustbin. Many people drive old vehicles on the road which emit poisonous gas. Many
industrialists start industries without taking steps to protect the environment. Though personal
behaviour of a single individual like driving an old car, throwing garbage at unwanted places
etc. contribute very little to environment pollution when such behaviour of many people is
added up, the problem of environment pollution gets multiplied and severely affects human
life. Though immediate threats due to environmental pollution are not perceived, it has long-
term adverse effects on human beings. It is thus a fact that human actions are producing
dangerous and harmful effects on the environment where we are born, and brought up and
where we live and die.
In recent times, technological innovations and advances have brought us new potential threats
from the environment, which are man-made.
1. The Population Bomb
Human overpopulation has been affecting the environment for hundreds of years and a
concern for scientists since at least 1798, when Thomas Malthus first published his finding
that, without significant technological innovation, the human population would almost
certainly outstrip the planet’s food supply. In 1968, this concern was again raised in Stanford
professor R. Paul Ehrlich’s book “The Population Bomb.” Accommodating population
growth has been a root cause for much of the impact we’ve had on our environment. Our
food supply today can support more lives than ever, and advances in medical science have led
to increasingly longer lifespans. But this reality has the profound side effect of reducing
population turnover and leading to its rapid expansion. So as our quality of life and life
expectancy improve, the challenges wrought by overpopulation accelerate as well. The
prospect of longer life is greeted by the fear of overpopulation.

2. Deforestation and Reforestation

If plants do not survive it becomes difficult for man to survive in a healthy manner. Without
being aware of this truth, people go on destroying the forests day by day. This affects the
weather, temperature, atmospheric conditions leading to more and more natural calamities.
Deforestation refers to the decrease in forest areas across the world that are lost for other uses
such as agricultural croplands, urbanization, or mining activities. Greatly accelerated by
human activities since 1960, deforestation has been negatively affecting natural ecosystems,
biodiversity, and the climate. Growing populations have to be housed, which means they seek
more space to build homes and cities. This often involves clearing forests to make room for
urban and suburban development, as well as to provide building materials. Currently, it is
estimated that 18 million acres of trees are clear-cut every year to create space for
development and to be used in wood products. By destroying the forests, human activities are
putting entire ecosystems in danger, creating natural imbalances, and putting Life at threat.
Deforestation has many effects, including decreasing oxygen levels and the destruction of
animal habitats. Some groups have endeavoured to create a positive counter-impact to
deforestation’s detrimental effects on the environment. Reforestation refers to the process of
replanting an area with trees. Reforestation efforts seek to replace as much forest land as
possible every year, and it is currently estimated that about 40 percent of the trees removed
each year are being replaced.

3. Pollution
It is generally accepted that all types of pollution can indeed cause public health problems
and also harm plant and animal life.

1. Air Pollution
Air pollution is a mixture of solid, liquid and gas particles suspended in the air. It can harm us
when it accumulates in the air in high enough concentrations. Car emissions, chemicals from
factories, and dust are a few examples. Some air pollutants can be poisonous and inhaling
them can increase the chance for you to have health problems. People with lung or heart
diseases, older adults and children are at greater risk from air pollution. People exposed to
high enough levels of certain air pollutants may experience: Irritation of the eyes, nose, and
throat, wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and breathing difficulties Worsening of existing
lung and heart problems, such as asthma Increased risk of heart attack In addition, long-term
exposure to air pollution can cause cancer and damage to the immune, neurological,
reproductive, and respiratory systems. In extreme cases, it can even cause death.

2. Water pollution
Water pollution occurs when harmful substances contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean,
aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to humans or
the environment. These toxins can exert tremendous effects on the natural world, leading to
environmental degradation and problems like acid rain. Contaminated water can make you ill.
Every year, unsafe water sickens about 1 billion people. And low-income communities are at
high risk because their homes are often closest to the most polluting industries. Diseases
spread by unsafe water include cholera and typhoid. Chemicals and heavy metals from
industrial and municipal wastewater contaminate waterways as well. These contaminants are
toxic to aquatic life—most often reducing an organism’s life span. Management of sewage
waste products and garbage have posed serious problems for the governments, municipalities
and corporations. When our sewage disposals are flushed as it is into the rivers, they lead to
water pollution and such water becomes unfit for human use. Water of sacred rivers of the
country like Ganga and Yamuna and many other rivers are now unfit for consumption
because of pollution by human beings.

3. Land and soil pollution

Land and soil pollution is largely the product of poor agricultural practices, inefficient
irrigation, improper hazardous chemicals and nuclear waste management, and a range of
industrial, military and extractive activities. The Main Causes of Land Pollution include
mining, agriculture, Urbanization and Construction and litter. While urbanization is not in
itself littering, large quantities of people living, producing trash and littering in a dense area
does inevitably lead to land pollution. To accommodate this increased population,
construction activities also occur, which result in large waste materials, such as metal, plastic,
wood, and bricks. When these materials are not properly disposed of, it contributes to the
land pollution of that area
Land pollution touches essentially every area of the living world, including:
• Polluted soil, which leads to a loss of fertile land for agriculture
• Habitat shifting, where some animals are forced to flee where they live in order to
survive

4. Noise Pollution
Refers to consistent exposure to elevated sound levels that may lead to adverse effects in
humans or other living organisms. Noise pollution is human-produced sound that can damage
ecosystems and quality of life. We contribute to noise pollution by driving cars, playing loud
music, and operating other loud equipment. Studies have shown that noise pollution is
directly linked to reduced sleep times in humans and other animals, which increases stress,
promotes disease, and increases the occurrence of mental illness.
This type of pollution is so present in today’s society that we often fail to even notice it
anymore:
• street traffic sounds from cars, buses, pedestrians, ambulances etc.
• construction sounds like drilling or other heavy machinery in operation
• airports, with constant elevated sounds from air traffic, i.e. planes taking off or
landing
• workplace sounds, often common in open-space offices
• constant loud music in or near commercial venues
• industrial sounds like fans, generators, compressor, mills
• train stations traffic

Human Diseases Caused by Noise Pollution:

Whether we realize we are subjected to it or not, noise pollution can be hazardous to our health
in various ways.
• Hypertension is, in this case, a direct result of noise pollution causing elevated blood
levels for a longer period of time.
• Hearing loss can be directly caused by noise pollution, whether listening to loud
music in your headphones or being exposed to loud drilling noises at work, heavy air
or land traffic, or separate incidents in which noise levels reach dangerous intervals,
such as around140 dB for adults or 120 dB for children.
• Sleep disturbances are usually caused by constant air or land traffic at night, and they
are a serious condition in that they can affect everyday performance and lead to
serious diseases.
• Child development. Children appear to be more sensitive to noise pollution, and a
number of noise-pollution-related diseases and dysfunctions are known to affect
children, from hearing impairment to psychological and physical effects. Also,
children who regularly use music players at high volumes are at risk of developing
hearing dysfunctions. In 2001, it was estimated that 12.5% of American children
between the ages of 6 to 19 years had impaired hearing in one or both ears
• Various cardiovascular dysfunctions. Elevated blood pressure caused by noise
pollution, especially during the night, can lead to various cardiovascular diseases.
1.4 Different worldviews to understand human-environment relationship.
Environmental worldviews
People disagree on how serious different environmental problems are and what we
should do about them. These conflicts arise mostly out of differing environmental
worldviews—how people think the world works and what they believe their role in the
world should be. Your Environmental worldview includes the way you feel about
environmental issues.
Part of an environmental worldview is determined by a person’s environmental ethics—
what one believes about what is right and what is wrong in our behavior toward the
environment. What you think we should do about it is based largely on your
environmental value system or environmental ethics.
Your environmental value system is what helps you to form an opinion on environmental
issues. For example, maybe you think that we should protect endangered species because
they have the right to live. Or alternatively, you might think that we should protect
endangered species because they might be useful to us in the future. It is an individual's
view about what their role in the world and environment is.
There are many ethical decisions that human beings make with respect to the
environment. For example:
• What's your opinion about the growing population growth?
• Should humans continue to clear cut forests for the sake of human consumption?
• What environmental obligations do humans need to keep for future generations?
• Is it right for humans to knowingly cause the extinction of a species for the
convenience of humanity?
These are some of the questions you can ask in order to understand your environmental
worldview.
Because of differing worldviews, 2 people might have different perceptions and beliefs
about the same environmental issue and reach different conclusions.

This happens because the 2 people start with different environmental assumptions and
ethics.

People see environmental problems from vastly different perspectives that are explained
by environmental ethics, or what one believes about what is right and what is wrong in
our behavior towards the environment.
Environmental worldviews are mainly categorized into 3: Anthropocentric (Human
centred worldview), Biocentric (Life centred worldview) and Ecocentric (Earth centred
worldview).

• Human centred worldviews

Anthropocentric worldview
Beginning in about 1970, anthropocentrism became common in environmental
discussions. Anthropocentric ethics evaluates environmental issues on the basis of how
they affect human needs and attaches primary importance to human interests. Derived
from the Greek word Anthropos for 'Human Being ' and Kentron for 'Center '.
These focus primarily on the needs and wants of humans. The core component of
anthropocentrism is one human being’s moral obligation towards their fellow human
beings. Anthropocentrism is that worldview that considers humans to be the most
important thing in the Universe, or at least on the planet Earth.
Most People Have Human-Centered Environmental Worldviews and It is not surprising
that most environmental worldviews are human centered.

Our actions are largely determined by what we value.

Instrumental value: refers to the value of an organism, species, ecosystem based on its
usefulness to humans. For example, a tree has high instrumental value because it is
useful to humans in providing food, helping us breathe, providing shelter and shade.

Intrinsic value: refers to the value of an organism, species, ecosystem based on its
existence, regardless of whether it has any usefulness to humans or not. From this point
of view, a tree would have intrinsic value because it is part of the ecosystem and because
of its existence.

Anthropocentrism: In an anthropocentric view, the focus is primarily or exclusively on

humans, with the natural world ignored or merely a background. Value is placed
primarily on humans, with the natural world having lesser or (usually) only instrumental
value. In this perspective, humans are usually seen as separate from the natural world,
with nature as an object of study and use.

There are a number of aspects of the anthropocentric view, which strongly influence the
ways in which humans interpret their relationships with the entire ecosystems. Some of
these are as follows:

1. The anthropocentric view suggests that humans have greater intrinsic value than
other species. A possible result of this attitude is that any species that are of
potential use to humans are a “resource” to be exploited. This attitude has
resulted in degradation of the environment, sometimes to the point of extinction,
of nonhuman species.

2. The view that humans have greater intrinsic value than other species also
influences ethical judgments that we make about other organisms. These ethics
are often used to legitimize treating other species in ways that would be
considered morally unacceptable if humans were similarly treated. For example,
animals are often treated cruelly in medical research and agriculture which would
be considered unacceptable if it were for humans.

One such worldview held by many people is the Planetary management worldview.
According to this view, humans are the planet’s most important and dominant species,
and we can and should manage the earth mostly for our own benefit. The values of other
species and parts of nature are based primarily on how useful they are to us. According to
this view of nature, human well-being depends on the degree of control that we have
over natural processes.

Assumptions of Planetary management worldview

1. We are apart from the rest of nature and can manage nature to meet our
increasing needs and wants.
2. Because of our ingenuity and technology, we will not run out of resources.
3. The potential for economic growth is essentially unlimited.
4. Our success depends on how well we manage the earth's systems mostly for our
benefit. So how are we as humans using the natural resources to our advantage
can define our success.

Another human-centered environmental worldview is the Stewardship worldview.

The word stewardship refers to supervising or taking care of something. Stewardship, in

this sense, is to ensure the well-being and preservation of environmental structures and
aspects. By maintaining a way of life that is favourable to the earth’s systems, we can
preserve its resources for future generations to enjoy. An everyday example of
Stewardship is what parents do to help provide a better future for their children and
grandchildren.
Some examples of stewardship include using materials that safely biodegrade, reducing
waste through recycling and considering the environmental effect in developing
inventions and infrastructure.

Assumptions of Stewardship worldview include:

1. We have an ethical responsibility to be caring and responsible managers, or
stewards, of the earth.
2. It proposes that we will probably not run out of resources, but they should not be
wasted.
3. We should encourage environmentally beneficial forms of economic growth and
discourage environmentally harmful forms. (For eg. industries should take
adequate precautions before and after starting factories so as to not degrade the
environment)
4. Our success depends on how well we manage the earth's systems for our benefit
and for the rest of nature.
According to the stewardship view, as we use the earth’s natural capital, we are
borrowing from the earth and from future generations.
We have an ethical responsibility to pay this debt by leaving the earth in at least as good
a condition as what we now enjoy.

Criticism of the human-centered (Anthropocentric)worldview

• Some people believe any human-centered worldview will eventually fail because
it wrongly assumes we now have or can gain enough knowledge to become
effective managers or stewards of the earth
• Since the 1960s, the anthropocentric attitude has been strongly criticized. Some
have attempted to "soften" anthropocentrism by correcting the perceived
misconception of humanity as distinct and separate from the natural world.
 Others claim this view to be shallow and assert the need for a total reversal of the
anthropocentric perspective, as in biocentrism, in which the biotic community is
seen as the central concern.
• According to some critics of human-centered worldviews, this approach will not
work because it is based on increased degradation and depletion of the earth’s
natural capital. Also, critics say, it focuses on short-term economic benefits with
little regard for the long-term harmful environmental, health, and consequences
that are a result of this worldview.
• Critics of human-centered worldviews point out that we do not even know how
many plant and animal species live on the earth, much less what their roles are
and how they interact with one another and their non-living environment.
• Critics argue that this worldview should be expanded to recognize that all forms
of life have value as participating members of the biosphere, regardless of their
potential or actual use to humans.

While an anthropocentric mindset predicts a moral obligation only towards other human
beings, biocentrism includes all living beings.

• Life centered worldviews

Biocentric worldview
Biocentrism is a worldview that asks us to give equal importance and priority to all other
living organisms. Derived from the Greek word 'Bios' for 'Life' and Kentron for 'Center'. The
term biocentrism is sometimes used to indicate views in which focus and value are placed on
living organisms (animals and perhaps plants). Biocentric thinkers often emphasize the value
of individual organisms. Biocentric ethics calls for a rethinking of the relationship between
humans and nature. It states that nature does not exist simply to be used or consumed by
humans, but that humans are simply one species amongst many, and that because we are part
of an ecosystem, any actions which negatively affect the living systems of which we are a
part adversely affect us as well, whether or not we maintain a biocentric worldview.
A biocentric worldview places the greatest importance on living individuals or living
components of the environment. Biocentric theories do not consider the Abiotic components
of the environment to be as important as Biotic components.
Abiotic factors refer to non-living physical and chemical elements in the ecosystem.
Examples of abiotic factors are water, air, soil, sunlight, and minerals. Biotic factors are
living or once-living organisms in the ecosystem. These are obtained from the biosphere and
are capable of reproduction. Examples of biotic factors are animals, birds, plants, fungi, and
other similar organisms.
Bio Centrists believe that all living things are equally important. For example, a tree's life
would be considered just as important as a human's life. This is in contrast to an
anthropocentric view in which the lives of humans are given the greatest value.
In 1986, Paul Taylor published Respect for Nature, a book that is considered to be the first
rigorous, philosophical defense of biocentric ethics. This book provided four basic tenets that
outline what Taylor termed a ''biocentric outlook'' on life:
1. Humans are equal members of the earth's community of life
2. Humans and members of other species are interdependent
3. All organisms are centers of life in the sense that each is a unique individual pursuing
its own good in its own way
4. Humans are not inherently superior to other living things
The main beliefs of the biocentric worldview are that an intrinsic value is seen in all forms of
life, irrespective of their potential use to humans and that nature exists not only form humans
but for all of earth's species. It believes that humans have an ethical responsibility to not
cause premature extinction of any species. Every organism has an inherent right to survive.

Criticism

Biocentrism has faced criticism for a number of reasons. Some of this criticism grows out of
the concern that biocentrism is an anti-human paradigm and that it will not hesitate to
sacrifice human well-being for the greater good. Biocentrism has also been criticized for its
individualism; emphasizing too much on the importance of life and neglecting the importance
of other Abiotic components of the environment.

• Earth-centered worldviews
The Ecocentric Worldview
People who support an ecocentric Worldview Believe in the importance of an ecosystem as a
whole. They attribute equal importance to living and non-living components of ecosystems
when making decisions regarding their treatment of the environment. Derived from the Greek
word 'Oikos' for 'Earth' and Kentron for 'Center'. It is a holistic school of thought that sees
little importance in individuals; ecocentrists are concerned only with how individuals
influence ecosystems as a whole.
Ecocentrism finds inherent (intrinsic) value in all of nature. Ecocentrism thus contrasts
sharply with anthropocentrism. Ecocentrism sees the environment– comprising all Earth's
ecosystems, atmosphere, water and land as well as living organisms like humans, plants and
animals.
People with earth-centered worldviews believe that humans are not in charge of the world.
Their view is that the natural system that we are all part of is holistic, that is, interconnected
and interdependent. They understand that the earth’s natural capital keeps us and other
species alive. They also understand that preventing the degradation of this natural capital is a
key way to promote environmental sustainability.
Earth-centered worldviews hold that because humans and all forms of life are interconnected
parts of the earth, it is in our own self-interest not to act in ways that impair the overall
system. One earth-centered worldview is called the environmental wisdom worldview.
Its major beliefs are as follows:
1. We are a part of and totally dependent on nature, and nature exists for all species.
2. Resources are limited and should not be wasted.
3. We should encourage earth sustaining forms of economic growth and discourage
earth degrading forms.
4. Our success depends on learning how nature sustains itself and integrating such
lessons from nature into the ways we think and act.

According to this view, we are within and part of—not apart from the environment. This
view holds that the sustainability of our species, civilizations, depends on the sustainability of
the environment, of which we are just one part. In many respects, the environmental wisdom
worldview is the opposite of the planetary management worldview. The environmental
wisdom worldview suggests that the earth does not need us to manage it in order for it to
survive, whereas we need the earth for our survival.

Similarities between ecocentric and biocentric worldviews

Biocentric and ecocentric worldviews have a lot in common. Both are adopted by people who
have concern for the environment and its well-being. Both worldviews place great
importance on the lives of all creatures and value the preservation of life over human gains in
power and financial wealth. It can be difficult to find common ground during heated
environmental debates, but it helps to remember that people with different environmental
worldviews often have similar goals.
Differences between ecocentric and biocentric worldviews
The primary difference between ecocentric and biocentric worldviews lies in their treatment
of the abiotic environment. Ecocentrism demonstrates the importance of non-living elements
of the environment. It focuses on abiotic elements. An abiotic factor is a non-living part of an
ecosystem that shapes its environment. Examples might include temperature, light, and
water.
Biocentrism focuses on living elements of the environment. For example, in the climate
change debate, biocentrism would focus on how climate change influences living things by
causing migration of species and alterations in wildlife habitats. Ecocentrists would also
consider changes to the abiotic world. Changing sea levels, weather patterns and ocean
acidity.
1.5 Salient features of environmental psychology

• Is a reasonably new 'discipline':

Environmental psychology was not fully recognized as its own field until the late 1960s when
scientists began to question the tie between human behavior and our natural and built
environments.
Environmental psychology is a field that attempts to study the interplay between environment
and psychology. Harold Proshansky is, for many, considered to be one of the founding
fathers of environmental psychology. He was among the first to put forth the hypothesis that
environment directly influences behavior in a predictable way. According to him, valuable
observations made in the field must be made in real life. One has to observe people acting
within the context of a particular environment, which involves a great deal of hands-on field
work (as opposed to controlled lab experimentation)
Roger Barker was one of the more theoretical personalities to emerge in the field of
environmental psychology. He is famous for introducing the idea of "behavior settings" into
the field, a concept that is now fundamental to the discipline as a whole. The children in his
study behaved one way at home, one way when walking to school, another way at school,
even more differently at church, and so on. What his observations revealed is that children
seem to unconsciously manifest different coping strategies and behaviors purely on the basis
of environment. Something about the architecture of school and church is sufficient to
establish a feeling of respect and calmness, whereas the chaotic openness of the playground
brings about feelings that are quite different. This "behavior settings" study was one of the
first major scientific discoveries within the field.

• Grew out of social psychology:

There are social psychological aspects to many topics examined by environmental
psychologists such as violence in jails; weather and altruism (selflessness); the design of the
built environment in relation to crime, privacy, crowding; the effects of noise and lighting on
interpersonal relations; physical arrangements in offices and schools; and social aspects of
managing natural resources and our role in climate change.

• Wherever you go, there you are:

This old saying is another way of conveying the idea that no matter what you do—whether
you are interacting with others or are alone, and no matter what behavior or thought you are
engaged in—you do it somewhere. This somewhere is the physical environment, and it is
often a crucial influence on our actions, thoughts, and well-being. But our actions, both
individually and collectively, also have an enormous impact on the physical environment—
sometimes beneficial, but sometimes harmful.

• Is interdisciplinary,
e.g., related to anthropology, architecture, urban planning, sociology

• Environmental psychologists work at three levels of analysis:

(a) to analyse the psychological processes like perception, cognition, and personality and how
they are affected and structured by your environment. For example, how does the
environment affect one’s personality, level of perception, attention and other psychological
processes. For a few people, studying or working in open spaces help them focus better and
enhance their concentration as compared to when they are in closed rooms or spaces.
(b) to enhance the management of social space: so when you talk about social space it
considers personal space, crowding, and privacy, and the physical setting. Environmental
psychologists work to understand these aspects of complex everyday behaviours, such as
working, learning, living in a residence and community. For example, they tend to focus on
questions like how can we build better social spaces so that we have better learning, working
and living.
(c) human interactions with nature and the role of psychology in climate change. Climate
change is a term on everybody’s minds at the moment. But what role can we, as
psychologists – both individually and within our subdisciplinary groups – play in reducing,
and adapting to the impacts of climate change. Environmental psychologists try to understand
what people currently believe and know about climate change and whether they have any
insight about their contributions to climate change.

COMMON ASSUMPTIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY:

The assumptions that we see as underlying all environmental science, independently of

specific orientation, are as follows:

• The earth's resources are limited;

The Earth's natural resources are vital to the survival and development of the human
population. However, these resources are limited by the Earth's capability to renew them.
Renewable and nonrenewable resources are energy sources that human society uses to
function on a daily basis.

RENEWABLE RESOURCES
When it comes to energy resources, there is always the question of sustainability. It is
important that resources provide enough energy to meet our needs—to heat our houses,
power our cities, and run our cars. However, it is also important to consider how these
resources can be used long term. Some resources will practically never run out. These are
known as renewable resources. Food, water, forests and wildlife are all renewable resources.
For resource use to be sustainable, the consumption rate should be maintained within the
capacity of the natural systems to regenerate themselves.

NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES
The difference between these renewable and nonrenewable resources is that renewable
resources can naturally replenish or reload themselves while nonrenewable resources cannot.
This means that nonrenewable resources are limited in supply. Oil, natural gas, and coal are
a few types of nonrenewable resources. Oil, natural gas, and coal are collectively called fossil
fuels.
Fossil fuels were formed within the Earth from dead plants and animals over millions of
years—hence the name “fossil” fuels. Fossil fuels are made from decomposing plants and
animals. These fuels are found in the Earth's crust and contain carbon and hydrogen, which
can be burned for energy. Pressure and heat work together to transform the plant and animal
remains into crude oil (also known as petroleum), coal, and natural gas.
A nonrenewable resource is a natural substance that is not refilled with the speed at which it
is consumed. It is a finite resource. Fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal are examples
of nonrenewable resources. Renewable resources are the opposite: Their supply replenishes
naturally or can be sustained.
 • The earth as a planet has been and continues to be profoundly affected by life
Earth is home to millions of species. Just one dominates it. Us. Our cleverness, our
inventiveness and our activities have modified almost every part of our planet. In fact, we are
having a profound impact on it. Our cleverness, our inventiveness and our activities are now
the drivers of every global problem we face. We got to where we are now through a number
of civilisation- and society-shaping "events".
Our emissions of CO2 modify our atmosphere. Our increasing water use had started to
modify our hydrosphere. Rising atmospheric and sea-surface temperature had started to
modify the cryosphere, most notably in the unexpected shrinking of the Arctic and Greenland
ice sheets. Our increasing use of land, for agriculture, cities, roads, mining – as well as all the
pollution we were creating – had started to modify our biosphere. Or, to put it another way:
we have started to change our climate.
As our numbers continue to grow, we continue to increase our need for far more water, far
more food, far more land, far more transport and far more energy. As a result, we are
accelerating the rate at which we're changing our climate.
Demand for land for food is going to double – at least – by 2050, and triple – at least – by the
end of this century. This means that pressure to clear many of the world's remaining tropical
rainforests for human use is going to intensify.
At the same time, the global shipping and airline sectors are projected to continue to expand
rapidly every year, transporting more of us, and more of the stuff we want to consume,
around the planet year on year. That is going to cause enormous problems for us in terms of
more CO2 emissions.

• The effects of land use by humans tend to be cumulative

Cumulative effects to the environment are the result of multiple activities whose individual
direct impacts may be relatively minor but in combination with others results are significant
environmental effects. The cumulative environmental effects of human activities ultimately
intensify global warming and climate change.
Land use changes can have a range of direct and indirect impacts on the environment.
Individual changes to land uses (e.g., clearing vegetation to build a home) may result in
negligible impacts, but the accumulation of these changes across a region or landscape may
result in major impacts. Land use changes can cause dramatic losses to high quality and intact
wildlife habitat. Residential development and road construction, for example, directly result
in reducing the quality of wildlife habitat. Other direct impacts on the ecosystem include
noise, light, and air pollution from increased human and vehicle traffic and construction.
During construction of new projects, native plants are often removed, which can result in
changes to the composition of wildlife in the surrounding areas. Additionally, the amount of
fencing typically increases with more development, which prevents many species from
moving freely. Wildlife will change their behaviour as a result of changed land uses; for
example, deer have been found to avoid developed areas as far as 1 kilometre.

• Sustained life on earth is a characteristic of ecosystems and not of individual

organisms or population
This means that if any life has been successful to endure and sustain itself, it is mainly due to
the ecosystem and environment and not because of any individual species.
Ecosystem is a self-sustaining unit because it consists of plants, animals, and the physical
environment. Under natural conditions, all living organisms in an ecosystem are interacting,
and interdependent. This enables self-sufficiency in an ecosystem. A change in any of these
results in collapse of the ecosystem.

• The environment consists of both physical and social variables existing in

reciprocal relationships with behavior
Attempts to understand human/environment relationships that have focused only on either the
human components or the environmental aspects have not met with great success. Humans
are not only influenced by their environment, but through their behavior they also alter that
environment. The altered environment in turn produces subtle changes in the environmental
inhabitant and in its behaviors; these behaviors again produce subtle changes in the
environment, and so on, indefinitely.
For example, the classroom behaviors of teachers and students alike are influenced by such
physical properties of the environment as room temperature, chalkboard space, windows (or
the lack thereof), the arrangement of desks, available light, and ambient noise level. But the
total classroom environment also includes social and demographic variables (e.g., the age and
gender of classmates, the friendship groups, the type of activity being engaged in, and
others). Each one of these factors, singly and collectively, influences the behavior that is
enacted in this setting.
For example, to enhance discussion, chairs may be moved, thus changing the environment;
these changes may lead to changes in friendship groups or to a change in the ambient noise
level. Teachers may now have to talk louder, perhaps also changing the tone of their voices,
making them appear grumpy; this perception may in turn lead students to avoid the space
around the teacher or may keep them from asking questions. Thus, the environment and its
inhabitants never stay the same; each is constantly changing as a result of its interactions with
the other. Any attempt to understand these relationships, therefore, requires a systematic
approach emphasizing the bidirectional, often symbiotic, nature of this interaction