The Urinary System rid body of CO2 from energy metabolism of cells

4. liver
Urine production and elimination are one of the most important liver excretes bile pigments, salts, calcium, some toxins
mechanisms of body homeostasis
2. elimination of excess nutrients & excess hormones
all body systems are directly or indirectly affected by kidney function
eg. composition of blood is determined more by kidney function than by diet
3. helps to regulate blood volume & pressure
blood pressure is directly affected by the volume of fluids retained or
main function of kidneys is to get rid of metabolic wastes removed from body:

typically referred to as “excretory system” eg. excessive salts promote water retention greater volume 
increases BP
excretory wastes = metabolic wastes
eg. dehydration
lower volume  decreases BP
 chemicals & toxins produced by cells during metabolism
4. regulation of electrolytes & body pH
General Functions of Urinary System:
5. regulates erythropoiesis
1. removal of metabolic wastes & toxins
kidneys produce hormone = erythropoietin that regulates erythropoiesis:
but we have several organs that serve an excretory function
other than kidneys: hypoxic  secretes more erythropoietin excessive O2
inhibits hormone production
1. kidneys
6. aids in calcium absorption
2. skin
sweat glands rid body of water, minerals, some affects the absorption of Calcium from intestine by helping to activate
nitrogenous wastes (ammonia) Vitamin D circulating in blood

3. lungs
Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 1 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 2

extensions of the cortex = renal columns divides the

Anatomy of Urinary System medulla into 6-10 renal pyramids
Organs: papilla of each pyramid nestled in cup shaped
kidneys – clean and filter blood calyces
ureters – tubes that take urine to bladder bladder
– stores urine until eliminated urethra calyces converge to form renal pelvis
– removes urine from body
2. ureters
1. kidneys
the rest of urinary system is “plumbing” renal pelvis
dorsal body wall

retroperitoneal  behind parietal peritoneum just above funnels urine to paired ureters
tubular extensions of renal pelvis peristalsis moves
waist
urine along to bladder
surrounded by renal capsule
3. bladder
 barrier against trauma and spread of infections
small, size of walnut when empty
hilum = indentation where vessels and ureter attach can hold up to 800 ml (24 oz) voluntarily up to
2000 ml (60 oz) when obstructed
Frontal Section of Kidney cortex
outer zone of kidney wall consists of 4 layers (same as GI tract)

mucosa -innermost layer

medulla
interior of kidney secretes mucous for protection from corrosive
effects of urine

submucosa -fibrous connective tissue

Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 3 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 4
branches eventually into afferent
arterioles

Afferent Arteriole
bring blood to individual nephrons

Glomerulus
dense capillary bed
formed by afferent arteriole inside
Bowman’s capsule

Bowman’s Capsule + Glomerulus = Renal

Corpuscle

Efferent Arteriole
blood leaves glomerulus via efferent
arteriole [ arterycapillary bed artery]

Peritubular Capillaries
efferent arteriole divides into another capillary bed surrounds the rest of the
nephric tubule
(PCT-LH-DCT-CT)

Renal Vein
returns blood to vena cava

Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 8
 muscularis -several smooth muscle layers

serosa -visceral peritoneum

involuntary internal & voluntary external urethral sphincters

as bladder expands to hold urine

 activates stretch receptors in wall that monitor volume

 when volume exceeds 200 ml the receptor signals enter our

conscious perception
= desire to urinate

4. urethra

male:

dual function:
 rid body of urine
 release of seminal fluid during orgasm

female:

single function: rids body of urine shorter

 more prone to UTI’s

Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.55
 Urinary Physiology kidneys can maintain a fairly constant filtration rate

urine formation in nephrons occurs by:  changes in arterial pressure from 80 to 180 mmHg produce little change in
blood flow and filtration rate in glomerulus
1. filtration
2. reabsorption if blood pressure is reduced below this urine formation
3. secretion slows down

1. Filtration filtrate is essentially the same composition as plasma

without formed elements or proteins solutes (filtrate)
occurs in renal corpuscle:
enter Bowmans capsule
Glomerulus  Bowmans Capsule
2. Tubular Reabsorption
water, salts, small molecules and wastes are filtered out of blood
urine is not the same composition as this filtrate most of the filtrate is
capillaries of glomerulus: reabsorbed

fenestrated capillaries overall, ~99% of glomerular filtrate gets reabsorbed

only ~1% of original filtrate actually leaves the body as
 act like sieve urine
molecules less than 10,000MW
reabsorption is more selective
have higher filtration pressure than other capillaries of body

afferent arteriole is larger than efferent arteriole

 needed nutrients are conserved
 increases pressure in glomerulus pressure  wastes and toxins are eliminated
~55mmHg  blood levels of fluids, salts, acidity etc. are actively
regulated
(vs 35mmHg in most capillaries)

Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 9 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 10

all small proteins, glucose, amino acids are reabsorbed

most water, most salts are reabsorbed

main metabolic wastes removed by kidneys are “nitrogen wastes”:
1. urea Loop of Henle
2. uric acid
3. creatinine additional Cl+ and Na+ ions are reabsorbed by active
transport
1. urea
main nitrogen containing waste produced during metabolism formed in liver under the control of aldosterone
as result of protein breakdown (mineralocorticoids)
concentration in urine mainly determined by dietary intake\
secretion controlled by salt concentrations
2. uric acid in tissue fluids
end product of nucleic acid metabolism some is
also secreted by PCT also affects reabsorption of water (water
follows salt)
3. creatinine
normal end product of muscle metabolism
Distal Convoluted Tubule & Collecting Tubule
occurs all along nephric tubule
additional water is reabsorbed
but different substances are reabsorbed back into blood from
different parts of tubule: under control of ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

Proximal Convoluted Tubule No ADH  tubules are practically

impermeable to water
~80% of materials to be reabsorbed are reabsorbed in PCT
with ADH  tubules are permeable to water
cells lining PCT have microvilli
Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 11
Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 12
3. Tubular Secretion Urine Analysis
cells of DCT and CT can also actively secrete the kidneys perform their homeostatic functions of
some substances controlling the composition of internal fluids of
esp K+ and H+ HCO3 -
body
NH4
some drugs (eg. penecillin) the by-product of these activities is Urine
usually urine is slightly acidic
urine contains a high concentration of solutes
 normal diet produces more acid than alkaline waste products
in a healthy person, its volume, pH and solute
concentration vary with the needs of body

during certain pathologies, the characteristics of urine

may change dramatically

an analysis of urine volume, physical and

chemical properties can provide valuable
information on the internal conditions of the
body

Physical Characteristics

eg. Volume

normal = 1000 – 1800ml/day (2-3.5 pints)

influenced by:
blood pressure
blood volume
temperature
diuretics
mental state

Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 13 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 14

general health pus from infections

eg. Color Chemical Characteristics

normal = yellow-amber (from hemoglobin breakdown) influenced by:

ratio of solutes
eg. proteins
 >solute conc.
= darker yellow to brownish normally too large to filter out
 <solute conc. presence indicates increased permeability of glomerular membrane due to:
= less color to colorless diet (eg. beets) injury
blood in urine high blood pressure irritation
toxins
eg. pH
eg. glucose
normal urine is slightly acidic: 5.0 - 7.8 influenced by:
diet normally, all is filtered and all reabsorbed body reabsorbs as much as is needed

eg. high protein  acidic when it appears in urine indicates high blood sugar concentrations
vegetables  alkaline metabolic disorders:  symptom of diabetes mellitis
eg. lungs, kidneys, digestive system, etc
eg. ketones
eg. Cells and Castings
produced when excessive quantities of fats are being catabolized
normally find epithelial cells and some bacterial cells Bacteria
< 100-1000/ml = contamination by normal flora high quantities may be caused by: diabetes
>100,000/ml = indicates active colonization of urinary system starvation dieting
too little carbohydrates in diet
RBC’s & WBC’s
presence is almost always pathological inflammation of urinary organs
Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5

15 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 16
The Aging Urinary System older women become increasingly subject to incontinence
 esp if pelvic wall muscles have been weakened by pregnancy and
kidneys show lots of atrophy in old age childbearing
 from ages 25 to 85; number of nephrons declines by 30 – 40%
 up to 1/3rd of remaining glomeruli become atherosclerotic, incontinence can also result from senescence of sympathetic NS
bloodless and nonfunctional

kidneys of 90 yr old man are 20 – 40% smaller than those of a 30 yr

old and receive only half as much blood

proportionately less efficient at clearing wastes

 while renal function remains adequate there is little reserve
capacity

reduced renal function is a significant factor in overmedication of the

aged
drug doses often have to be
reduced

water balance is more difficult

 kidneys become less responsive to ADH and sense of thirst is
blunted

voiding and bladder control become problematic:

~80% of men over 80 are affected by benign prostatic hyperplasia
that compresses the urethra
 reduces force of urine stream
 makes it harder to empty bladder

Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 17 Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 18

Disorders of Urinary System form in renal pelvis

Acute or Chronic Renal Failure usually small enough to pass into urine flow
(or renal insufficiency)
sometimes are up to several centimeters and block pelvis or \ ureter
 leads to destruction of nephrons as pressure builds in kidney
most serious disorder of urinary system
a large, jagged stone passing down ureter can stimulate strong contractions that can be
nephrons can regenerate and restore kidney function after short- excruciatingly painful
term injuries or individual nephrons can enlarge to
compensate can also damage ureter and cause hematuria causes:
 a person can survive with as little as 1/3rd of one hypercalcemia
kidney dehydration pH imbalances frequent UTI’s
enlarged prostate causing urine retention
when 75% are lost the remaining cannot maintain homeostasis
(largest stone on record: 3 lbs 16” x14” in body cavity)
result is azotemia and acidosis

may also lead to anemia

Cystitis (=bladder infection)

most are ascending infections move up urethra from outside

especially common in women

if untreated bacteria can spread up ureters to cause pyelitis or

infection of pelvis

if infection reaches renal cortex and nephrons = pyelonephritis

kidney infections can also result from invasion by blood borne

pathogens (=descending infection)

Kidney Stones
=Renal Calculus is a hard granule of calcium, phosphate, uric
acid and protein
Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 19
Human Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2010.5 20
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 Gonads – primary sex organs
 Testes in males
 Ovaries in females
 Gametes (sex cells) – produced by gonads produce and secrete hormones
 Sperm – male gametes
 Ova (eggs) – female gametes

Male – androgen (testosterone)

Female – estrogen, progesterone, little testosterone – combined with estrogen to growth and repair of
reproductive tissues

TESTES
 Coverings of the testes:
 Tunica albuginea – capsule that surrounds each testis
 Septa – extensions of the capsule that extend into the testis and divide it into lobules

In the male reproductive system, the scrotum houses the TESTICLES or testes, which produce sperm
and some reproductive hormones.
Sperm are produced in the SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES inside the testes

 Each lobule contains one to four SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES

 Tightly coiled structures
 Function as sperm-forming factories
 Empty sperm into the rete testis
 Sperm travels through the RETE TESTIS to the EPIDIDYMIS
Interstitial cells produce androgens such as testosterone

Seminiferous tubule – produces sperm

Testosterone – responsible for male secondary sex characteristics
Epididymis
 Comma-shaped, tightly coiled tube
 Found on the superior part of the testis and along the posterior lateral side
 Functions to mature and store sperm cells (at least 20 days)
 Expels sperm with the contraction of muscles in the epididymis walls to the vas deferens

Epididymis – mature and store the sperm

21 times a month ejaculation
Not all sperm cells are produced at the same time, so men can ejaculate multiple times a week
Ejaculate frequently – sperm cell count and semen low
Erection - when blood flows (arteries open) into your penis faster than it flows out (veins relax), and
makes the spongy tissue in your penis swell (sexually excited, puberty – spontaneous erection – no
reason)
Ejaculation - release of semen from the penis
Prostate cancer – genes/environment or theory low ejaculation

Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens)

 Carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
 Passes through the inguinal canal and over the bladder
 Ends in the ejaculatory duct which unites with the urethra
 Moves sperm by peristalsis
 Spermatic cord – ductus deferens, blood vessels, and nerves in a connective tissue sheath
 Vasectomy – cutting of the ductus deferens at the level of the testes to prevent transportation of
sperm

Vasectomy – sperm absorbed by the body

When the sperm have developed flagella and are nearly mature, they leave the testicles and enter
the EPIDIDYMIS, where sperm mature.
During ejaculation, the sperm leave the epididymis and enter the VAS DEFERENS.
The EJACULATORY DUCTS are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles.
The ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.

Urethra

 Extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip of the penis
 Carries both urine and sperm
 Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct
 Regions of the urethra
 Prostatic urethra –surrounded by prostate
 Membranous urethra – from prostatic urethra to penis
 Spongy (penile) urethra – runs the length of the penis

The URETHRA is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of the body.
When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen
to be ejaculated at orgasm.

Seminal Vesicles
 Located at the base of the bladder
 Produces a thick, yellowish secretion (60% of semen)
 Fructose (sugar)
 Vitamin C
 Prostaglandins
 Other substances that nourish and activate sperm

Accessory organs
Prostaglandin – lipids
Seminal, prostate, - semen production
SEMINAL VESICLES
These are a pair of glands that make thick, yellowish, and alkaline solution.
As sperm are only motile in an alkaline environment, a basic pH is important to reverse the acidity of
the vaginal environment.
The seminal vesicle glands account for 60 percent of the bulk of semen.
Prostate Gland
 Encircles the upper part of the urethra
 Secretes a milky fluid
 Helps to activate sperm
 Enters the urethra through several small ducts

It surrounds the urethra, the connection to the urinary bladder.

It has a series of short ducts that directly connect to the urethra.
Prostate gland secretions account for about 30 percent of the bulk of semen
PROSTATE GLAND
The prostate gland is a mixture of smooth muscle and glandular tissue.
1. SMOOTH MUSCLE – provides much of the force needed for ejaculation to occur
2. GLANDULAR TISSUE – makes a thin, milky fluid that contains: CITRATE (stimulates
sperm motility), ENZYMES, and PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN or PSA (a proteolytic
enzyme that helps to liquefy the ejaculate several minutes after release from the male)

Bulbourethral Glands

 Pea-sized gland inferior to the prostate

 Produces a thick, clear mucus
 Cleanses the urethra of acidic urine
 Serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse
 Secreted into the penile urethra

Cleaning
Urethra needs to be cleansed before semen
BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS
 It releases its secretion prior to the release of the bulk of the semen.
The mucous secretions of this gland help lubricate and neutralize any acid residue in the urethra left
over from urine.
This usually accounts for a couple of drops of fluid in the total ejaculate and may contain a few sperm.
Withdrawal of the penis from the vagina before ejaculation to prevent pregnancy may not work
if sperm are present in the bulbourethral gland secretions. (Tandaan niyo to ha? Kaya hindi
porket nag withdrawal, hindi ka na makakabuntis, or di ka na mabubuntis )

Semen
 Mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions
 Advantages of accessory gland secretions
 Fructose provides energy for sperm cells
 Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic environment of vagina
 Semen inhibits bacterial multiplication
 Elements of semen enhance sperm motility
 Semen is a mixture of sperm and spermatic duct secretions and fluids from accessory glands that
contribute most of the semen’s volume.
 These are the SEMINAL VESICLES, the PROSTATE GLAND, and
the BULBOURETHRAL GLAND.
 Semen also contains other liquids, known as SEMINAL PLASMA, which help to keep the
sperm cells viable.
External Genitalia
 Scrotum
 Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen
 Maintains testes at 3°C lower than normal body temperature to protect sperm viability
 Penis
 Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract
 Regions of the penis
 Shaft
 Glans penis (enlarged tip)
 Prepuce (foreskin)
 Folded cuff of skin around proximal end
 Often removed by circumcision
 Internally there are three areas of spongy erectile tissue around the urethra

Spermatogenesis
 Production of sperm cells
 Begins at puberty and continues throughout life
 Occurs in the seminiferous tubules

Yung spermatogenesis, process to, in which yung primary sperm cell mag a-undergo ng meiosis at mag
poproduce ng spermatogonia. In short, process siya kung paano nag mamature yung sperm cells ng
mga lalaki. Hmmmmmm, tsaka nga pala nag sstart siya mag mature during puberty, pag mataas na din
yung level ng testosterone. Okay? Intindihin niyo mabuti yung process na to ha? Labyuuu!

Processes of Spermatogenesis
 Spermatogonia (stem cells) undergo rapid mitosis to produce more stem cells before puberty
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) modifies spermatogonia division
 One cell produced is a stem cell
 The other cell produced becomes a primary spermatocyte
 Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis
 Haploid spermatids are produced
Spermatogonium – stem cell – mitosis/cell division
• Spermatogenesis begins with a diploid spermatogonium in the seminiferous tubules, which
divides mitotically to produce two diploid primary spermatocytes.
• The primary spermatocyte then undergoes meiosis I to produce two haploid secondary
spermatocytes.
• The haploid secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II to produce four haploid spermatids.

Processes of Spermatogenesis
 Spermiogenesis – spermatid to sperm
 Late spermatids are produced with distinct regions
 Head – contains DNA covered by the acrosome
  Midpiece
 Tail
 Sperm cells result after maturing of spermatids
 Spermatogenesis takes 64 to 72 days
 Each spermatid begins to grow a tail and a mitochondrial-filled midpiece, while the chromatin is
tightly packaged into an acrosome at the head.
 Maturation removes excess cellular material, turning spermatids into inactive, sterile
spermatozoa that are transported via peristalsis to the epididymis.
 The spermatozoa gain motility in the epididymis, but do not use that ability until they are
ejaculated into the vagina.
 Spermatogenesis requires optimal environmental conditions. (Oh siempre, dapat favorable yung
environment para mag mature sila.)

Female reproductive
 Ovaries
 Duct System
 Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes)
 Uterus
 Vagina
 External genitalia

Ovaries
 Composed
of ovarian follicles
(sac-like
structures)
 Structure of
an ovarian
follicle
 Oocyte
 Follicular cells
 Ovaries: paired glands homologous to the testes. They produce gametes (mature into ova) and
hormones (progesterone, estrogens, inhibin, relaxin).
 Oocyte- egg before maturation

Ovarian follicle stages

 Primary follicle – contains an immature oocyte
 Graafian (vesicular) follicle – growing follicle with a maturing oocyte
 Ovulation – when the egg is mature the follicle ruptures
 Occurs about every 28 days
 The ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus luteum
 Follicle – contains the egg
 Corpus luteum – ruptured follicle – secretes progesterone
  Suspensory ligaments – secure ovary to lateral walls of the pelvis
 Ovarian ligaments – attach to uterus
 Broad ligament – a fold of the peritoneum, encloses suspensory ligament
 Ovaries are supported by the broad ligament, ovarian ligament and suspensory ligament. (Sila
yung ovary and friends, strong yung support system niya diba? May friends din siya, parang
ikaw)

Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes

 Receive the ovulated oocyte
 Provide a site for fertilization
 Attaches to the uterus
 Does not physically attach to the ovary
 Supported by the broad ligament

Ectopic pregnancy
Egg – stay 24 hours in fallopian tube
If fertilized, it will stay 3-4 days before uterus

Uterine Tube Function

 Fimbriae – finger-like projections at the distal end that receive the oocyte
 Cilia inside the uterine tube slowly move the oocyte towards the uterus
(takes 3–4 days)
 Fertilization occurs inside the uterine tube

Females have two uterine (fallopian) tubes (oviducts) that extend from the uterus.
§ The tubes are the pathway for the sperm to reach the ovum and for the secondary oocytes and
fertilized ova to travel to the uterus. (Diba nasa ovary yung mga eggs, etong fallopian tube, siya yung
daan para makarating yung sperm cell sa ovary)
§ The end of the tube is the infundibulum.
§ Fimbriae project from it.
§ The ampulla is the widest portion of the tube.

Uterus
 Located between the urinary bladder and rectum
 Hollow organ
 Functions of the uterus
 Receives a fertilized egg
 Retains the fertilized egg
 Nourishes the fertilized egg

The uterus is part of the pathway for sperm deposited in the vagina to reach the uterine tube.
It is the site of implantation of the fertilized ovum, development of the fetus during pregnancy and
labor.
Oh, alam niyo na ha. Hindi sa stomach lumalaki at nadedevelop yung fetussss, ditto yun sa uterus!

Support for the Uterus

 Broad ligament – attached to the pelvis
 Round ligament – anchored interiorly
 Uterosacral ligaments – anchored posteriorly

Regions of the Uterus

 Body – main portion
 Fundus – area where uterine tube enters
 Cervix – narrow outlet that protrudes into the vagina

Yung top ng uterus yun yung fundus, yung central portion naman yun yung body tapos yung inferior
extension papunta sa vagina is yung cervix. Okay? Tandaan mo to, neh?

Walls of the Uterus

 Endometrium
 Inner layer
 Allows for implantation of a fertilized egg
 Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (menses)
 Myometrium – middle layer of smooth muscle
 Serous layer – outer visceral peritoneum

Histologically, there are three layers to the uterus.

Yung perimetrium (serosa) yun yung outermost layer.
Tapos..
Yung myometrium naman, yun yung nasa gitna, sa middle, hmmm it consists of three layers of
smooth muscle. Diba nga ang ibig sabihin ng myo is muscle. (Sana naalala mo pa, parang kung paano
mo naalala yung mga masakit na ginawa niya sayo)
Tapos…
Yung endometrium naman, yun yung ineer layer. Yung endometrium meron siyang tinatawag na
stratum functionalis, layer to ng endometrium. Etong stratum functionalis na to nag sheshed siya
every month (eto yung nagiging menses okay?) Siyempre mag shesehed lang to at magiging mense
kung walang sperm cell na nag fertilize sa egg at walang naimplant na bata sa uterus.

Vagina
 Extends from cervix to exterior of body
 Behind bladder and in front of rectum
 Serves as the birth canal
 Receives the penis during sexual intercourse
 Hymen – partially closes the vagina until it is ruptured
Vajeyjey, oh diba eto yung pinapasukan ng penis, eto yung extension ng reproductive organ nating mga
babae sa exterior ng body natin. Siya yung nagrereceive kay penis during sexual intercourse!
External Genitalia (Vulva)
 Mons pubis
 Fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis
 Covered with pubic hair after puberty
 Labia – skin folds
 Labia majora
 Labia minora

Yung labia majora, siya yung skin fold na nag cocover at poprotect ng vagina.
Yung labia minora naman, siya yung skin dun sa opening ng vagina. Pinoprotect din niya yung vagina
tska yung urethral opening sa possible na infections. Also, para hindi mairitate and ma-dry yung
vaginal area. Okay?

External Genitalia
 Vestibule
 Enclosed by labia majora
 Contains opening of the urethra and the greater vestibular glands (produce mucus)
 Clitoris
 Contains erectile tissue
 Corresponds to the male penis

Yung clitoris, yan yung tinatawag nila na G spot. Pag kasi na-stimulate siya nag lilead sa strong sexual
arousal.

Oogenesis
 The total supply of eggs are present at birth
 Ability to release eggs begins at puberty
 Reproductive ability ends at menopause
 Oocytes are matured in developing ovarian follicles

 Oogonia – female stem cells found in a developing fetus

 Oogonia undergo mitosis to produce primary oocytes
 Primary oocytes are surrounded by cells that form primary follicles in the ovary
 Oogonia no longer exist by the time of birth
 Primary oocytes are inactive until puberty
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes some primary follicles to mature
 Meiosis starts inside maturing follicle
 Produces a secondary oocyte and the first polar body
 Meiosis is completed after ovulation only if sperm penetrates
 Two additional polar bodies are produced

oogonium – dividing/cell division – fetus – birth does not exist

Surrounded by follicle
Oogenesis is the process of formation of female gametes. This process begins inside the fetus before
birth. The steps in oogenesis up to the production of primary oocytes occur before birth. Primary
oocytes do not divide further. They either become secondary oocytes or degenerate. (Kaya tignan niyo
yung diagram, meron dyan before birth and from puberty)
https://youtu.be/Tgm1DLhilb0 – Panoorin mo to, cute yung voice over neto at I’m sure matututo ka!
Pag di mo nagets, for sure lutang ka. Chaaaaaaar!

Menstrual (Uterine) Cycle

 Cyclic changes of the endometrium
 Regulated by cyclic production of estrogens and progesterone
 Stages of the menstrual cycle
 Menses – functional layer of the endometrium is sloughed
 Proliferative stage – regeneration of functional layer
 Secretory stage – endometrium increases in size and readies for implantation
 Average menstrual cycle is about 28 days, but varies widely from person to person.
 Menstrual periods usually start between the ages of 9-15.

21-40 days
3-7 days lasts
First day of period – start of cycle day 1
Safe: 5 days before and after menstruation and ovulation
Egg live 1 day
Sperm can live up to 6 days
What if you ovulate and the sperm is still there?
After period you can get pregnant if you have early ovulation but it is rare

Each month, an ovary releases an ovum, or egg, into the fallopian tube. While it’s traveling, if the
ovum unites with a sperm and implants in the uterus a pregnancy can begin. If the egg does not unite
with a sperm within 24-48 hours, it will dissolve and be reabsorbed by the body.

To prepare for a potential pregnancy, each month the uterus grows a thick lining (endometrium) to
create a good environment for the potential fetus.

If the egg and sperm do not unite, hormones signal the uterus to prepare to shed the lining
(endometrium) causing someone to menstruate or have “a period”.

Menstruation, or having “a period” is when the uterus rids itself of the lining (endometrium) because
there was no fertilized egg.

Hormone Production-Ovaries
 Estrogens
 Produced by follicle cells
  Cause secondary sex characteristics
 Enlargement of accessory organs
 Development of breasts
 Appearance of pubic hair
 Increase in fat beneath the skin
 Widening and lightening of the pelvis
 Onset of menses
 Progesterone
 Produced by the corpus luteum
 Production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
 Helps maintain pregnancy

Mammary Glands
 Present in both sexes, but only function in females
 Modified sweat glands
 Function is to produce milk
 Stimulated by sex hormones (mostly estrogens) to increase in size

Stages of Pregnancy and Development

 Fertilization
 Embryonic development
 Fetal development
 Childbirth

Fertilization
 The oocyte is viable for 12 to 24 hours after ovulation
 Sperm are viable for 12 to 48 hours after ejaculation
 Sperm cells must make their way to the uterine tube for fertilization to be possible

Development from Ovulation to Implantation

 The

Zygote
 First cell of a new individual
 The result of the fusion of DNA from sperm and egg
 The zygote begins rapid mitotic cell divisions
 The zygote stage is in the uterine tube, moving toward the uterus

The Embryo
 Developmental stage from the start of cleavage until the ninth week
 The embryo first undergoes division without growth
 The embryo enters the uterus at the
16-cell state
 The embryo floats free in the uterus temporarily
 Uterine secretions are used for nourishment
 First 8 weeks after fertilization

The Blastocyst
 Ball-like circle of cells
 Begins at about the 100 cell stage
 Secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to produce the corpus luteum to continue
producing hormones
 The blastocyst implants in the wall of the uterus (by day 14)

Development After Implantation

  Chorionic villi (projections of the blastocyst) develop
 Cooperate with cells of the uterus to form the placenta
 The embryo is surrounded by the amnion (a fluid filled sac)
 An umbilical cord forms to attach the embryo to the placenta

Amnion – panubigan
Placenta - organ that develops in your uterus during pregnancy
provides oxygen and nutrients to your growing baby and removes waste products from your baby's
blood
attaches to the wall of your uterus, and your baby's umbilical cord arises from it
chloasma gravidarum – or melasma – secreted by placenta – dark patches of the skin, dark armpits –
fades away
Umbilical cord – connects the baby to the mother’s placenta

The Fetus (Beginning of the Ninth Week)

 All organ systems are formed by the end of the eighth week
 Activities of the fetus are growth and organ specialization
 A stage of tremendous growth and change in appearance

The Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother

 Pregnancy – period from conception until birth

 Anatomical changes
 Enlargements of the uterus
 Accentuated lumbar curvature
 Relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis due to production of relaxin

The Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother

 Pregnancy – period from conception until birth
 Anatomical changes
 Enlargements of the uterus
  Accentuated lumbar curvature
 Relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis due to production of relaxin
 Physiological changes
 Gastrointestinal system
 Morning sickness is common due to elevated progesterone
 Heartburn is common because of organ crowding by the fetus
 Constipation is caused by declining motility of the digestive tract
 Urinary System
 Kidneys have additional burden and produce more urine
 The uterus compresses the bladder
 Respiratory System
 Nasal mucosa becomes congested and swollen
 Vital capacity and respiratory rate increase
 Cardiovascular system
 Body water rises
 Blood volume increases by 25 to 40 percent
 Blood pressure and pulse increase

Childbirth (Partition)
 Labor – the series of events that expel the infant from the uterus
 Initiation of labor
 Estrogen levels rise
 Uterine contractions begin
 The placenta releases prostaglandins
 Oxytocin is released by the pituitary
 Combination of these hormones produces contractions

Yung oxytocin diba nakakapag contract din siya ng smooth muscle ng uterus kaya napupush si baby sa
outside world.
Prostaglandins – contraction of smooth muscle of uterus

Initiation of Labor
Stages of Labor
 Dilation
 Cervix becomes dilated
 Uterine contractions begin and increase
 The amnion ruptures
 Expulsion
 Infant passes through the cervix and vagina
 Normal delivery is head first
 Placental stage
 Delivery of the placenta

breech birth is when a baby is born bottom first instead of head first – buttocks/feet

Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive System

 Gender is determined at fertilization
 Males have XY sex chromosomes
 Females have XX sex chromosomes
 Gonads do not begin to form until the eighth week
 Testes form in the abdominal cavity and descend to the scrotum one month before birth
 The determining factor for gonad differentiation is testosterone
 Reproductive system organs do not function until puberty
 Puberty usually begins between ages 10 and 15
 The first menses usually occurs about two years after the start of puberty
  Most women reach peak reproductive ability in their late 20s
 Menopause occurs when ovulation and menses cease entirely
 Ovaries stop functioning as endocrine organs
 There is a no equivalent of menopause in males, but there is a steady decline in testosterone

DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERTROPHY (BPH)- nonmalignant enlargement of the prostate gland;

common in older men

Epididymitis- inflammation of epididymis; usually starts as an UTI

Impotence of erectile dysfunction (ED)- disorder in which erection cannot be achieved or maintained;
about 50% of males between 40 and 70 have some degree of ED
Prostate cancer- most common form of cancer in men over 40; risk of developing it increase with age
Prostatitis- inflammation of the prostate gland; may be acute or chronic
Testicular cancer- malignant growth in one or both testicles; more common in males 15-30 year; more
aggressive malignancy

DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Breast cancer- second leading cause of cancer deaths in women; classified as stage 0 to 4
Cervical cancer- slow to develop; pap smear detects abnormal cervical cells
Cervititis- inflammation of the cervix usually due to an infection
Dysmenorrhea- condition with severe menstrual cramps limiting normal activities
Endometriosis- tissues of uterine lining growing outside of the uterus
Fribrocystic breast disease abnormal cystic tissue in the breast; size varies related to menstrual cycle;
common in 60% of women between 30 and 50
Fibroids- benign tumors in the uterine wall; affect 25% of women in their 30s and 40s
Ovarian cancer- considered more deadly than other types; detection is difficult and often spreads before
detection
Premenstrual syndrome- collection of symptoms occurring just before a menstrual period
Vaginitis/ vulvovaginitis- inflammation of the vagina/ inflammation of vagina and vulva; both
associated with abnormal vaginal discharge
Uterine (endometrial) cancer- most common in post-menopausal women; causes about 6% of cancer
deaths in women

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

Features:
Cysts in the ovaries
High levels of male hormones
Irregular or skipped periods
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
 In PCOS, many small, fluid-filled sacs grow inside the ovaries. The word “polycystic” means
“many cysts.”
 These sacs are actually follicles, each one containing an immature egg. The eggs never mature
enough to trigger ovulation.
 The lack of ovulation alters levels of estrogen, progesterone, FSH, and LH. Estrogen and
progesterone levels are lower than usual, while androgen levels are higher than usual.
 Extra male hormones disrupt the menstrual cycle, so women with PCOS get fewer periods than
usual.

Symptoms
 Irregular menstrual cycle. Women with PCOS may miss periods or have fewer periods
(fewer than eight in a year). Or, their periods may come every 21 days or more often.
Some women with PCOS stop having menstrual periods.
 Too much hair on the face, chin, or parts of the body where men usually have hair. This is
called "hirsutism." Hirsutism affects up to 70% of women with PCOS.
 Acne on the face, chest, and upper back
 Thinning hair or hair loss on the scalp; male-pattern baldness
 Weight gain or difficulty losing weight
 Darkening of skin, particularly along neck creases, in the groin, and underneath breasts
 Skin tags, which are small excess flaps of skin in the armpits or neck area

Causes
 The exact cause of PCOS is not known. Most experts think that several factors, including
genetics.
 High levels of androgens/ "male hormones," although all women make small amounts of
androgens. Androgens control the development of male traits, such as male-pattern
baldness. Higher than normal androgen levels in women can prevent the ovaries from
releasing an egg (ovulation) during each menstrual cycle, and can cause extra hair growth
and acne, two signs of PCOS.
 High levels of insulin. Insulin is a hormone that controls how the food you eat is changed
into energy. Insulin resistance is when the body's cells do not respond normally to insulin.
As a result, your insulin blood levels become higher than normal. Many women with
PCOS have insulin resistance, especially those who have overweight or obesity, have
unhealthy eating habits, do not get enough physical activity, and have a family history
of diabetes (usually type 2 diabetes). Over time, insulin resistance can lead to type 2
diabetes.

Treatment
There is no cure for PCOS, but you can manage the symptoms of PCOS.
 Losing weight
 Removing hair
 Slowing hair growth (eflornithine HCl cream)
 Hormonal birth control, including the pill, patch, shot, vaginal ring, and hormone
intrauterine device (IUD)
  Anti-androgen medicines
 Metformin

Chapter 15
The Digestive System and Body Metabolism

Functions of the Digestive System

 Digestion
 Breakdown of ingested food
 Absorption
 Passage of nutrients into the blood
 Metabolism
 Production of cellular energy (ATP)

• Alimentary canal/Gastrointestinal (GI) tract – mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small

intestine, and large intestine
• Accessory digestive organs – teeth, tongue, gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, and pancreas

Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract

• A continuous, hollow coiled tube that digests food, breaks it down, and absorbs the fragments
through its lining into the blood

Digestive Process
Six essential activities:
– 1) Ingestion, 2) mechanical digestion, and 3) propulsion
– 4) Chemical digestion, 5) absorption, and 6) defecation

Gastrointestinal Tract Activities

• 1) Ingestion
– taking food into the digestive tract
– act of putting food into mouth
• 2) Mechanical digestion – chewing, mixing, and churning food
– Biting: using of teeth to cut the food
– Mastication: chewing or grinding of food
• 3) Propulsion – deglutition and peristalsis
– Deglutition: swallowing
– Peristalsis: waves of contraction and relaxation of muscles in the organ walls
• 4) Chemical digestion – catabolic breakdown of food
– Initial digestion: stomach
– Final digestion: small intestine
5) Absorption – movement of nutrients from the GI tract to the blood or lymph (villi and
microvilli)
6) Defecation – elimination of indigestible and unabsorbed solid wastes (large intestine)

Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy

  Lips (labia) – protect
the anterior opening
 Cheeks – form the
lateral walls
 Hard palate – forms
the anterior roof
 Soft palate – forms
the posterior roof
 Uvula – fleshy
projection of the
soft palate
 Vestibule – space between lips externally and teeth and gums internally
 Tongue – attached at hyoid & styloid processes, and by the lingual frenulum
 Frenulum- membrane that secures the tongue to the floor of the mouth; limits movement

Tonsils
 Palatine tonsils
 Lingual tonsil

Processes of the Mouth

 Mastication (chewing) of food (mechanical digestion)
 Mixing masticated food with saliva (chemical digestion)
– Salivary amylase: enzyme digests starch
– Mucin: slippery protein (mucus); protects soft lining of digestive system; lubricates food
for easier swallowing
– Buffers: neutralizes acid to prevent tooth decay
– Anti-bacterial chemicals: kill bacteria that enter mouth with food
– Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
 Allowing for the sense of taste

Pharynx
 Serves as a passageway for air and food
 Food is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle layers
 longitudinal inner layer
 circular outer layer
 Food movement is by alternating contractions of the muscle layers (peristalsis)

Esophagus
 Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm
 Conducts food by peristalsis
(slow rhythmic squeezing)
 Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches off after the pharynx)
The Swallowing Process

Stomach
 Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity (~10 in long)
 When full holds about 1 gallon of food
 Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
 Food exits at the pyloric sphincter (valve) btwn stomach & small intestine
 Sphincter - holds food in the stomach until it is thoroughly mixed with gastric juices

Stomach Functions
 Acts as a storage tank for food
 Site of food breakdown
 Produces 2-3L/day of gastric juice (HCl, enzymes, & mucus)
 Chemical breakdown of protein begin
– Pepsin: enzyme that breaks down proteins; secreted as pepsinogen; activated by HCl
– Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small intestine
 Regulated by neural & hormonal factors
– motilin: A polypeptide that has a role in fat metabolism.
– gastrin: A hormone that stimulates the production of gastric acid in the stomach.
 – secretin: A peptide hormone secreted by the duodenum that serves to regulate its acidity.
 Chyme - partly digested food that in the stomach
 HCl – ACID THAT kills bacteria
 Mucus slippery protein - protects soft lining of digestive system

Diseases and Disorders OF STOMACH

• Heartburn – occurs when the cardio-esophageal sphincter fails to close tightly and gastric juice
backs up into the esophagus
• Hiatal hernia – superior part of the stomach protrudes above the diaphragm allowing juices to go
into the esophagus
• Vomiting – reverse movement of food, brought about by a signal from the medulla
• Heartburn – can damage the esophagus

• It takes 4 hours for the stomach to empty after a well-balanced meal and 6 hours for a fatty meal

Small Intestine (4-8 hrs)

 The body’s major digestive organ
 Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
 Muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
 Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery
 Over 6 meters

Subdivisions of the Small Intestine

 Duodenum
 Attached to the stomach
 Curves around the pancreas (10 in)
 Most digestion
 Jejunum
 Attaches to the duodenum (8 ft long)
 Absorption of nutrients & water
 Ileum
 Extends from jejunum to ileocecal valve of large intestine (12 ft long
 Absorption of nutrients & water

Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine

 Source of enzymes that are mixed with chyme
 Acid food from stomach mixes with digestive juices from accessory glands
 pancreas
– Peptidases: digests proteins/breaks peptide bonds (trypsin, chymotrypsin,
carboxypeptidase)
– Pancreatic amylase: digests starch
– Lipase: needed to digest fat
– Nucleases: digests nucleic acids
  liver – produces bile
– Bile: breaks up fats

 gall bladder – storage of bile

 bile contains colors from old red blood cells collected in liver =
 iron in RBC rusts & makes feces brown
 Bile enters small intestine from the gall bladder
 Bile helps lipase

Villi of the Small Intestine

 Fingerlike structures formed by the mucosa
 Give the small intestine more surface area

Microvilli of the Small Intestine

 Small projections of the plasma membrane
 Found on absorptive cells

Structures Involved in Absorption of Nutrients

 Absorptive cells
 Blood capillaries

Propulsion in the Small Intestine

 Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
 Segmental movements
 Mix chyme with digestive juices
 Aid in propelling food
Large Intestine (12-24 hrs.)
 Larger in diameter, but shorter than the small intestine
 Frames the internal abdomen

Functions of the Large Intestine

 Reabsorption of water
 Eliminates indigestible food from the body as feces
 Does not participate in digestion of food

Structures of the Large Intestine

 Ileocecal valve – btwn small & large intestine
 Cecum – saclike 1st part of the large intestine
 Appendix
 Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
 Hangs from the cecum
 Appendix – vestigial organ - no longer in use but are present in our body since our ancestors had
them
Unknown function
Theory: house of good bacteria

 Colon
 Ascending – travels up the right side
 Transverse – travel across abdomin
  Descending – travels down the left side
 Sigmoidal colon (aka pelvic colon)
 Rectum – holding area before release of fecal material
 Anus – external body opening

Food Breakdown and Absorption in the Large Intestine

 No digestive enzymes are produced
 Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients
 Produce some vitamin K and B
 Release gases
 Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
 Remaining materials are eliminated via feces

Propulsion in the Large Intestine

 Sluggish peristalsis
 Mass movements
 Slow, powerful movements
 Occur three to four times per day
 Presence of feces in the rectum causes a defecation reflex
 Defecation occurs with relaxation of the voluntary (external) anal sphincter

Diseases and Disorders

• Diarrhea – results when water is not sufficiently absorbed by large intestine (can be due to
bacteria)
• Constipation – results when too much water is absorbed by the large intestine

Mouth
Break up food
Moisten food
Digest starch
Kill germs

Liver
Produces bile
- stored in gall bladder
Break up fats

Pancreas
Produces enzymes to
Digest proteins & carbs
Stomach
kills germs
Break up food
Digest proteins
Store food

Small intestines
Breakdown food
- Proteins
- Starch
- Fats
Absorb nutrients

Large intestines
Absorb water

Accessory Digestive Organs

 Salivary glands
 Teeth
 Pancreas
 Liver
 Gall bladder

Salivary Glands
 Saliva-producing glands
 Parotid glands – located anterior to ears
 mumps is inflammation of the parotid glands
 Submandibular glands – located beneath the floor of the mouth
 Sublingual glands – located under the tongue
 mumps virus

Teeth
 The role is to masticate (chew) food
 Aids in mechanical digestion
 Humans have two sets of teeth
 Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
 20 teeth are fully formed by age two
 Permanent teeth
 Replace deciduous teeth beginning between the ages of 6 to 12
 A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not have wisdom teeth
 Teeth are named according to their main function

Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth as the food is chewed.

Chemical digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be used by the
cells

Classification of Teeth
 INCISORS – adult(8); child(8)
 They have sharp edges that help you bite into food
 CANINES – “cuspids” adult(4); child(4)
 They have a sharp, pointy surface for tearing food
 PREMOLARS – “bicuspids” adult(8)
 They have a flat surface with ridges for crushing and grinding food into smaller pieces
 MOLARS – adult(12) including 4 wisdom teeth; child(4)
 Biggest and strongest teeth
 They have large surface area for grinding up food and break up the food into pieces small 
 Impacted molar – don’t have space to grow

Regions of a Tooth
 Crown – exposed part (hardest substance in the body)
 Outer enamel
 Dentin
 Pulp cavity
 Neck
 Region in contact with the gum
 Connects crown to root
 Root
 Periodontal membrane attached to the bone
 Root canal carrying blood vessels and nerves

Pancreas
 Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food
 Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
 Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme
 Endocrine products of pancreas
 Insulin Insulin - helps keeps your blood sugar level from getting too high
(hyperglycemia)
 allow other cells to transform glucose into energy 

Liver
 Largest internal organ/gland in the body
 Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
 Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall by the falciform
ligament
 Connected to the gall bladder via the common hepatic duct

Bile
  Produced by cells in the liver
 Composition
 Bile salts
 Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of hemoglobin)
 Cholesterol
 Phospholipids
 Electrolytes

Role of the Liver in Metabolism

 Several roles in digestion
 Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
 Degrades hormones
 Produce cholesterol, blood proteins (clotting proteins)
 Plays a central role in metabolism

Your body needs some cholesterol to make hormones, vitamin D, and substances that help you digest
foods. Your body makes all the cholesterol it needs.

Metabolism

• Metabolism – chemical reactions that are necessary to maintain life

– Catabolism – substances are broken down, energy released and captured to make ATP
– Anabolism – small molecules come together to form larger molecules

How to maintain blood glucose (sugar) levels…

• Blood circulates through the liver and glucose is removed. If the body has an abundance, glucose
is made into gycogen. This is called glycogenesis.
• If the body is low on sugar, the liver will break down the glycogen into sugar. This is called
glycogenolysis.

Carbohydrate metabolism
• Cellular respiration – glucose is broken down, releasing chemical energy to form ATP
• Glucose + O2 = CO2 + H20 + ATP
• If too much sugar is in the blood, it si converted to FAT!

Protein metabolism
• Amino acids (make up proteins) are used to make ATP only when proteins are over abundant or
carbs. and fats are not available.
• Amino acids are oxidized and ammonia (NH3) is given off (secreted). The rest if the amino acids
enter the citric acid cycle.
• More proteins than carbs/sugar

Fat metabolism
• Most of it occurs in the liver
• Fat is broken down into acetic acid. Then it is oxidized and CO2, H2O, and ATP are formed.
• This occurs when there are low amounts of sugar in the blood.
Gall Bladder
 Sac found in hollow part of the liver
 Stores bile from the liver
 Bile is introduced into the duodenum in the presence of fatty food
 Gallstones can cause blockages

Diseases and Disorders

• Gallstones occur when bile is stored for too long and fat crystallizes
• Jaundice – bile enters the blood stream and tissues become yellow

Nutrition
 Nutrient – substance used by the body for growth, maintenance, and repair
 Categories of nutrients
 Carbohydrates: simple sugars, starches, fiber (fruit, grain, veggies, some milk & meat)
 Lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, fatty acids
 Proteins: amino acids
 Vitamins: need a balanced diet to obtain essential vitamins
 Mineral – body requires 7 minerals (Ca, P, K, S, Na, Cl, Mg)
 Water

Calcium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sulfur
Sodium
Chlorine
Magnesium
Healthy digestion – fiber, exercise, water

What nutrients do for the body

• Carbohydrates – broken down to form ATP
• Lipids – build cell membranes, make myelin sheath and insulates the body
• Proteins – major structure for building cells

Diseases and Disorders

• Frostbite – when the body is exposed to low temperatures. Capillaries constrict to keep blood
deeper for the internal organs.
• Shivering – occurs when internal body becomes too cold; this produces heat
• Hypothermia – extremely low body temp. This results from prolonged exposure to the cold; vital
signs decrease
• If the body is hot, capillaries become flushed with warm blood, releasing heat. Sweating will
occur. Heat stroke or heat exhaustion can occur.
• Cleft palate – palate does not form properly; deformities of mouth, nose, and lips
 • Cystic fibrosis – excessive mucus impairs activity of pancreas. Fat and fat-soluble vit. are not
digested
• PKU – inability to use amino acids in food; can cause brain damage and mental retardation
• Gastroenteritis – inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract; can be caused by contaminated food
• Appendicitis – inflammation of the appendix
• Ulcer – lesion or erosion of mucus membrane, exposed to secretions of the stomach

CATEGORIES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS

1. Autocrine chemical messengers- stimulate the cells that originally secreted them (auto means self)
2. Paracrine chemical messengers- act on nearby cells (para means katabi)
3. Neurotransmitters- secreted in a synaptic cleft
4. endocrine chemical messengers- secreted into the blood stream

Paracrine- a cell targets a nearby cell

Autocrine- a cell targets itself
Endocrine- a cell targets a distant cell through the bloodstream

FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1. Metabolism
2. Control of food intake and digestion
3. Tissue development
4. Ion regulation
5. Water balance
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
8. Control of reproductive functions
9. Uterine contractions and milk release
10.Immune system regulation

Lipid-soluble hormones
 Non-polar
 Include steroid hormones, thyroid hormones and eicosanoids
 Travel via binding proteins
 Breakdown products are excreted in the urine or bile
Mga hormones which can taken by mouth (kasi they can readily pass through cell membranes)

Water-soluble hormons
 Polar
 Include protein hormones, peptide hormones, and amino acid-derived hormones
 Some circulate as free hormones (no need for binding proteins)
 Rapidly degraded by proteases
Mga hormones na need iinject sa katawan like insuling (they cannot readily cross the cell
membrane)
Types of stimuli that regulate hormone release

Humoral stimulus
Neural stimulus
Hormonal stimulus

Humoral regulation of hormonal release

 Decreased Ca levels- stimulates parathyroid hormone release
 Dehydration- stimulated antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/ Vasopressin release (ADH decreases urine
output to conserve water)
 Increased blood glucose lvl- stimulates insulin release
 Elevated K levels- stimulates Aldosterone release (aldosterone eliminates K in the urine while
conserving Na)
 Low blood pressure- stimulated aldosterone din (which secondarily increases blood volume)

Neuropeptides- responsible for neural regulation of hormone release

-some neurons secrete their chemical messengers directly into the bloos (not into a synaptic cleft)
-these chemical messengers are considered hormones and are called neuropeptides
-some specialized neuropeptides stimulate hormone secretion from other endocrine cells
-there are referred to as releasing hormones (usually from the hypothalamus)

Tropic hormones- responsible for hormonal regulation of hormone release

-hormones that stimulated release of other hormones
-usually secreted by the anterior pituitary gland

Negative feedback
Example: thyroid hormone

Positive feedback
Example: prolonged estrogen stimulation leading to release of the anterior pituitary hormone responsible
for stimulating ovulation

Hormone receptor
-characteristics
-specificity
-location
-internal
-external
-regulation of number
-down regulation
-up regulation
Nuclear hormone receptor: para sa lipid-soluble hormones

Examples of hormones which bind to nuclear receptors

 Thyroid hormones
 Steroid hormones
o Testosterone
o Estrogen
o Progesterone
o Aldosterone
o Cortisol

Membrane-bound receptor: para sa water-soluble hormones

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (CAMP) second messenger system

 Method of signal amplification after stimulation of membrane-bound receptors

Lipid-soluble vs. water soluble

Gene expression (soldiers still need to be trained- slower response)
Second messenger system (soldiers already trained, just waiting for signal- faster response)

HORMONES PRODUCED BY THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY/ ADENOHYPOPHYSIS

1. Growth hormone (GH)
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
3. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
4. Luteinizing hormone/ insterstitial cell stimulating hormone (LH/ICSH)
5. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
6. Prolactin
7. Melanocyte –stimulating hormone

Pituitary dwarfism- low growth hormone levels

Giantism- elevated growth hormone levels
Acromegaly- high growth hormone levels

Growth hormone (GH)

 Produced by the anterior pituitary
 Stimulates growth of bones, mucles, and other organs by increasing gene expression
 Most people have a rhythm of growth hormone secretion, with daily peak levels occurring during
deep sleep
 Levels increase during periods of fasting and exercise

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

 Also produced by the anterior pituitary
 Stimulated the thyroid gland to secreted thyroid hormones
 Also known as thyrotropin
 Stimulated by the hypothalamus by the hormone thyrotropin-releasing hormone AKA TSH-releasing
hormone
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
 Also produced by the anterior pituitary
 Stimulates the cortex of the adrenal glands (AKA the adrenal cortex) to produce cortisol
 ACTH also binds to melanocytes in the skin to increase skin pigmentation

Cushing disease
-buffalo bump
-moon facies and hirsutism

Cushing disease
 Rare disorder
 Occurs when the pituitary gland makes too much of the hormone ACTH
 ACTH then signals the adrenal glands to produce too much cortisol
 A pituitary gland tumor can cause this condition

Gonadotropins
 Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
o In females, causes ovulation and estrogen and progesterone production
o In males, testosterone production
 Follicles stimulating hormone (FSH)
o In females, follicle development in the ovaries
o In males, sperm cell development

Prolactin
 from the anterior pituitary
 promotes breast development during pregnancy
 stimulates milk production following pregnancy

 breastfeeding as a natural form of birth control is called the Lactational Amenorrhea Method (LAM)

 This method works when the infant is younger than 6 months and breastfeeds exclusively around the
clock, and the mother isn’t having menstrual periods yet.

 During the first 3 months when a woman is nursing, there is higher security provided against
conception than most contraception

 In lactating women, prolactin levels stay elevated

 Persistent hyperprolactinemia caused by breastfeeing postpartum results in an anovulatory or oligo-

ovulatory state, and this results in relative infertility

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

 Produced by anterior pituitary
 Stimulates melanocytes to synthesize melanin
 In pregnancy, the placenta produces MSH which increases skin pigmentation late in pregnancy
CHLOASMA/MELASMA GRAVIDARIUM

POSTERIOR PITUITARY/ NEUROHYPOPHYSIS

 The posterior pituitary produces only 2 hormones:
1. Antidiuretic hormone (AKA vasopressin)
2. Oxytocin

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

 Produces by the posterior pituitary
 Also called vasopressin
 Causes Na retention leading to water retention by the kidney tubules
 Remember when sodium goes, water follows
 Causes constriction of blood vessels in large amounts

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

 Inhibited by alcohol consumption ihi nang ihi

Diabetes insipidus- due to insufficient adh

Oxytocin
 Produces by the posterior pituitary
 Causes contraction of the smooth muscle cells of the uterus and milk letdown from breasts during
lactation
 Oxytocin causes contractions during the second and third stages of labor
 Plays a role in emotional bonding
 Suspected to be the “love hormone”

Thyroid hormone
 Produced by the thyroid gland
 Regulates the rate of metabolism
 Without a normal rate of thyroid hormone secretion, growth and development cannot proceed
normally
 Hyperthyroidism refers to too much thyroid hormone
 Hypothyroidism refers to too little thyroid hormone

Cretinism
 Caused by hypothyroidism in infancy
Presents with
1. Mental retardation
2. short stature
3. abnormally-formed skeletal structures

NEWBORN SCREENING
 Phenylketonuria (PKU)
 Congenital hypothyroidism
  Galactosemia
 Sickle cell disease
 Biotinidase deficiency
 Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
 Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD)
 Tyrosinemia
 Cystic fibrosis (CF)
 MCAD deficiency
 Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)
 Toxoplasmosis

Myxedema- sign of hypothyroidism

Graves disease- common cause of hypothyroid

Thyroid hormones
1. Tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4)
2. Triiodothyronin (T3)

Calcitonin
 Produced by the parafollicular cells or c-cells of the thyroid gland
 Causes serum calcium levels to decrease
 Kalaban ng dalawang nagtataas ng serum calcium levels
1. Parathyroid hormone
2. Vitamin D

Parathyroid Hormone
 Produced by the parathyroid glands
 Serves to increase serum calcium levels

Adrenal hormones
 The adrenal cortex produces
1. Mineralocorticoids – ex. Aldosterone
2. Glucocortisoids- ex. Cortisol
3. Adrenal androgens

 The adrenal medulla produces

1. Epinephrine
2. Norepinephrine

Insulin
 Hormone produced by the pancreas
 Target tissues are liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue
 Serves to increase uptake and use of glucose and amino acids
 Serves to decrease serum glucose levels
HORMONES SECRETED PANCREA
 The endocrine portion of the pancreas has 3 types of cells that secrete dif. Hor
1. The alpha cells secrete glucagon
2. The beta cells secrete insulin
3. The delta cells secrete somatostatin

Exocrine (acinar cell and duct cell)

f cell (secrete pancreatic polypeptide0

 Keep in mind that the pancreas also has an exocrine portion

Sex hormone
Oestrogen- breasts grow, pubic hair grows, and wide hips develop
Testosterone- body hair grows, voice breaks, muscle growth increases

Thymosin
 Secreted by the thymus na located sa upper part of thoracic cavity
 Iba and thymus sa thyroid gland
 The thymus secretes a hormone called thymosin which aids in the development of T-lymphocytes (a
type of white blood cells)
 It is important early in life. If an infant is born without a thymus, the immune system does not
develop normally

Melatonin
 Secreted by the pineal gland
 Influences sleep
 Melatonin inhibits/modulates the functions of the reproductive system
 A decrease in melatonin secretion during old age may influence age-related changes in sleep patterns
 Light controls the rate of melatonin
 Short day length causes an increase in melatonin secretion

OTHER HORMONES

Prostaglandins
 Secreted by a wide variety of cells in the body
 Causes relaxation of smooth muscles (such as blood vessel walls)
 Released by damaged tissue, plays a role in inflammation
 May cause uterine contractions (ginagamit na pampaabort)

Erythropoietin
 Secreted by the kidneys in response to reduced oxygen levels
 Stimulated the bone marroew to produce more red blood cells

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

 Secreted by the placenta during pregnancy
 Hormone detected by most pregnancy test kits
The female sex hormone progesterone is responsible. It decreases the levels of the neurotransmitter
serotonin leading to mood swings

Serotonin levels are also found to be decreased in persons with clinical depression and obsessive-
compulsive disorder (OCD)

Alcohol blocks the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), from the pituitary leading to increased urine
volume

Alcohol affects cerebellum kaya pag lasing pa gewang gewang

Stress causes the release of cortisol (a type of glucocorticoid) from the adrenal cortex

Cortisol serves to increase nutrient levels in the blood, but in large amounts, can also affect the immune
system by modulating its actions

A dcrease in melatonin from pineal gland during old age may influence sleep