MIHIR’S HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL

PROCESS ENGINEERING
BY MIHIR PATEL

SAMPLE DOCUMENT

The author is holder of copyright on this book.

Copyright @ 2018. The Handbook of Chemical Process Engineering. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval
system without prior written permission of author. The program listings may be entered, stored and
executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication.

ISBN # 978-93-5279-698-4

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 PREFACE - ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mihir M. Patel

Chemical Engineer, PMP & TUV SUD Certified Functional Safety

Professional.

www.chemicalprocessengineering.com

The author, Mr. Mihir M. Patel, is a Chemical Engineer with a Master’s degree from USA in 1987.
He is a practicing chemical engineer with many years of experience in process and process safety
engineering. Additionally, he is a Project Management Professional (PMP ®) from PMI, USA, which
gives him a unique overall project perspective in addition to process perspective.

Also, he is a TUV SUD Certified Functional Safety Professional (FSP).

He has worked all around the globe, in small as well as mega greenfield and brownfield projects.
The projects have been oil & gas, petrochemicals, polymerization as well as chemical plants. The
processes have been continuous as well as batch.
He has worked in premium companies in design as well as in operations field.

Linkedin Profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/mihir-patel-pmp-r-68700127/

He wrote this book with a vision to aid all level of chemical engineers to carry out chemical
process engineering in a very practical, efficient and simplified way. It took him nearly 2.5
years to perfect this handbook and launched in the beginning of 2018. Which is a composite
compilation of all the key aspects of chemical engineering. Within less than 2 years, it has
become popular globally, with readers being immensely benefited by it.

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 DEDICATED TO
Firstly: To My Heavenly Father, Almighty God, who gave me the idea, wisdom and perseverance to
take-up and complete this book.

Secondly: To my dear wife Niyati, who has patiently stood by me and encouraged me during the two
and half years it took to complete this book, even when I worked on weekends / holidays, as well as
encouraged me in success of the book thereafter, and who has always been with me at all times,
good and bad.

FOREWORD by Manoj Shah

Mumbai, 22 Sep 2017

Setting up of a Greenfield Chemical Plant is essentially a complex process and a chemical engineer
(quite often called a process engineer) has to wear different hats while visualizing and implementing
any chemical plant from “Concept to Commissioning”, in a time bound manner. Whereas theoretical
understanding of concepts is very important, it is equally critical to have an easy access to the vast
pool of Chemical Engineering knowledge in the form of handy design tools, documents and formats
which help the process engineer to overcome the challenges of time and cost constraints of a
project. “Mihir’s Handbook of Chemical Process Engineering” endeavors to do just that. The author
with his vast experience as a “Process” as well as a “Project” Engineer in the chemical industry, has
brilliantly compiled the various practical aspects of process design and project management in this
Handbook.
The Handbook does excellent justice to the most common Unit Operations encountered in the
Chemical and Petroleum Industry. Besides covering the important theoretical aspects from a more
practical viewpoint in various chapters in Volumes I & II, one must note that the Volume III,
Chapters 40 to 44 place a very important tool in the hands of the Process / Project engineer by
vividly covering the important Process Engineering Calculation Templates, Checklists, Datasheets,
Technical Bid Evaluation Formats and Typical P&IDs.
Overall, this is an excellent reference book for Process / Project Engineers of all ages involved in
Chemical Process Engineering. I wish Mihir all the success for the launch of this handbook and
complement him for his tireless efforts in compiling and publishing such a useful reference book for
chemical process engineers.

Manoj Shah
Presently: Consultant Chemical Plants and Technologies.
Previously: Retired as Executive Director (Technical) at IBI Chematur Engineering & Consultancy
Ltd., Mumbai, India

Background of Manoj Shah: He is a Chemical Engineer with a Master’s degree in Chemical Engineering
from USA. He has 40+ years of experience in the Chemical industry, having carried out engineering
on many projects, greenfield as well as brownfield in the international market.

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 CUSTOMER REVIEWS

You have put together is a great knowledge Naresh Khandale

(India)

Mihir’s Handbook is second to none Herve Baron

(France)

I consider it a Titanic Fernando De Armas

(Italy)

This handbook is complete enough Sesep Sianturi

(Indonesia)

This kind of book I was looking from many years Saish Todankar
(India)

You are serving entire chemical fraternity Nilesh Verma

(Saudi Arabia)

One stop solution for all process engineers Syed Fayaz Ahmed
(Saudi Arabia)

Worth spending money as it has excellent level of Alkesh Shah

(India)
details
Useful for fresh graduate as well as working Rohinton Patel
(India)
professional
Author has compiled the details in a nutshell Mandana Tehranifar
(Iran)

It’s one of the best book I have ever seen Ketul Shah
(India)

Covered all technical content Abhijeet Badgure

(India)

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 SAMPLE FROM THE BOOK
Table of Contents
SAMPLE DOCUMENT ........................................................................................................................................ 1
PREFACE - ABOUT THE AUTHOR..................................................................................................................... 2
DEDICATED TO ................................................................................................................................................. 3
FOREWORD by Manoj Shah ............................................................................................................................... 3
CUSTOMER REVIEWS ...................................................................................................................................... 4
SAMPLE FROM THE BOOK ............................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 3: PUMPS ......................................................................................................................................... 7
Important Details on Pump Selection – Types, Usages, Series vs Parallel Operation.......................................... 7
3.5 Overall Pump Options: ............................................................................................................................ 7
3.6.8 Stream Specific Gravity (Multiple Fluids)............................................................................................. 12
3.6.18 Parallel vs. Series Centrifugal Pump Operation ................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 6: HEAT EXCHANGERS .................................................................................................................. 22
Selection of Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers – TEMA Types, Comparisons & Usage Applications ..................... 22
6.4.1 TEMA Types...................................................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER 7: TANKS ........................................................................................................................................ 29
Methodology of Pressure Settings on Storage Tanks & Tank PDS Preparation ................................................ 29
Case Scenario: .......................................................................................................................................... 29
7.4.13 Process Datasheet Preparation: ....................................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER 16: UTILITIES SYSTEM DESIGN ..................................................................................................... 35
How to Design Utilities – Liquid Fuels, Compressed Air/Dryers & Boilers ......................................................... 35
16.2.2 Liquid Fuel ....................................................................................................................................... 35
16.3 Compressed Air system ...................................................................................................................... 39
Dryers ........................................................................................................................................................ 42
16.5.9 Specification of Boilers ..................................................................................................................... 47
CHAPTER 24: SPECIAL PROCESS ITEMS ...................................................................................................... 50
How to Select & Specify Special Process Items with Important Details on Flame Arresters, Spray Nozzles,
Liquid Filtration, Strainers............................................................................................................................... 50
24.1 Flame Arresters: .................................................................................................................................... 50
24.2 Spray nozzles: .................................................................................................................................... 54
24.7 Liquid Filtration: .................................................................................................................................. 52
24.9.2 Basket type strainers: ....................................................................................................................... 54
24.9.4 Pressure Drop Calculation ................................................................................................................ 56
CHAPTER 26: TYPES OF PROJECTS .............................................................................................................. 57
How to Select Project Types / Stages with Examples for a Process Engineer ................................................... 57
26.1 PROJECT STAGES:........................................................................................................................... 57
CHAPTER 29:................................................................................................................................................... 60
PROCESS DESIGN DOCUMENTATION ........................................................................................................... 60

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 How to Prepare & Specify Process Design Documents. Details on Equipment List, Block Flow Diagram
(BFD), Process Flow Diagram (PFD) and Utility Flow Diagram (UFD), Process Safe Guarding Flow Diagram
(PSFD).......................................................................................................................................................... 60
29.5 TITLE OF DOCUMENT: Equipment List .............................................................................................. 60
29.6 TITLE OF DOCUMENT: BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM (BFD).................................................................... 62
29.7 TITLE OF DOCUMENT: PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS (PFD) and UTILITY FLOW DIAGRAM (UFD) .. 63
29.12 TITLE OF DOCUMENT: PROCESS SAFEGUARDING FLOW DIAGRAMS (PSFD) ............................ 66
CHAPTER 30: TECHNICAL BID VALUATIONS ................................................................................................. 69
How to Prepare Technical Bid Evaluation of Screw Compressor ...................................................................... 69
30.7 Technical Evaluation Guidelines for Screw Compressors ..................................................................... 69
Handbook Details ....................................................................................................................................... 74

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CHAPTER 3: PUMPS

Important Details on Pump Selection –

Types, Usages, Series vs Parallel Operation
3.5 Overall Pump Options:
The following chart gives an introduction of pump selection options as a
function of flow and required head.

Fig3.2 Centrifugal pump selection chart

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 Pump Capacity, gpm

Fig 3.2: Centrifugal pump selection chart

The specification of process pumps involves a step-by-step approach. The

process engineer must select a pump with the best efficiency for the full range
of process operating conditions.

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The major types of pumps available are listed in the following table.

Kinetic Positive Displacement

Centrifugal: Reciprocating:

1. Radial Flow 1. Piston

2. Axial Flow 2. Plunger

3. Mixed Flow 3. Diaphragm

4. Turbine

Special: Rotary:

1. Jet 1. Gear

2. Gas Lift 2. Screw

3. Hydraulic Ram 3. Lobe

4. Inertia 4. Vane

5. Progressive Cavity 5. Flexible Chamber

6. Concrete pumps 6. Flexible Tube (peristaltic)

Table 3.1: Types of Pumps

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Comparison between centrifugal and positive displacement type is provided
below in table 3.2.

Parameter POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT DYNAMIC

Definition Increases pressure by operating on a Increases pressure by using

fixed rotary
volume in a confined space blades to increase fluid velocity
Types Screw, gear, reciprocating, Centrifugal, axial
progressive cavity

Characteristics i) Constant volume i) Variable volume

ii) Variable differential head ii) Constant differential head
iii) Relatively insensitive to liquid iii) Sensitive to liquid properties
properties
iv) Sensitive to system changes
iv) Relatively insensitive to system
v) Self-limiting
changes
v) Not self-limiting
Characteristic flow
versus
differential head curve

Table 3.2: Comparison between positive displacement and dynamic pumps

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Many applications can be handled by a horizontal or vertical centrifugal
pump. The following should be considered.

Feature Horizontal Vertical

Space Requirements Less headroom Less floor area, more

head
room
NPSH Requires more Requires less

Flexibility for future change Less More

Maintenance More accessible Major work project

Table 3.3 Horizontal & Vertical Centrifugal Pump Selection Guide

A selection table showing the physical range of head and capacity suitable for
the various types of pump is provided below.

Pump Type Capacity m3/h (usgpm) Head m (ft)

Minimum Maximum
Low Capacity

Peripheral 0.23 (1) 4.5 (20) 213 (700)

Vane TBD 17 (75) 122 (400)

Reciprocating Plunger 0.23 (1) 34 (150) Over 1,525 (5,000)

General Use
Reciprocating Power 4.5 (20) 227 (1,000) Over 305 (1,000)

Direct 1.4 (5) 114 (500) Over 305 (1,000)

Centrifugal 1 – Stage 2.7 (10) 1820 (8,000) Over 150 (500)

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 2 – Stage 2.7 (10) 1820 (8,000) Over 210 (700)

Multistage 2.7 (10) 680 (3,000) Over 305 (1,000)

Screw 2.7 (10) 180 (800) Over 305 (1,000)

High Capacity

Centrifugal 1 – Stage 1.4 (5) 11,350 (50,000) 15 – 122 (50– 400)

(Low Head) 57 (250) 22,700 (100,000) 3 – 61 (10 –200)

Mixed Flow 227 (1,000) 45,400 (200,000) 0 – 7.5 (0 –25)

Table 3.4: Pump Selection Table

3.6.8 Stream Specific Gravity (Multiple Fluids)

Occasionally, pumping services will be designed to operate on fluids with
widely differing gravities. When calculating the hydraulics for the different
cases, the fluid with lighter gravity will often control the pump sizing.
However, it should be stressed that when the pump is operating at a lower
volume throughput, often at a noticeably higher differential head and
incidentally lower pump efficiency, the effect of the heavier gravity fluid will
give a pump discharge pressure considerably in excess of the design
requirement of the lighter material. The process engineer must be aware of
two potential problems during operation of the heavier gravity fluid:

1. Downstream equipment (piping, heat exchangers, vessels, etc.) may be

over pressurized. In this event, either equipment ratings will need to be
increased or safeguarding measures must be implemented to prevent
over pressurizing.
2. The motor may be overloaded. In this event a larger motor may be
required or means of restricting flow will need to be implemented to
prevent overload.
3. On the data sheet, the process engineer should also note the specific

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 gravity of the heaviest liquid that the pump is expected to handle.

Relations in Discharge of Identical Centrifugal pump handling liquids of

different specific gravity is shown in below fig 3.17.

Fig 3.17: Typical performance of same centrifugal pump handling different

fluids

What this diagram implies is that e.g. if same centrifugal pump of say 20 mlc
head is used to pump water (sp. gr of 1.0) and also mercury (sp. gr of 13.6),
then ignoring effect of viscosity for this example and considering atmospheric
suction, the discharge pressure of water will be 2 barg while of mercury will be
27.2 barg. Thus, in case of pumping mercury, if pump has been procured
originally only for water, then either motor will trip due to overload or pump
casing may bust if it is of lower design pressure.

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3.6.18 Parallel vs. Series Centrifugal Pump Operation

3.6.18.1 Parallel Pump Operation

The combined characteristics of pumps operating in parallel are obtained by

adding their individual flow rates for a given value of head.

Pumps with different pump curves should generally not operate in parallel.
When this cannot be avoided, the pump with the lower shut-off head must be
protected against operating at flows below the allowable minimum flow.

The shut-off head of the combined pump discharge system is determined by

the pump with the highest shut-off head.

Fig 3.29: Dissimilar two centrifugal pumps in parallel operation

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 Fig 3.30: Two identical centrifugal pumps in parallel operation

Centrifugal pumps may be combined into parallel operation for numerous

reasons. Some are:

1. Capacity increase is required for an existing pumping service and a new

pump is added in parallel to one or more existing pumps. The engineer
should be aware that the system flow will not necessarily increase in
proportion to the number of pumps added
2. Very high reliability is required of the pumping service without total
reliance on the functioning of an auto-start control mechanism. Also, the
loss of one pump will not cause sudden total shutdown of the system.

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In order to meet a requirement for flow capacity higher than normal on an
infrequent basis, it may be preferable to have the primary pump and its spare
operate in parallel, instead of designing each pump for the full above-normal
flow rate.

1. The required service capacity may exceed the utility energy supply
available for a single driver or driver type e.g. many companies have low
voltage (LV) to high voltage (HV) power supply cutoff at 160 KW motor
size. Thus multiple parallel pumps may be installed to make each motor
LV.
2. Desire for operating flexibility in power supply or type could result in
multiple pumps with different driver types e.g. one motor driven with
other steam turbine driven.
3. The use of multiple pumps may allow investment savings. For example,
three 50%- pumps may require lower a total investment than two pumps
sized for 100% for the service capacity. (This would be possible but
unusual.)

For parallel operation, the head-capacity curve is obtained by adding the

individual pump capacities at any one given head. Pumps with different head-
capacity curves will have different flow rates. The process engineer must be
certain that one pump is not “backed out” or forced to operate below its
minimum flow.

When pumps are operated in parallel it is imperative that their performance

curve rise steadily to shut-off. A drooping type of performance curve gives two
possible points of operation and pumps may oscillate between each other and
cause surging. In parallel operation additional pumps can be started up only
when their shut-off heads exceed the head developed by the pumps already
running. Pumps operating in parallel should have a shut-off head 10-20%
higher than the rated head (API 610).

Another difficulty may occur as a result of inadequately engineered suction

lines such that one pump suction steals from the other. The remedy is to
design for equal suction heads and to assure that available NPSH is sufficient
to satisfy each pump.

Adequate check valves must be used on pump systems operating in parallel to

minimize possible back flow through pumps and to minimize the effects of
surge which is possible on some parallel pumping systems.

It is advisable to provide a piping bypass system so that either pump can be

operated without the other. Aside from flexibility, a bypass system permits

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operation at reduced conditions during maintenance, inspection or repair of
either pump.

Caution: Pumps in Parallel

A problem that can occur with pumps in parallel is shown in fig 3.31. Two
pumps are never exactly alike. If two pumps are installed in parallel, one
pump may take more than half of the total flow and the other pump less than
half. The pump with the lower flow rate may be operating below its minimum
acceptable flow rate. As the fig shows, the head produced by the two pumps
will be identical because they are connected to the same process. If the head
produced by pump B is lower than head produced by pump A, the situation
shown in the fig will occur. Pump B will decrease its flow rate until it can
produce the same head as pump A.

This situation is most dangerous when one pump is driven by a motor and the
other pump by a turbine. It is impossible to set the two speeds exactly equal,
and the difference in speed will cause a difference in head produced.

If two pumps are nominally identical and both driven by motors, the two head
curves can be assumed to be within 3% of each other. If so, one can make the
worst assumption, that is, the head of pump B is 3% lower than the head of
pump A. Then, using the system operating conditions, plot the flow through
both pumps. Make sure that the lowest flow rate is not below the pump
minimum allowable flow rate.

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 Fig 3.31: Pumps in parallel

3.6.18.2 Series Pump Operation

The combined characteristics of pumps operating in series is obtained by

adding their individual heads for a given flow rate.

The shut-off head of the combined pump discharge system is determined by

adding the shut- off heads of individual pumps.

Note that NPSH is generally a key design consideration for the first pump only
since the first pump acts as a booster for the 2nd pump in series.

Fig 3.32: Performance curve for two dissimilar centrifugal pumps in series

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Pumps may be designed to operate in series arrangement for any of the
following reasons:

1. The head requirement exceeds the capability of a single pump.

2. The differential pressure requirement is low enough at times that one of
several pumps in series can be turned off, as in transportation pipe lines.
3. The primary pump has a high NPSHR Therefore, a low-head booster
pump is installed to pressure the suction of the higher-head pump.
4. Plant feed must be transferred from
1 a remote storage area to the suction
of an on-site high-head pump. 6

5. Two or more pumps are preferred over a multistage pump in erosive

slurry operation.

For series operation, the head-capacity curve is obtained by adding the two
heads at any given capacity.

Fig 3.33: Two identical centrifugal pumps in series

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It is important that adequate suction pressure be available to all pumps,
especially to the first pump in series operation. If the first pump in a series
system is deprived of adequate NPSH, its capacity will be reduced until NPSHR
equals NPSHA. Then the capacity through all the pumps in series will be
reduced, resulting in a significant overall flow loss.

The design pressure for piping and equipment, including the pumps
themselves, should be carefully examined in a series-flow operation especially
if the pumping system can be deadheaded.

The engineer should be aware that reliability is reduced for the series-flow
service since operation is now dependent on not just one pump but each
pump in the series.

Caution: Pumps in Series

Two pumps in series will generate much more discharge pressure than one
pump alone. In some cases, this pressure might be greater than the design
pressure of the downstream piping or other equipment. This condition must
be checked before proceeding with an installation of two or more pumps in
series. It is important to check the design pressure at the condition called
“pump shutoff pressure.” Shutoff pressure is obtained when the downstream
control valve is closed and the pumps operate at zero capacity and maximum
head. The shutoff pressure is equal to the pressure in the suction vessel plus
the shutoff delta P of both pumps combined. See Fig 3.34 and the example
table beneath it. For this example, the normal operating discharge pressure is
satisfactory because it is less than the design pressure. However, at shutoff,
the discharge pressure downstream of the second pump would be greater than
the equipment design pressure. This situation is not allowed. One remedy is
to install a safety valve at the discharge of the second pump as shown.

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CHAPTER 6: HEAT EXCHANGERS

Selection of Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers –

TEMA Types, Comparisons & Usage
Applications

6.4.1 TEMA Types

TEMA standards cover the heavy-duty heat exchangers (TEMA R) as well as
the lighter duty heat exchangers (TEMA C and TEMA B). Refineries typically use
only the TEMA “R” heat exchangers due to the generally severe requirements of
petroleum applications; however, more moderate process services may
warrant consideration of TEMA B construction.
Each TEMA heat exchanger consists of following main parts: the front end
stationary head (commonly referred to as “channel”); the tube bundle; the
rear head and the shell. Each part can be designed in several modifications,
commonly referred to as “types”.

Shown in Fig 6.17 are the TEMA standard designates which are five types of
channels (A, B, C or N, and D), seven types of shells (E, F, G, H, J, K and X),
and eight rear end head types (L, M, N, P, S, T, U and W). The rear end head
type determines whether or not the tube bundle is removable from the shell.

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23 | P a g e
(i) Straight Tube, Fixed tubesheet, Type BEM, AEM, NEN, Etc.

This TEMA type is the simplest design and is constructed without packed or
gasketed joints on the shell side. The tubesheet is welded to the shell and
the heads are bolted to the tubesheet. On the NEN heat exchanger, the shell
and the head is welded to the tubesheet. Typically, a cover plate design is
provided to facilitate tube cleaning. This TEMA category, especially the NEN,
is the lowest cost TEMA design per square foot of heat transfer surface.

Advantages

• Less costly than removable bundle designs

• Provides maximum amount of surface for a given shell and tube
diameter
• Provides for single and multiple tube passes to assure proper velocity
• Maybe interchangeable with other manufacturers of the same TEMA type
limitations
• Shell side can be cleaned only by chemical methods
• No provision to allow for differential thermal expansion must use an
expansion joint on the shell side

Applications

• Oil Coolers, Liquid to Liquid, Vapor condensers, rebuilders, gas coolers

• Generally, more viscous and warmer fluids flow through the shell
• Corrosive or high fouling fluids should flow inside the tubes

(ii) Removable Bundle, Externally Sealed Floating tubesheet, Type AEW,

BEW.

This design allows for the removal, inspection and cleaning of the shell
circuit and shell interior. Special floating tubesheet prevents intermixing of
fluids. In most cases, straight tube design is more economical than U-tube
designs.

Advantages

• Floating tubesheet allows for differential thermal expansion between the

Shell and the tube bundle.
• Shell circuit can be inspected and steam or mechanically cleaned

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 • The tube bundle can be repaired or replaced without disturbing shell
pipe
• Less costly than TEMA type BEP or BES which has internal floating head
• Maximum surface for a given shell diameter for removable bundle
design
• Tubes can be cleaned in AEW models without removing piping.

Limitations

• Fluids in both the shell and tube circuits must be nonvolatile, non-
toxic
• Tube side passes limited to single or two pass design
• All tubes are attached to two tube sheets. Tubes cannot expand
independently so that large thermal shock applications should be
avoided
• Packing materials produce limits on design pressure and temperature

Applications

• Intercoolers and aftercoolers, the air inside the tubes

• Coolers with water inside the tubes
• Jacket water coolers or other high differential temperature duty
• Place hot side fluid through the shell with entry nearest the front end

(iii) Removable Bundle, Outside Packed Head, Type BEP, AEP, etc

This design allows for the easy removal, inspection and cleaning of the shell
circuit and shell interior without removing the floating head cover. Special
floating tubesheet prevents intermixing of fluids. In most cases, straight
tube removable design is more costly than U-tube designs.

Advantages

 Floating tubesheet allows for differential thermal expansion between the

shell and
 the tube bundle.
 Shell circuit can be inspected and steam cleaned. If the tube bundle has
a square tube
 pitch, tubes can be mechanically cleaned by passing a brush between
rows of tubes.
 The tube bundle can be repaired or replaced without disturbing shell
piping
25 | P a g e
  On AEP design, tubes can be serviced without disturbing tubeside piping
 Less costly than TEMA type BES or BET designs
 Only shell fluids are exposed to packing. Toxic or volatile fluids can be
cooled in the tubeside circuit
 Provides large bundle entrance area, reducing the need for entrance
domes for proper fluid distribution

Limitations

 Shell fluids limited to non volatile, non toxic materials

 Packing limits shell side design temperature and pressure
 All tubes are attached to two tubesheets. Tubes cannot expand
independently so that large thermal shock applications should be
avoided
 Less surface per given shell and tube diameter than AEW or BEW

Applications

 Flammable or toxic liquids in the tube circuit

 Good for high fouling liquids in the tube circuit

(iv) Removable Bundle, Internal Split Ring Floating Head, Type AES, BES,
etc.

Ideal for applications requiring frequent tube bundle removal for inspection
and cleaning. Uses straight-tube design suitable for large differential
temperatures between the shell and tube fluids. More forgiving to thermal
shock than AEW or BEW designs. Suitable for cooling volatile or toxic
fluids.

Advantages

 Floating head design allows for differential thermal expansion between

the shell and the tube bundle.
 Shell circuit can be inspected and steam cleaned. If it has a square tube
layout, tubes can be mechanically cleaned
 Higher surface per given shell and tube diameter than “pull-through”
designs such as AET, BET, etc.
 Provides multi-pass tube circuit arrangement.

Limitations

 Shell cover, split ring and floating head cover must be removed to remove

26 | P a g e
 the tube bundle, results in higher maintenance cost than pull-through
 More costly per square foot of surface than fixed tube sheet or U-tube
designs

Applications

 Chemical processing applications for toxic fluids

 Special intercoolers and aftercoolers
 General industrial applications

v) Removable Bundle, Pull-Through Floating Head, Type AET, BET, etc.

Ideal for applications requiring frequent tube bundle removal for inspection
and cleaning as the floating head is bolted directly to the floating tubesheet.
This prevents having to remove the floating head in order to pull the tube
bundle.

Advantages

 Floating head design allows for differential thermal expansion between

the shell and the tube bundle.
 Shell circuit can be inspected and steam or mechanically cleaned
 Provides large bundle entrance area for proper fluid distribution
 Provides multi-pass tube circuit arrangement.
 Suitable for toxic or volatile fluid cooling

Limitations

 For a given set of conditions, this TEMA style is the most expensive
design
 Less surface per given shell and tube diameter than other removable
designs

Applications

 Chemical processing applications for toxic fluids

 Hydrocarbon fluid condensers
 General industrial applications requiring frequent cleaning

vi) Removable Bundle, U-Tube, Type BEU, AEU, etc.

Especially suitable for severe performance requirements with maximum

27 | P a g e
thermal expansion capability. Because each tube can expand and contract
independently, this design is suitable for larger thermal shock applications.
While the AEM and AEW are the least expensive, U-tube bundles are still an
economical TEMA design.

Advantages

 U-tube design allows for differential thermal expansion between the

shell and the tube bundle as well as for individual tubes.
 Shell circuit can be inspected and steam or mechanically cleaned
 Less costly than floating head or packed floating head designs
 Provides multi-pass tube circuit arrangement.
 Capable of withstanding thermal shock applications.
 The bundle can be removed from one end for cleaning or replacement

Limitations

 Because of U-bend, tubes can be cleaned only by chemical means

(although nowadays, new techniques of the fluid pressurized scraper,
similar to a pipeline pig, are available)
 Because of U-tube nesting, individual tubes are difficult to replace
 No single tube pass or true countercurrent flow is possible
 Tube wall thickness at the U-bend is thinner than at the straight portion
of tubes
 Draining of tube circuit is difficult when mounted with the vertical
position with the head side up.

Applications

 Oil, chemical and water heating applications

 Excellent in steam to liquid applications

28 | P a g e
CHAPTER 7: TANKS
Methodology of Pressure Settings on Storage
Tanks & Tank PDS Preparation
Case Scenario:
A fixed roof tank storing flammable material is having inert gas blanketing.
The outlet of nitrogen blanket is taken to a LP flare system. Below is the
sequence of pressure set point engineering (refer figure 7.37 below also):

1. First, calculate the inbreathing and outbreathing flow rates based on API
2000.
2. Next based on the flowrate of out-breathing to LP flare and the back
pressure of flare, calculate the pressure drop in the flare header, to arrive
at the pressure required at outlet of out-breathing control valve. Let us
say the friction drop in LP header is 150 mm WC (mm water column), &
pressure at valve outlet is 400 mm WCg.
3. Next step is to provide certain pressure drop across the out breathing
control valve. This pressure drop should be at least 1/3rd of friction drop
in outlet line to flare, for good controllability. In this example, we provide
50 mm WC across valve.
4. Once the inlet pressure to out breathing control valve is established, this
is the top setpoint of pressure in the tank pressure controlling range. In
example thus, top operating pressure is 450 mm WCg. At this point, the
control valve is fully open.
5. The high pressure alarm on tank needs to be set above this pressure of
point (4). Thus, high pressure alarm will be 500 mm WCg.
6. The breather valve positive pressure will be above the high pressure
alarm setpoint. Thus, this will be 550 mm WCg. Note that breather valve
will have 10% accumulation, thus, it will be fully open at 605 mm WCg.
7. The emergency vent valve setpoint will accordingly be above the breather
valve positive set pressure. The setpoint of emergency valve is also the
design pressure of tank on positive side. In our example, emergency valve
will be set at 650 mm WCg. This is also the design pressure of tank. One
can however keep design pressure little above emergency valve set point
also. Both are acceptable.

29 | P a g e
 8. Now, one needs to provide an operating range for tank operation. Thus,
the outbreathing control valve will be fully closed at 350 mm WCg inlet
pressure.
9. There is a dead band normally provided between the closing of inlet
control valve and opening of outlet control valve. In our example, this will
be between 200 mm WCg and 350 mm WCg.
10. Thus, inlet control valve will start to open at 200 mm WCg. It will be fully
open at 100 mm WCg.
11. Still if pressure in tank drops, the low pressure alarm will come in at 50
mm WCg.
12. The inbreathing set point of PVRV will be set at (-22 mm WCg) and with
10% accumulation it will be full open at (-25 mm WCg).
13. Thus tank design pressure can be set at (-25 mm WCg).

In summary, tank design pressure is (-25) / 650 mm WCg.

Fig 7.37: the typical setting of tank pressures

30 | P a g e
The above diagram shows establishing of key pressures for an atmospheric
storage tank. The Pressure/Vacuum (PV) Valve is really two valves in one. One
is for pressure, and the other is for vacuum. The principle of operation is the
same. As the pressure on the pressure side of a PV valve rises, the force due to
pressure reduces the seating force of the pallet and it starts to leak. Leakage,
however, is relatively insignificant until the set point is reached, at which
point the flow increases dramatically and follows the flow curves given by the
manufacturer.

Beyond the set point, PV valves do not “pop” open, but slowly lift as the
overpressure (the
actual upstream pressure above the value of the setpoint) increases.

A narrow operating pressure range becomes particularly more important for

systems that have inert gas blanketing or large tanks with shallow roof angles
that have a very low failure pressure. The problems with sufficient margins to
allow vents to operate within the design pressure of the tank become more
acute for large diameter tanks. Smaller tanks can frequently take the higher
pressures without the need for special design consideration, whereas large
tanks will be damaged if the internal pressure exceeds the design pressure.

Emergency vent valves are simply large PV valves capable of venting greater
than normal venting loads caused by emergency conditions.

31 | P a g e
Fig 7.38: Typical Inert Gas Blanketed Tank with a vent to flare

2
9

32 | P a g e
7.4.13 Process Datasheet Preparation:

i) Choosing Tank / Storage Vessel Type

Operation at above 18 kPag (2.5 psig) should preferably consider a bullet (a

horizontal pressure vessel with L:D ratio that may exceed 5:1).

In some applications, provision of a spheroid or sphere will prove more

economic than use of multiple bullets.

Note: Tanks handling liquids with solids contamination require special

attention.

ii) Optimizing Vessel Size

The following guidelines should be followed in optimizing dimensions:

a) Tanks:

As a general rule, storage tanks should be limited to a maximum height of 25

m (80 ft) and 60 m (200 ft) diameter.

As a general rule, the cheapest tank will have a height: diameter ratio of 1,
although standard tank dimensions should be used wherever shop built tanks
are used as this will help reduce cost.

b) Drums / Bullets:

Normal Length / Diameter (L/D) ratio is 2:1 to 5:1 for horizontal bullets with >
3:1 often being the most economic in low-pressure applications. As pressure
increases, the economic L/D tends to increase. The higher range of L/D’s is
advantageous for horizontal separators and settlers. Also, refer to chapter 9 on
“Separators” for more information on L/D.

Minimum drum size should be 610 mm (24”) inside diameter (ID). Small drums
can
sometimes be fabricated more economically using 24 or 30” outside diameter pipe.

Start by specifying inside diameters and T/T lengths in 152 mm (6”)

increments. The Mechanical Engineer responsible for the design of the vessels
may come back to Process if a more economical design is possible. This could

33 | P a g e
occur where using standard plate sizes in 610 mm (2 ft) increments are a
better fit, or in very high pressure and/or alloy services they may suggest
tighter dimensions down to 75 mm (3”) or even 25 mm (1”) increments in order to
reduce cost. The Process Engineer should adjust the elevations on the vessel
sketch he has provided, once overall dimensions are finalized, with all levels
referenced to the bottom of the shell.

Table 7.9 provides nominal standard capacities of vertical Steel cylindrical

Storage tanks in m3

iii) Nozzle Sizing and Location

It is not possible for Process Engineering to definitively locate all major

nozzles. This is due to the uncertainty of vessel reinforcement pad sizes and
other mechanical details. However, Process Engineering must indicate the
number, size, and general location.

34 | P a g e
CHAPTER 16: UTILITIES SYSTEM
DESIGN
How to Design Utilities – Liquid Fuels,
Compressed Air/Dryers & Boilers
16.2.2 Liquid Fuel
16.2.2.1 Introduction

Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate

or a residue. Broadly speaking, fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is
burned in a furnace or boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine
for the generation of power. In this sense, heavy fuel oil (HFO) or diesel are
types of fuel oil. Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly
alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics. The term fuel oil is also used in a
stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be
obtained from crude oil, heavier than gasoline and naphtha.

Fuel oil systems are provided to ensure a constant regulated supply of oil to
burners of steam boilers and process furnaces. The system includes a fuel oil
pump and heater set which discharges oil at a constant pressure and at the
required condition of temperature and viscosity so that atomisation and
efficient combustion are possible.

Dependent on the grade of Fuel oil and process demand, the source may be
from process make within the complex, subsidized by import to meet the total
complex demand or imported via road, rail or marine off-loading facilities.

Where gas is available for fuel and there is a preference for it, Fuel oil make
may be exported via road, rail or marine off-loading facilities.

A typical analysis of a fuel oil or waste liquid contains the following

information:

1. Ultimate analysis: The results indicate the quantities of sulfur, hydrogen,

carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and ash.
2. API gravity
3. Heating value
35 | P a g e
 4. Viscosity
5. Pour point: The pour point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid
fuel flows under standardized conditions.
6. Flash point: The flash point is the temperature to which a liquid must be
heated to produce vapours that flash but do not burn continuously when
ignited.
7. Water and sediment: The water and sediment level, also called bottom
sediment and water (BSW), is a measure of the contaminants in a liquid
fuel. The sediment normally consists of calcium, sodium, magnesium
and iron compounds. For heavy fuels, the sediment may also contain
carbon.

Additional information, which is often required when designing a boiler,

includes:

1. Carbon residue,
2. Asphaltenes,
3. Elemental ash analysis,
4. Burning profile, and
5. Distillation curve.

Refer table 16.2.3 below for fuel oil analysis for commercial grades.

Table 16.2.3: Analysis of commercial fuel oil grades

36 | P a g e
Table 16.2.4: Typical characteristics of various liquid fuel types

37 | P a g e
Table 16.2.5: Comparison of properties of fuel oil amongst various countries

38 | P a g e
16.3 Compressed Air system
16.3.1 Introduction

Compressed air is supplied on industrial sites for two main purposes, as

Instrument Air for control systems and Plant Air for general use.

Instrument Air systems provide a constant flow of dry compressed air at the
pertinent conditions to maintain the following services:

Instrumentation (control valves, positioners, shut down valves)

Process Air

Plant Air is supplied for the following services:

Service Air (utility stations)

Motive Air (to run air motor driven equipment e.g. air operated double
diaphragm pumps (AODD))

Maintenance facilities (purging equipment containing chemical vapour/inert

gas to allow man entry)

Cleaning air (soot blowers, workshops)

16.3.1.1 Determination of System Capacity

(i) Capacity of Instrument Air System

The capacity of the system is to be based upon the total requirements of all
connected loads, assuming all instruments operate simultaneously at
maximum air consumption. The capacity of the Instrument Air system cannot
be accurately assessed until the process control diagrams are complete and a
provisional count of the instrumentation is possible.

39 | P a g e
When accurate manufacturer’s data is not available, the following
assumptions are acceptable in calculating the Instrument Air requirements,
based on all instrument operating simultaneously:

Users Instrument Air Rate per single

(1) Device

[Nm3/h] [scfm]

Old type control valve with fully pneumatic system (includes 2.98 1.75
leakage rate of app. 0.3 Nm3/h)

Modern type control valve, electronically controlled with only the 1.50 0.88
actuator using Instrument Air (includes leakage rate of app. 0.3
Nm3/h)
On-Off Isolation Valve (includes leakage rate of app. 0.3 Nm3/h) – 5.53 3.25
only fraction of on-off valves needs to be considered operating
simultaneously for normal consumption, say 10%
Analyzer (oxygen, chromatograph) 8.50 5

Analyzer (moisture, pH, conductivity, water, emission) 3.40 2

Louvers / Dampers 8.50 5

Miscellaneous (compressor pulse jet, on-line / off-line washing, dry As required As required
gas seal panel, anti surge valve etc.)

Margin to be added %

Margin for air dryer regeneration losses during operation (this + 10% to 25%
depends on vendor design for air dryers)

Margin to avoid overloading the compressor + 15% to 20%

Margin for leakage in the system (optional- see note 1) + 10%

Note 1: In case GI pipes are used for instrument air as is usual practice, then
connectors are union joints since GI pipes cannot be welded. Here, this
margin is appropriate. However, if instrument air piping is SS 304 with
flanges, then this margin can be ignored)

Table 16.3.1: Recommended Typical Instrument Air Requirements

(ii) Capacity of Plant Air System

Plant Air demand is difficult to predict as invariably plant modification and

new constructions services are to be considered in addition to normal plant

40 | P a g e
operations: Service Air, Furnace Decoking and maintenance workshop
demands. The largest demand for Plant Air in a production plant is for furnace
steam / air decoking (normally 2,500 NM3/hr), which may vary considerably
with the type of plant size and number of furnaces.

User Plant Air Rate [Nm3/h]

Production Plant As required in

consultation with
licensor / vendors

Plant Service Air (one utility stations at 85 Nm3/h each) 85

Maintenance workshop 100 maximum

Table 16.3.2: Typical Plant Air Requirements

Note that, sometimes, decoke air has its own compressor and in such cases
the consumption would not be considered part of Plant Air.

Table 16.3.3 shows demands and operating conditions for pneumatic tools
and construction equipment. Note that these are peak values and that average
loads are often 10-35% of the peak values quoted.

Tool Weight [kg] Air Rate [lts/min] Work. Pres. [barg]

Clay diggers 11 800 4.9

Clay diggers 14 600 to 680 4.9

Clay diggers 15.5 680 4.9

Clay diggers 18 1600 4.9

Concrete tampers 18 1100 4.9

Riveting Hammer Light 1.6 to 1.8 200 to 250 4.9

Riveting Hammer Heavy 7.2 to 11.4 88 to 900 4.9

Drilling Machines (1/8”-3/4”) 0.75 to 3.9 400 to 800 4.9 to 5.9

41 | P a g e
 Drilling Machines (7/8”-1 1/4”) 6.3 to 14 1000 to 1600 4.9 to 5.9

Drilling Machines (2”) 22 2500 4.9 to 5.9

Hand Grinder (5/16” dia.) 0.5 to 1.0 400 to 650 4.9

Hand Grinder (4”x2”-6”x1 1/4″) 4.8 to 5.1 1000 4.9

Hand Grinder (8”x1 1/2″) 7.5 1500 4.9

Grinders with Flexible Pad (8”-10” dia.) 5.5 1900 4.9

Table 16.3.3: Approximate peak Demands for Pneumatic Tools

Dryers

The most common measurement of compressed air water content is dew point.
Dew point is the temperature where air is saturated with water and moisture
will begin to condense. In other words, it’s the point where dew begins to form.
Dew point is always stated as a temperature. Simply put, dew point is the
temperature where condensation begins.

In compressed air applications, pressure is critical when discussing dew

point. Compression and expansion of air affects its dew point. Generally
speaking, compression increases dew point, and expansion (i.e. de-
compression) lowers dew point.

For this reason, the phrase “pressure dew point (PDP)” is commonly used. This
term usually refers to the dew point of the compressed air at full line pressure.
Conversely the phrase “atmospheric dew point” refers to what the dew point
would be if fully depressurized to atmospheric conditions.

Fig 16.3.1 provides conversion chart of pressure to atmospheric dew point for
compressed air at various pressures. To obtain the dew point temperature
expected if the gas were expanded to a lower pressure proceed as follows:

1. Using “dew point at pressure” locate this temperature on scale at right

hand side of chart.

42 | P a g e
 2. Read horizontally to intersection of curve corresponding to the operating
pressure at which the gas was dried.

3. From that point read vertically downward to curve corresponding to the

expanded lower pressure.

4. From that point read horizontally to scale on right hand side of chart to
obtain dew point temperature at the expanded lower pressure.
5. If dew point temperatures of atmospheric pressure are desired, after step
(ii) above, read vertically downward to scale at bottom of chart, which will
provide “Dew Point at Atmospheric Pressure”.

Fig 16.3.1: Pressure dewpoint versus atmospheric dewpoint conversion

Two 100% air dryer packages are normally installed (duty and stand by).
4
1

43 | P a g e
44 | P a g e
Dryer types and details of each are provided below:

Compressed Air Dryers are mainly used in industries for various applications
in pneumatic tools, pneumatic instruments and pneumatic machines and in a
variety of production processes. The consequences of using wet air are rust
and scale deposits in steel pipes, increased resistance in flow, malfunctioning
of process control instruments, corrosion and damage to electromagnetic
valves and pneumatic system, peeling and blistering effect on spray painted
surface, etc. Thus it will affect the quality of product and lead to excessive
maintenance cost.

The sketch below shows a typical Compressed air system to remove these
damaging impurities and get Clean and Dry air. When compressed to 7
Kg/cm2g, the temperature of discharge air reaches around 140 oC. The after
cooler and Separator installed after the compressor will cool the air, and
remove @90% of moisture and oil. For instance, when the compressor takes in
100 NM3/h of ambient air at 40oC and 50% relative humidity, at 7 Kg/cm 2g,
the after cooler will condense an average of 30 liters of water in 24 hours. If
the outlet air temperature from the after cooler is 40 oC, it still contains 8000
ppm moisture. At 45oC, compressed air contains 10,500 ppm, at 50oC, 13,500
ppm moisture which is removed by Air Dryer. Therefore, lower the
temperature of air at dryer inlet, smaller would be the size of Air Drying Unit.

Dryer types are as below:

1. Internally Heat Reactivated Type Air Dryers

2. Blower Reactivated Type Air Dryer
3. Heatless Type Air Dryers
4. Heat of Compression Type Air Dryers
5. Refrigerated Type Air Dryers
6. No Purge Loss Type Air Dryers

(a) Internally Heat Reactivated Type Air Dryers

Internally heat reactivated type Air Dryers (fig 16.3.2) are used when one
needs compressed air of very low Dew point of (-) 60 C or (-) 80 C. In this
o o

design, the desiccant is regenerated at higher temperature, along with small

quantity of Dry air purge. Due to purging with Dry air and thermal
regeneration, residual moisture loading on desiccant becomes low and this
gives very low Dew point. The Drying unit has 2-vessels filled with Activated
Alumina or Molecular sieves desiccant. One vessel remains in drying cycle for
45 | P a g e
4 hours, while other vessel is simultaneously regenerated at atmospheric
pressure. Around 3% flow of dryer capacity is used as purge for regeneration.

Electrical heaters are provided in a central finned Stainless steel pipe in both
drying vessels. Heating cycle is for @ 2 hours and in this time hot purge air
increases desiccant temperature to around 100 C. At this temperature
o

regeneration is complete (due to dry air purge). Dew point achieved is @ (-)
40 C.
o

If still lower Dew point is required, air purging rate is slightly increased to 5%
for (-) 60 C and to 7.5% for (-) 80 C Dew point. A Pre-filter with automatic drain
o o

valve is provided to remove any physical moisture from compressed air before
entering Air dryer. An after filter is also provided in the Dryer outlet to arrest
any desiccant dust particles, up to 1 micron size.

Fig 16.3.2: Internally Heat Reactivated Type Air Dryer

Salient Features:
 Longer life of operation
 Requires less attention of operator
 Once installed can be operated automatically
 Heaters and valves are operated automatically
 Internal heaters provide max efficiency resulting in lower power
requirement.
 Easy maintenance

Air Capacity 5 to 3000 NM3/ Hr

46 | P a g e
Atmospheric (-)40oC to (-)80oC
Dew Point
Operating 2 to 50 kg/ cm2g
Pressure
Table 16.3.6: Details of Internally Heat Reactivated Type Air Dryers

16.5.9 Specification of Boilers

(i) Preferred Arrangement

Required total capacity should be provided by use of at least 3 boilers, but all
boilers should be considered to be operating at partial load to supply normal
steam requirements. The above is recommended for redundancy purposes
only.

All boilers should preferably be considered to be water tube type except small
package units of low pressure which may be of fire tube construction.

Boilers should be of the outdoor installation type except that semi outdoor
type should be used in cold climates.

Package boilers should be preferred in standard sizes and pressure ranges

where commonly available.

Boilers should usually be equipped with automatic fuel burners, forced or

induced draft fans, flue gas ducts, soot blowers, platforms and ladders, and
other related auxiliaries and accessories, as neccessary. Controls and
instruments are usually supplied to a certain degree with the boiler.

(ii) Boilers

The boiler specification should cover all aspects of the expected operating
cycle of the boiler. It is important that any special operating aspects such as
daily start-up or rapid load swings are covered in the specification of the
boiler, which should include the following:

 Analysis of the fuels to be used

 Duty required (maximum and minimum flows, pressure and
temperatures and allowable variation)
 Water analysis and expected ranges and feed water temperature

47 | P a g e
  Layout constraints and access problems
 Any unusual site features such as earthquake or wind problems
 Applicable emissions regulations
 Codes and standards required for the country, plus site safety rules
 Delivery and commissioning requirements
 Auxiliary equipment required and types of drive
 Control system and data management needs
 Guarantees and warranties
 Any essential bid comparison basis such as utility values, capital
charges, etc.

(a) Boiler Specifications and a few important terminologies:

Boilers are always typically specified by the following Industrial Boiler

Specification Factors.

(Note: At the end of this section are provided guidelines for process engineer to
prepare specifications and evaluate vendor bids. Vol II Chapter 30 also
provides technical bid evaluation for boilers).
1. Steam pressure
2. Steam temperature and control range
3. Steam flow: Peak, Minimum, Load patterns
4. Feed water temperature and quality
5. Standby capacity and number of units
6. Fuels and their properties
7. Ash properties
8. Firing method preferences
9. Environmental emission limitations: sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), particulate, other compounds
10. Site space and access limitations 11. Auxiliaries
11. Operator requirements
12. Evaluation basis

Out of these, the usual four most important attributes are:

1. Steam flow or evaporation

2. Steam outlet pressure (SOP)
3. Steam outlet temperature (SOT)
4. Feed water (FW) inlet temperature

48 | P a g e
(b) Steam Flow or Evaporation or Boiler Output

This is the amount of steam generated from the FW supplied at a certain

temperature. It is the capacity or the rating of the boiler expressed in pounds
per hour (lb/h), kilograms per hour (kg/h), or kilograms per second (kg/s). In
a re-heater (RH) boiler, heat is added to steam to raise its temperature from
inlet to outlet condition. This also forms a part of evaporation. As the feed
temperature varies a good deal and reheating is invariably present in utility
boilers, boiler ratings are better designated by the heat duty than evaporation.
This is expressed in million British thermal units per hour (MMBtu/h), million
kilocalories per hour (MMkcal/h), or megawatt thermals (MWth).

(c) Maximum Continuous Rating

Maximum continuous rating (MCR) is the ability of the boiler to generate and
supply the declared amount of steam continuously and effortlessly without
any kind of shortfall or side effects (such as overheating or slagging or
overloading) on the main boiler or auxiliaries.

(d) Peak Rating

Peak rating is the evaporation that can be sustained by the boiler for a
specified period of, for example, 2 or 4 h in a day, to meet an increased need
in either the process or the power plant. The concept of peak rating does not
apply to HRSGs.

Peak duty is always met at a fractionally reduced efficiency, as the final exit
temperature of the gas from the unit would be more than that at an MCR
condition (as the fuel flow is higher), leading to higher stack losses.

Usually, the peak duty does not exceed 110% MCR and 4 h in a day, and it is
mostly met by making use of the design and test block margins of the boiler
and the auxiliaries without having to oversize the equipment.

49 | P a g e
CHAPTER 24: SPECIAL PROCESS
ITEMS
How to Select & Specify Special Process Items
with Important Details on Flame Arresters,
Spray Nozzles, Liquid Filtration, Strainers

24.1 Flame Arresters:

Flame arresters are used:

 to stop the spread of an open fire

 to limit the spread of an explosive event that has occurred
 to protect potentially explosive mixtures from igniting
 to confine fire within an enclosed, controlled, or regulated location
 to stop the propagation of a flame traveling at sub-sonic velocities

Few of their common usages are:

 fuel storage tank vents

 fuel gas pipelines
 safety storage cabinets for paint, aerosol cans, and other flammable
mixtures
 the exhaust system of internal combustion engines
 the air intake of marine inboard engines
 overproof rum and other flammable liquors

Explosive mixtures can burn in various ways. The following, among other
things, can influence the combustion process: the chemical composition of the
mixture, possible pressure waves, pre-compression, the geometric shape of the
combustion chamber, and the flame propagation speed.

The relevant combustion processes for flame arresters are defined by

50 | P a g e
international standards:

Explosion is the generic term for abrupt oxidation or decomposition reaction

producing an increase in temperature, pressure or both simultaneously.

Deflagration is an explosion that propagates at subsonic velocity. Depending

on the geometric shape of the combustion area, a distinction is drawn between
atmospheric deflagration, pre-volume deflagration and in-line deflagration.

Atmospheric deflagration (Fig. 24.1.1) is an explosion that occurs in open air

without a noticeable increase in pressure.

Fig 24.1.1: Atmospheric deflagration

Pre-volume deflagration (Fig. 24.1.2) is an explosion in a confined volume

(such as within a vessel) initiated by an internal ignition source.

51 | P a g e
52 | P a g e
 Fig 24.1.2: Pre-volume deflagration

In-line deflagration (Fig 24.1.3) is an accelerated explosion within a pipe that

moves along the axis of the pipe at the flame propagation speed.

Fig 24.1.3: In-line deflagration in pipe

Stabilized burning is the even, steady burning of a flame, stabilized at or

close to the flame arrester element. A distinction is drawn between short time
burning (stabilized burning for a specific period) and endurance burning
(stabilized burning for an unlimited period) (Fig 24.1.4).

53 | P a g e
 Fig 24.1.4: Stabilised burning

Detonation is an explosion propagating at supersonic velocity and is

characterized by a shock wave.

A distinction is drawn between stable detonations and unstable detonations

(Fig 24.1.3). A detonation is stable when it progresses through a confined
system without a significant variation of velocity and pressure characteristic
(for atmospheric conditions, test mixtures and test procedures, typical
velocities are between 1,600 and 2,200 meter/second). A detonation is
unstable during the transition of the combustion process from a deflagration
into a stable detonation. The transition occurs in a spatially limited area in
which the velocity of the combustion wave is not constant and where the
explosion pressure is significantly higher than in a stable detonation.

24.2 Spray nozzles:

A spray nozzle is a precision device that facilitates dispersion of liquid into a
spray. Nozzles are used for three purposes: to distribute a liquid over an area,
to increase liquid surface area, and create impact force on a solid surface. A
wide variety of spray nozzle applications use a number of spray characteristics
to describe the spray.

Spray nozzles can be categorized based on the energy input used to cause
atomization, the breakup of the fluid into drops. Spray nozzles can have one
or more outlets; a multiple outlet nozzle is known as a compound nozzle.

Understanding sprays, drop size, and the strengths and characteristics of

nozzle types and correctly positioning them are fundamental to the desired
54 | P a g e
process result.

By creating a large droplet surface area, sprays are used to generate the high
rates of heat and mass transfer that is necessary in spray drying, liquid waste
incineration, and spray quenching applications. Spray nozzles are applied in a
wide variety of process applications with a wide range of criticality. An
example is the quenching of hot gases where high performance, high
reliability, and robustness are required. Another usage of nozzles is manual
pressure washing of equipment. Similarly, Desuperheating of superheated
steam by spraying water into the superheated steam as well as chemical
injections into main streams are other usages of spray nozzles.

Types of spray nozzles are:

1. Single fluid spray nozzles

2. two-fluid atomizing nozzles
3. rotary disk
4. ultrasonic.

24.2.1 Single-fluid nozzle

Single-fluid or hydraulic spray nozzles utilize the kinetic energy of the liquid to
break it up into droplets. This most widely used type of spray nozzle is more
energy efficient at producing surface area than most other types. As the fluid
pressure increases, the flow through the nozzle increases, and the drop size
decreases. Many configurations of single fluid nozzles are used depending on
the spray characteristics desired.

(i) Plain-orifice nozzle

The simplest single fluid nozzle is a plain orifice nozzle as shown in the fig
24.2.1. This nozzle often produces little if any atomization, but directs the
stream of liquid. If the pressure drop is high, at least 25 bars (2,500 kPa), the
material is often finely atomized, as in a diesel injector. At lower pressures,
this type of nozzle is often used for tank cleaning, either as a fixed position
compound spray nozzle or as a rotary nozzle.
5
0

55 | P a g e
 Fig 24.2.1: Plain orifice spray nozzle

(ii) Shaped-orifice nozzle

The shaped orifice (fig 24.2.2) uses a hemispherical shaped inlet and a ‘V’ notched
outlet to cause the flow to spread out on the axis of the ‘V’ notch. A flat fan spray
results which is useful for many spray applications, such as spray painting.

Fig 24.2.2: Flat fan spray pattern spray nozzle

(iii) Surface-impingement single-fluid nozzle

A surface impingement nozzle (fig 24.2.3) causes a stream of liquid to impinge

on a surface resulting in a sheet of liquid that breaks up into drops. This flat
fan spray pattern nozzle is used in many applications ranging from applying
agricultural herbicides to row crop to painting.

The impingement surface can be formed in a spiral (fig 24.2.4) to yield a spiral
shaped sheet approximating a full cone spray pattern or a hollow-cone spray
pattern.

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The spiral design generally produces a smaller drop size than pressure swirl
type nozzle design, for a given pressure and flow rate. This design is clog
resistant due to the large free passage.

Common applications include gas scrubbing applications (e.g., flue-gas

desulfurization where the smaller droplets often offer superior performance)
and fire fighting (where the mix of droplet densities allow spray penetration
through strong thermal currents).

24.7 Liquid Filtration:

Liquid filtration plays a very important part in any process. Filtration is a
process whereby solid particles present in a suspension are separated from
the liquid or gas employing a porous medium, which retains the solids but
allows the fluid to pass through. When the proportion of solids in a liquid is
less, the term clarification is used. It is a common operation which is widely
employed in production of sterile products, bulk drugs, and in liquid oral
formulation.

The suspension to be filtered is known as slurry. The porous medium used to

retain the solids is known as filter medium. The accumulated solids on the
filter are referred as filter cake & the clear liquid passing through the filter is
called the filtrate.

24.7.1 Types of filtration

Based on the mechanism, three types of the filtration are known.

I. Surface filtration: It is a screening action by which pores or holes of the

medium prevent the passage of solids. The mechanisms, straining and
impingement are responsible for surface filtration. For this purpose,
plates with holes or woven sieves are used. Example is cellulose
membrane filter.

II. Depth filtration: This filtration mechanism retains particulate matter

not only on the surface but also at the inside of the filter. This is aided by
the mechanism entanglement. It is extensively used for clarification.

Examples are ceramic filters and sintered filters.

III. Ultra filtration: Ultra filtration is a pressure-driven membrane transport

process that has been applied, on both the laboratory and industrial

52 | P a g e
 scale. Ultra filtration is a separation technique of choice because labile
streams of biopolymers (proteins, nucleic acids & carbohydrates) can be
processed economically, even on a large scale, without the use of high
temperatures, solvents, etc.

24.7.2 Filter Selection:

In choosing the filter, selection depends on several considerations which are

covered by the following queries:

– what is the duty of the filter?

– what is the sizing requirement to carry the process flow rate and contain
the solids removed?

– what filter area (ft2) and cake capacity (ft3) is needed?

– Is there a requirement to prefilter?

– Is the filter for a fine-filtration requirement?

– Is manual or automatic operation preferred?

– Is the process batch or continuous operation?

Manually operated filters include basket filters, plate-and-frame filter presses,

plate filters and some pressure leaf filters.

Pressure-leaf type filters have features to achieve self-cleaning or automatic

cake discharge. These features allow discharge of the filter cake by washing
the cake off the filter medium with internal spray headers or by vibrating the
cake off with a pneumatic vibrator. Sometimes pressure leaf filters are
operated manually with respect to valve operation, but their self- cleaning
features remove them from the manual classification. Both horizontal and
vertical tank designs are available with hydraulically operated quick-opening
closures to speed the opening of the tank for dry cake discharge. Filter media
types used are cloth covers, felt covers and wire mesh.

(i) Basket filters

For coarse filtration, the basket or strainer filter type is selected, and consists
of a pressure vessel type housing with a perforated internal member that
separates the coarse solids from the process liquid. The internal element is
made of perforated metal or is a coarse wire- woven basket. Refer point 24.9
53 | P a g e
for details on basket filters.

(ii) Plate-and-frame filter press

The oldest filter type is the plate-and frame filter press. These filters rely on
the type of media used, which is generally the filter sheet or pad for depth
filtration not requiring a precoat. The chamber between the filter plates
becomes filled by the removed solids until full.

Fig 24.7.1: Plate and Frame filter

24.9.2 Basket type strainers:

These are used for services where heavy solids or filtration is necessary e.g.
fuel oil service, strainers before specialized exchangers like core exchangers.

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 Fig 24.9.3: Simplex basket strainer

A procedure to specify area required of basket strainer is provided below:

24.9.3 Strainer Specification

Liquid Services

For liquid services to core exchangers use permanent basket line strainers
(slant top style). The perforated basket shall be lined with mesh stainless steel
wire liner if there is any potential for the presence of particulates in a fluid
system, otherwise 40 mesh is adequate. Body materials and flange ratings will
depend on the exchanger design conditions. The volume or dimensions of the
basket shall be specified as follows:

Volume = (1) Volume of mill scale formed on the inside wall of the upstream
pipe back to the source vessel or drum.

(2) Volume allowance of mill scale, dirt, and debris expected in the source
vessel.

Use scale thickness of 1/32”.

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 Table 24.9.1: Volume of mill scale (ft3)

This calculated volume shall be specified to be below the path of fluid flow.

Also, note that to obtain proper volume of the basket, the length may become
prohibitive. For these cases, increase the body size leaving the inlet and outlet
flange line sizes to obtain a more desirable basket geometry.

Vapor Services:

Use the identical procedure as for liquids, but, source vessel allowance may be
neglected. (These services are typically from tower or vessel overheads where
debris/scale settles out at the bottom of the vessel.)

24.9.4 Pressure Drop Calculation

As a general thumb rule, an engineer should allow for two extra hard tees for a
‘clean’ strainer when performing preliminary pressure drop calculations. A
more accurate pressure drop estimate should then be obtained through the
specific strainer vendor. This back check needs to be performed to insure that
the ‘hard tee’ assumption for pressure loss is conservative enough. Attached
(Figs 24.9.7 to 24.9.11) are some specific pressure drop curves for reference
use for detailed calculations in case vendor data is unavailable at time of
detailed hydraulic calculation, as well as a pressure drop for screen clogging
curve, Fig 24.9.12.

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CHAPTER 26: TYPES OF PROJECTS
How to Select Project Types / Stages with
Examples for a Process Engineer
26.1 PROJECT STAGES:

A process engineer should be aware of the various stages (table 26.1) that a
project can undergo.

It is not necessary for all projects to pass through each and every of below
mentioned stages.

however, it is important to understand significance of each. It is to be

specifically noted that there is a purpose behind each stage of any project.

Few examples would illustrate this better.

Example (25-1): Example of a new mega greenfield project:

Suppose a major international corporation intends to put up a new mega

greenfield petrochemicals complex catering to various chemicals production.
Such a company will find it very beneficial to go through the various stages as
listed in table 26.1 below, to obtain concrete evidence that the project
envisaged is a winner.

 First, it will proceed with ACCESS stage where it may undergo the study
with its own staff or employ a specialist third party to carry out the
project feasibility and confirmation of alignment with its business
strategy. It will also obtain the full picture of various licensors providing
technologies for each chemical, their pro-cons in technology, as well as
the potential buyer’s database.
 Secondly, once it is satisfied with viability of project, it will go one step
further into SELECT phase (also called Pre-FEED stage), where having
selected the suitable technologies for each chemical, it will most likely,
engage a specialist third party, to refine the engineering to include not
only licensed units but also the offsites and utilities (O&U) definition
which should lead to a rough order of magnitude (ROM) costing of project

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 (+/- 30% costing approximately) as well as the profitability of project and
return on investment. During the ROM costing, budgetary quotes are
obtained for many major equipment and suitable judgmental factors are
taken for many items like cabling, piping, instrumentation, insulation,
overheads based on equipment costs. This stage will facilitate it to plan
the budget / resources it would require to put up such a project, having
in hand most probably the report approved by the board of directors as a
gated exercise.
 Having been satisfied with SELECT phase project report, the company
will proceed to next stage i.e. DEFINE stage (also called FEED).

In DEFINE stage, each unit licensor are engaged to provide their basic
engineering design packages (BEDP) and an engineering company is hired, to
carry out FEED engineering (Front End Engineering Design) of complete
project incorporating information from BEDP of each licensed unit and its own
engineering effort in offsites and utilities (O&U).

List of FEED deliverables is listed in Volume II, chapter 28 for all disciplines
involved in engineering. In FEED, actual quotations are obtained for most
equipment including electrical / instrumentation equipment (like panels),
material take-offs (MTOs) generated for piping, insulation, instrumentation,
cables, civil materials, safety equipment/systems, etc. and quotations
obtained for these. Similarly, quotations are obtained from erection
contractors for all disciplines. Costs are also obtained for site related
infrastructure like temporary DG set, temporary porta cabins at site, labor
camps, etc.

All of these provide the company with detailed engineering documentation

which leads to cost estimate of +/- 10% accuracy, definition of total project
scope as well as schedule of project. Note that although our example is for
greenfield project, in the case of a brownfield project, it also gets clear idea of
demolition scope as well as risk involved in construction of new facilities next
to a running plant (SIMOPS study).

The FEED report is extremely useful to company to line up resources for

project funding. It is also useful for it to create a scope of work (SOW) for next
stage of project which is the implementation stage (EXECUTE stage).

Many a times, in FEED, the company insists on the engineering firm to identify the
LLI’s (long lead items- e.g. incinerator which can have delivery of 12 months),
obtain detailed quotes from vendors and have TBE (technical bid evaluation)
ready for such LLI’s so that at start of EXECUTE phase, order can be placed on
such LLIs to ensure actual project implementation can be completed fast.

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 Sr No. STAGES OF DEFINITION of STAGE
PROJECT
I ASSESS Determine project feasibility and alignment with business strategy

II SELECT Select preferred project option (s) incorporating pre-DEFINE

Engineering
III DEFINE Finalize project scope, cost, and schedule and get project funding

IV EXECUTE Produce an operating asset consistent with scope, cost, and

schedule incorporating EPC and commissioning

V OPERATE Evaluate asset to ensure performance to specification and maximum

return to

stakeholders.

Table 25-1: Overview of Stages of a Project

In EXECUTE phase (also called detail engineering, procurement, construction

and commissioning phase), the actual implementation of the project takes
place. Here, the company has much flexibility on the project contract to be
placed on contractors who will carry out the further project implementation
work. These are defined in point 2. Once it firms up the contract type, it floats
an ITB in the market (invitation to bid), obtains bids from selected bidders on
one of which order is placed for EXECUTE phase. Refer Volume II, Chapter 28
for engineering deliverables as normally prepared by contractors in EXECUTE
phase.

In addition to contractor, the company has also many responsibilities in this

phase namely, providing cash flow for procurement, supervising / reviewing of
contractors work, ensuring schedule is on correct path, tying up with external
utility suppliers (e.g. fuel gas from Saudi Aramco gas line supply if project is
in KSA) as well as tying up with parties who will take away company generated
wastes, interviewing / hiring of operations staff, training to be provided for
technical staff from licensors, etc.

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CHAPTER 29: PROCESS DESIGN
DOCUMENTATION
How to Prepare & Specify Process Design
Documents. Details on Equipment List,
Block Flow Diagram (BFD), Process Flow
Diagram (PFD) and Utility Flow Diagram
(UFD), Process Safe Guarding Flow
Diagram (PSFD)

29.5 TITLE OF DOCUMENT: Equipment List

PURPOSE OF DOCUMENT: Equipment list communicates to rest of
engineering team, all of the equipment and package units involved in the
engineering.

Equipment list is used by other departments for following purpose:

 Based on the equipment list, Planning Department prepares the detailed

schedule / planning using Primavera and it is further used to monitor
the progress.
 Procurement Department generates procurement status and monitors
the progress of procurement on the basis of equipment list.
 Piping, mechanical, civil and electrical engineers also refer to the
equipment list to understand discipline-wise responsibility of each item
and monitor progress of same.

INPUTS REQUIRED (as applicable):

1. Simulation report
2. Block flow diagram
3. Process Flow Diagrams
4. Basis of Design (BOD)

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CONTENTS OF DOCUMENT: It includes all major mechanical items in the
plant. It is prepared unit-wise for each plant which means all equipment in a
particular unit are listed together.

However, it excludes electrical, instrumentation and construction equipment

and all special parts (SPI).

A unique number is given to each and every mechanical item in a process

plant to enable its identification.

Equipment list is one of the most effective tools extensively used and referred
to during basic as well as detailed engineering phase of the project. It is used
for generating field erection data sheets for process equipment.

Equipment list is made and controlled by process engineer and used by other
engineering disciplines also.

Block flow diagrams & Process flow diagrams form an input for generating
equipment list.

In case of package units, all equipment included within the package unit are
numbered and included in equipment list with an indication of requirement of
E-Motor for each item to enable a fairly correct estimation of size of MCC with
respect to number of feeders.

Following are the specific contents of an Equipment List.

Please refer to Vol III Chapter 42 for template of an equipment list.

 Equipment Code : Equipment number is indicated here

 Description: Equipment title or name is indicated here
 P&ID reference number where equipment is shown
 Quantity: Numbers of equipment are indicated. (Column “a” is for
number of operating equipment and Column “b” is for number of
standby equipment.)
 Medium: Fluid handled by equipment is indicated
 Technical Details: Technical data for each equipment is given under this
column

For example; Pumps:

Type: Centrifugal

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F: Flow in m³/h

H: Differential Pressure in mlc

Heat Exchangers:

Type: Shell & Tube

Q: Heat Duty in kcal/h

A: Area in m², Length, and OD

For package units, duty parameters are given. For example; for boilers,
capacity in TPH and pressure in kg/cm²g is given. Technical details of
equipment within package unit are furnished only after order placement.

 Design Pressure
 Design Temperature
 Drive: Requirement of E-Motor, steam turbine, gas turbine or Electrical
Heater
 Material of Construction: Broad material of construction for major parts
of equipment is specified, for example;
 Pumps & Blowers – MOC for Casing & Impeller
 Heat Exchangers – MOC for shell side, MOC for tube side
 Test Pressure and Medium: For hydro test or pneumatic test
 Source of Supply: Whether the equipment is indigenous (I), foreign (F) or
part of package unit (P) is indicated here.
 Group Responsibility: Different equipment is handled by different
disciplines and are responsible for procurement/inquiry. In order to
identify the responsible department, following codes are entered:

e.g. Process, Mechanical, Piping, Civil, Electrical, Client

Any additional information which needs to be known is specified under “Remarks”

e.g. if an existing equipment is to be used, the same is highlighted. Similarly, if
an equipment requires emergency power backup, this is indicated in the
remarks column.

29.6 TITLE OF DOCUMENT: BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM

(BFD)

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PURPOSE OF DOCUMENT: BFD is prepared in initial stage of process
engineering. The purpose of block diagram in basic engineering package is to
show at one place the material balance in kg/h or m³/h of all process streams
entering and leaving each unit in the overall process. This communicates the
overall scope of project to the rest of team.

INPUTS REQUIRED:
For the preparation of block flow diagram, the following documents are
required:

 Understanding of process
 Preliminary overall General Arrangement (GA) drawing

Each unit is shown as one rectangular block and all incoming and outgoing
process streams as lines with arrows. The units are also shown as per the
location as per overall GA drawing.

By the above representation of unit as a block, the total process plant can be
covered under one block diagram. In one block diagram, all plants in a
complex can also be represented.

Similarly, an overall utility block diagram can also be generated, if required,

as per contract; by showing individual utility consumption for each unit.

While selecting a capacity for utility package, block diagrams are generally
prepared along with concept notes.

Refer to sample BFD attached below for an incinerator project.

29.7 TITLE OF DOCUMENT: PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS

(PFD) and UTILITY FLOW DIAGRAM (UFD)

PURPOSE OF DOCUMENT: In a chemical process plant, raw materials go

through a series of unit operations before getting converted into the finished
product. Unit operations could be feed preparation, reaction, separation,
distillation, filtration, crystallization, centrifugation, drying, etc.

To understand these operations easily a Process Flow Diagram (PFD) is

prepared which shows the flow of chemicals/reactants through various
equipment. Thus a Process Flow Diagram (PFD) shows all the important pieces
of equipment with flow lines and control systems in a schematic way, along
with its process description, which helps to understand the process very well.
63 | P a g e
CONTENTS OF DOCUMENTS:

A) Process flow diagram

is a fundamental process drawing which depicts major process related

equipment, machines, and process lines in a simple manner.

Inputs for generating process flow diagram are as follows:

 Design basis
 Simulation Report
 Thermo-physical property data

i) The contents of process flow sheets are mainly as follows:

 All equipment and machines as per simulation report

 Package units as blocks
 Equipment number (matching later with equipment list)
 Main connecting process lines between the equipment are shown.
However, less important lines like minimum flow lines are not shown
 Main control loops with control valves and impulse lines of the
instruments are shown
 Number for major open loops are shown
 Operating pressure of the line is shown
 Operating temperature of the line is shown
 Operating pressure of the equipment is shown inside the equipment
 Process stream numbers are marked
 Incoming lines enter from the left and leave on the right side
 If a process stream is appearing on another sheet also then on the
subsequent sheet the stream number as on the previous stream is given
to identify the stream easily

ii) The minimum information of the process streams is as given below:

 Stream No.
 Composition
 Operating pressure & temperature
 Density
 Volumetric / mass flow rates
 Viscosity
 Utilities like steam, cooling water, pressurized air, etc. are shown by a
line with the short code for medium
64 | P a g e
  The heat balance is given in units as per Design Basis units of
measurement
 The utility consumption is given on each consumer as volume or mass
stream
 Additional temperature and pressure data is given as required
 Pressures is given in gauge pressure
 Flow sheets are organized to show correct relative elevations of
equipment and also in relation to other flow sheets

iii) The PFD and the material balance is the basis for the following
engineering activities:

 Preparation of P&I Diagrams and to size lines

 Preparation of list of consumption figures
 Preparation of list of emissions required by statutory bodies
 Preparation of utility summary and concept notes for utility package
units
 Sizing of static and rotating equipment
 Unit equipment plot plans
 Hazid / Envid safety study

iv) Separate process flow diagrams are generated to take care of:

 Start of run conditions (SOR)

 End of run condition (EOR)
 Runaway condition

v) Also from the same process, different grades of products can be

manufactured, for example, for HDPE plant:

 Extrusion grade HDPE

 Blow moulding grade HDPE

Separate PFD thus is generated for each such grade.

vi) Material balance shown in PFD is corresponding to the contractual

design capacity of the plant.

vii) It is also a practice to give the heat & material balance portion in a
separate A4 size sheet for large unit PFDs.

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B) UTILITY FLOW DIAGRAMS:

Utility flow diagrams are prepared for each utility showing each consumer as a
rectangular block. These are generated mainly for all process plant
consumers.

29.12 TITLE OF DOCUMENT: PROCESS SAFEGUARDING

FLOW DIAGRAMS (PSFD)

PURPOSE OF DOCUMENT: Process Safeguarding Flow Diagrams (PSFD)

provide an overview of the process safeguards applied to a process plant. They
show the location of pressure relieving devices based on design pressures of
the system. They, therefore, serve as a starting point for the development of
P&IDs.

INPUTS REQUIRED:

(i) BFD

(ii) PFD

CONTENTS OF DOCUMENT:

The following should be shown on the PSFDs:

i) Safeguarding elements:

– Ultimate safeguards (these are trip interlocks e.g. High-high, low-low):

– Relief valves will be shown along with relief destination e.g. HP or LP flare.

– Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS), if used as an ultimate safeguard.

– Capacity determining components:

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  Control valves and by-passes will be shown along with action on air
failure (i.e. spring action fail open/close or stay put).
 Notes should be shown as necessary to state which if any of
downstream relief systems are affected by the capacity (i.e. CV) of the
control valve and restriction orifices where applicable.

ii) Mitigating systems:

– All mitigating systems such as ESD valves, ROVs installed for an

emergency (e.g. in pump suction lines), check valves etc.

– Emergency depressuring valves along with relief destination.

– Relevant interfaces with upstream and downstream units

Details of penultimate safeguards (i.e. alarms of high and low) do not need to
be shown on PSFDs.

Process Safeguarding Flow Diagrams (PSFD) should be prepared only for new
process units and repeat modified units where the changes affect the safety
integrity of the system.

PSFDs are based on the initial issue of the relevant PFD. The PSFDs are
intended to assist and guide the development of the P&IDs with regard to
identifying safety protective devices including emergency shutdown valves,
relief valves and depressuring facilities.

PSFDs should be issued before the issue of P&IDs to ensure that the required
information is transposed on to the P&IDs.

Refer sample PSFD shown below.

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Fig 29.4: PSFD of a LPG bullet storage facility

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CHAPTER 30: TECHNICAL BID
VALUATIONS
How to Prepare Technical Bid Evaluation of
Screw Compressor
30.7 Technical Evaluation Guidelines for Screw
Compressors

Standard:
Generally, screw compressors are specified and manufactured as per
manufacturer standard for compressed air service.

Gas screw compressors are manufactured as per API 619 for compressor and
API 614 for oil system.

Following are the evaluation criteria:

1. Vendor should be asked to submit the following:

 Basis for selection of offered model

 Selection chart
 In case of critical service, references of supply for selected model for the
process medium and process operating conditions

In case of oil lubricated screw compressors, the oil content in ppm at

discharge of compressor. Generally, all refrigerated screw compressors are oil
flooded type. Air screw compressors can also be oil lubricated type provided oil
in outlet air is acceptable.

Dry type are also available for process services and for compressed air service.

69 | P a g e
2. Control method of achieving minimum turndown should be provided
by vendor.

3. If vendor is offering compressor with economizer, check the following:

 Duty and area provided for economizer are consistent with respect to
in/out conditions
 Operating conditions with respect to pressures and temperature of the
economizer for shell and tube side
 Ensure that oil removal boot is provided in economizer shell side

4. Consumption figures:

 Refer compressor chart and cross check the power requirement for model
selected.
 Minimum turndown and power consumption at part load conditions to
be checked.

5. Oil Circuit:

Oil circuit for compressor should be checked carefully and following points
must be checked:

 To minimize possibility of cavitation of oil pump, pump should be located

at the lowest elevation of oil circuit. Suction pipe for pump should be
properly sized. Length of suction pipe should be as minimum as possible.
Vertical loop on pump suction line must be avoided, otherwise, oil pump
may cavitate because of separation of dissolved gases from oil at pump
suction.
 Volume of oil separator should be checked and ensure that 70% of the
capacity of oil separator is adequate to receive all oils from crank case
and other parts of oil circuit.
 Duplex type filter with change-over facility equipped with all necessary
instrumentation like differential pressure indicator, is generally
recommended. Downstream of filter upto compressor should be in
stainless steel material.
 Requirement of pre and post lube operation for compressor should be
clarified by vendor. In case when vendor recommends post lube,
immediate restart may become difficult because the compressor gets
flooded with oil and oil separator gets empty.
 Tube bundle of oil cooler must be of stainless steel. This is required to
avoid formation of water oil emulsion when tube fails due to corrosion
70 | P a g e
 and pressure in cooling water is higher than oil pressure.
 Vendor must be asked to provide two oil pumps (1 W + 1 S).

6. Motor Selection:

Vendor shall be asked to indicate power requirement when suction gas density
is maximum.

Selected motor should have minimum 15% margin over gauranteed power
requirement and over power requirement for maximum suction gas density
condition whichever is higher.

7. Review the reference list for quoted model and ensure that said model
has already been installed elsewhere and it is working satisfactorily for
more than two years.

8. From consideration of maintenance and inventory control, single stage

machine is always preferred and more common. If vendor has quoted for
two stage machine with intermediate bearing, then thorough
investigation of the model is necessary including downtime for
maintenance. It has been noticed that time required to dismantle the
machine to replace any parts or to align the rotor for single stage
machine is much less than that for two stage machine.

9. For oil lubricated compressors, oil used for machine should not be
reactive towards gas handled by machine.

10. Instrumentation and Interlocks:

11. Ensure that following minimum interlocks have been considered by

vendor. Compressor should trip under following interlocks:

 Low low suction pressure

 High high discharge pressure
 High high discharge temperature
 Low cooling water flow (for water cooled machines)
 High level of economiser and low & high level of oil separator
 Low lube oil pressure
 High lube oil temperature
 Low lube oil differential pressure

i) All instrumentation and controls other than shut down sensing

71 | P a g e
 devices shall be installed with suitable isolations and controls while
system is in operation.

ii) Necessary instruments to provide alarms before trip should be included

iii) Instrumentation for compressor control (if included in enquiry should be

in vendor scope).

******************************************************* *******************************************

--- END OF SAMPLE ---

******************************************************* *******************************************

72 | P a g e
Index (Full Version)
Vol Chapter Title No. of
No. Pages
I – Preface, Foreword and Overall Table of Contents 6
I 1 Introduction 5
I 2 General 138
I 3 Pumps 181
I 4 Compressors 149
I 5 Fans and Blowers 59
I 6 Heat Exchangers 93
I 7 Pressure vessels, Tanks and Bullets 58
I 8 Fractionators and Absorbers 396
I 9 Separators 92
I 10 Fired Heaters 142
I 11 Incinerators 68
I 12 Agitated Vessels 86
I 13 Safety Relief Systems 255
I 14 Line Sizing, Hydraulics 76
I 15 Vacuum systems 90
I 16 Utilities 469
I 17 Dryers 48
I 18 Motors 16
I 19 Evaporators 62
I 20 Pneumatic Conveying 78
I 21 Crystallisers 32
I 22 Steam and Gas Turbines 84
I 23 Leaching and Extraction 77
I 24 Special Process Items 191
I 25 Additional Process Calculations 50

73 | P a g e
 II 26 Project Types 13
II 27 Engineering Disciplines and Sequence of 60
Engineering
II 28 Overall Engineering Documentation for all 13
Disciplines in a Project
II 29 Process Design Documentation 25
6
II 30 TBE Guidelines 44
II 31 Safety Studies 15
II 32 Automation and Control 13
8
II 33 Material of Construction 90
II 34 Cost, Time & Resource Estimation 10
II 35 Inspection and Testing 11
II 36 Precommissioning, Commissioning and 58
Guarantee Run
II 37 Specialised Studies 55
II 38 Heat Exchanger Optimization 15
6
II 39 Philosophies 28

III 40 Calculation Templates (40

numbers)
III 41 Checklists (25
numbers)
III 42 Datasheets (93
numbers)
III 43 Technical Bid Evaluation Formats (11
numbers)
III 44 Go-By Reference P&IDs (41
numbers)

Handbook Details

No. of Chapters/eBooks 44
No. of Pages 4000
74 | P a g e
Figures 2265
Tables 440
Calculation Templates 40
Datasheets 93
TBE Blank Formats 12
Checklists 25

www.chemicalprocessengineering.com

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