MODULE 2

HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Overview

• This module will focus on three historical periods: Ancient, Middle, and Modern Period

Objectives

1. Explain the importance of studying the history of science and technology; and

2. Explain how the scientific and technological inventions shaped and were shaped by various social context and
how these affect the society and environment.

Historical Antecedents of S&T across Time

Ancient Period

 transportation and navigation,

 communication and record keeping,
 mass production,
 power and energy,
 security and protection,
 health,
 observation, and measurement,
 aesthetics,
 engineering, and architecture
 primary challenge they faced was the conservation of life
 Different illnesses and diseases, both natural and man-made, hampered the full potential of a human being.
 Given this predicament, science and technology played a major role in the discovery of cures, if not the
prevention of illness.
 in order to integrate their needs for better transportation, establishment of structures for protection from
human attacks and natural disasters, and construction of bigger and stronger infrastructure
 the people were not contented on beautifying their infrastructures and surrounding but more on being able to
prolong life with the mass production of food and advancement of medical technology, as well as raising the
quality of life
CIVILIZATIONS:
1. SUMERIAN CIVILIZATIONS
Sumeria is located on the southernmost tip of ancient Mesopotamia and is considered the oldest civilization in
the world. The ancient civilization of the Sumerians were the people of southern “Mesopotamia” whose
civilization flourished between c. 4100-1750 BCE. The Sumerians lived in “Sumer” which was not a political entity
but rather a region of city-states each with its own king. Sumer was in the southern counterpart to the northern
region of “Akkad” whose people gave the Sumer the same meaning “Land of the civilized kings”. The Sumerians
gave them a name too which was “The land of the black-headed people”.

 CUNEIFORM

The first writing system that utilizes word

pictures and triangular symbols which are
carved on clay using wedge instruments and
then left to dry. This allowed the Sumerians
to keep records of things with great
historical value or their everyday life.

URUK CITY
 It is first true city in the world.
 The Sumerians were able to build the city using only mud or clay from the river which they mixed with
reeds, producing sunbaked bricks.
 They used bricks to make houses that protected them from the harsh weather and to build a wall
around the city that prevented wild animals and neighboring raiders from entering.

THE GREAT ZIGGURAT OF UR

 It is called the mountain of God.
 It served as the sacred place of their chief god where only their priest were allowed to enter.

IRRIGATION and DIKES

 Sumerians created dikes and irrigation canals to bring water to farmlands and at the same time control
of flooding of the rivers.
 Through the dikes and canals, the Sumerians were able to enjoy year-long farming and harvesting, which
increased their food production.
SAILBOATS
 These were used to carry large quantities of products and were able to cover large distances.

WHEELS
 The first wheels were not made for transportation but farm work and food processes. Farmers were
able to mill grains with less effort in less time.

THE PLOW
 It is used to dig the ground where seeds would be planted.
 Farmers could cultivate larger parcels of land faster, enabling them to mass produce food without taking
so much effort and time.
ROAD
 It made the flow of traffic become faster and more organized.
 They made the roads with the same technology they used in making the sunbaked bricks that they laid down on
the ground
JEWELRY
 They are the ones who made their own jewelries using gold, silver and gems.
BRONZE TOOLS
 Sumerians tools are made by bronze to make weapons much stronger.

2. BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION
• The Babylonian civilization emerged near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.
• Babylonia was a state in ancient Mesopotamia.
• The city of Babylon, whose ruins are located in present-day Iraq, was founded more than 4,000 years ago.
• Known for their engineering and architecture, one of their major contributions is the Hanging Gardens of
Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, made by King Nebuchadnezzar II for Queen Amytis.

ASTROLOGY AND HOROSCOPY

• In ancient Babylon, it was thought that the celestial bodies had divine powers which directed people’s lives.
• Constellations were used to determine the weather, climate, and the seasons, and to help people decide which
crops should be sown.
• Ancient Babylonian astronomers closely studied the sun and the moon cycles in order to predict this.
• The concept of the horoscope was introduced by the Babylonians as they believed in the divinity of the celestial
bodies.
• They mapped the position of astronomical bodies so that they could foretell their daily lives and those of their
kings.

3. EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
The Egyptian civilization is located in North Africa. It was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean
world. It occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as
Intermediate Period. The ancient Egyptians excelled at the sciences and had knowledge in various fields, from
astronomy to medicine to mathematics. Many of their most famous inventions were based upon the scientific
principles they discovered. They had a variety of medicines and cures for both humans and animals, along with
much knowledge of anatomy. During the Stone Age, early doctors used very primitive forms of herbal medicine.
Math and numbers were used to record business transactions, and the ancient Egyptians even developed
a decimal system. The ancient Egyptians are known for their massive constructions and outstanding
architecture.  
• The ones that are remain marvels of architecture, such as the Great Pyramid of Giza, which is one of the Seven
Wonders of the World.
• The first truly triangular shaped pyramids are counted among the many ancient Egyptian inventions, although it
took them several tries in order to achieve an ideal model.
• The great pyramids that the ancient Egyptians built required some knowledge of mathematics, especially
of geometry.
 Papyrus is the precursor of paper. It is made from the papyrus plant (Cyperus
papyrus) that grew abundantly along Nile River in Egypt. They were able to process
the plants in order to produce thin sheets on which one could write down things.
They are thinner and lighter and less breakable than clay tablets, allowing record -
keeping and communications advantages such as sending letters or correspondences
anywhere in the world and easier safekeeping from raiders who often destroyed
records of the nations they invaded.

INK

• By combining soot with different chemicals to produce inks of different colors.

• It was used to record history, culture, and codified laws.
HIEROGLYPHICS
• It is a system of writing using symbols (logographic system), believed by Egyptians to be provided to them by
gods.
CALENDAR
• The ancient Egyptian calendar was originally invented based on the 12-month lunar cycle.
• The Egyptians devised the solar calendar by recording the yearly reappearance of Sirius (the Dog Star) in the
eastern sky.
COSMETICS
• These were used for both health and aesthetic reasons.
• Egyptians wore Kohl, eye cosmetic created by mixing soot or malachite with mineral galena to cure diseases.
• Egyptians believed that a person wearing make-up was protected from evil and that beauty was a sign of
holiness.
WIGS
• They were worn for health and wellness rather than for aesthetic purposes.
• They were used to protect the shaved heads of the wealthy Egyptians from the harmful rays from the sun.
SIMPLE MACHINES
• The ramp and the lever were a couple of the most famous construction inventions that the ancient Egyptians
developed.
• The principles that guide them are still widely used in construction today.

WATER CLOCK/CLEPSYDRA
• Ancient Egyptians were also one of the first groups of people to divide days into equal parts through the use
of timekeeping devices. 
• In order to tell the time, Egyptians invented two types of clocks, obelisks and water clocks or clepsydra (utilizes
gravity that affects the flow of water from one vessel to the other.
• The amount of water remaining in the device determines how much time has elapsed since it is full.)

SHADOOF
• It is a hand-operated device used for lifting water for the purpose of irrigating land.

4. GREEK CIVILIZATION
Greece is an archipelago in the southern part of Europe. It is known as the birthplace of western philosophy.
The Greeks made major contributions in mathematics like ideas about basic geometry and the concept of
mathematical proof from ancient Greek mathematicians. In science they made some of the first astronomical
models trying to describe the planetary movement- the earth axis, and the heliocentric system- a model that
places the sun at the center of the solar system.
• In our modern society, geometry plays a vital role in the construction process itself.
• It helps us decide what material and design to use.
• Geometry wore in mapping and mapping is an essential element in the profession such as surveying, navigation,
and astronomy.
• Their heliocentric model helps us understand the world outside our planet, furthermore their discoveries many
scientists have discovered more than one galaxy.

ALARM CLOCK
• They made used of water or small stones or sand that dropped into drums which sounded the alarm.
• Plato was believed to have utilized an alarm to signal the start of his lecture.

WATER MILL

• It was commonly used in agricultural processes like milling of grains which was necessary form of food
processing.
• Milling was made possible by the use of watermills, the mass production of rice, cereals, flours became
common.
• They were better than mills powered by farm animals because they required less effort and time to operate
since the farmer did not have time to raise the animals.

ANTIKYTHERA MECHANISM
• Retrieved from Antikythera, Greece.
• It is similar to mantel clock, with a round face and rotating hands.
• The movement of knobs allowed it to display celestial time.
• It was believed that it was used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses.
• It is believed to be the antecedent of the modern clockwork.

5. ROMAN CIVILIZATION
The Roman Empire was perceived to be the strongest political and social entity in the west and was considered
to be the cradle of politics and governance. It was large and other civilizations looked up to it as their model in
terms of legislation and codified laws.

AEOLIPILE is also known as the Hero's engine, named after Hero of

Alexandria who demonstrated it. It is the precursor of the steam engine. It is
steam-powered turbine which spun when the water container it has is
heated.

NEWSPAPER
• First called gazettes.
• They were made before the invention of paper.
• They were engraved in metal or stone tablets and then publicly displayed.

BOUND BOOKS OR CODEX

• According to sources, Julius Cesar started the tradition of stacking up papyrus to form pages of a book.
• Later on, they were able to provide covers to protect the papyrus.
• Earlier covers was made of wax but were later on replaced by animal skin, which made them stronger and long-
lasting.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
• This was considered a continuation of Greek architecture.
• Probably the biggest innovation that Roman architecture brought with it was the widespread use of concrete.
• Roman architects realized that concrete was not only stronger than commonly-used marble, but it could also be
decorated easily and could have various shapes sculpted onto it, as opposed to having to be carved out of it.
• They were able to implement major projects such as large churches (basilicas, aqueducts, cathedrals, coliseums,
amphitheaters etc.)

ROMAN NUMERALS
• Romans devised their own number system specifically to address the need for standard counting method.

SURGICAL TOOLS
• Romans pioneered in precision instruments that gave birth to many modern-day surgical tools.
• They were intrigued to know that such tools could also become helpful to soldiers who have been injured in
battles there and then.
• Roman armies had medics who were in use for any complications in the battlefield.
• Their prowess in the medical field doesn’t just end there, as they had also devised procedures that can
considerably reduce blood loss and even aesthetical administrations.

WAR WEAPONS
• They had weapons like the ballista (catapult) and the scorpion (long range crossbow), which were brilliantly
engineered to bring down the toughest of enemies.
• They re-engineered the ballista and made a cost-effective version of it called the Onager.
• It was cheaper to make but deadly as its predecessor.

6. MAYAN CIVILIZATION
A Mesoamerican civilization and this civilization lasted for about 2 000 years. The Mayan civilization included
southeastern Mexico and northern Central America. This area included the entire Yucatán Peninsula and all of
the territory now incorporated into the modern countries of Guatemala and Belize, as well as the western
portions of Honduras and El Salvador.
• Understanding of astronomy (predicting eclipses, using astronomy in agriculture, calendar systems)
• Engineering and architecture (building of cities, hydraulic systems, religious structures, such as Chichen Itza in
Mexico)
• Agriculture (In the highlands, they terraced the slopes on mountainsides while in the lowlands, they cleared the
jungle for planting)
• Arts (looms for weaving, paints made from mica, Mayan hieroglyphics)
• Mathematics (number system based on the number 20, and concept of zero and positional value)

ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

 AGRICULTURE

ARTS

MATHEMATICS

7. INCA CIVILIZATION
A Mesoamerican civilization, it included modern-day Peru, followed by a large portion of western South
America. The Inca Empire, called Tawantinsuyu by its subjects, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian
America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco. The Inca
civilization arose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century.
• The Inca's greatest technological skill was engineering.
• The best example is their amazing system of roads.
• The Incas built roads across the length of and width of their empire.
• To create routes through steep mountain ranges, they carved staircases and gouged tunnels out of rock.
• stone-paved roads
• stone buildings strong against disasters
• irrigation system
• 12-month calendar for religious and agricultural purposes
• first suspension bridge
• quipu, system of knotted ropes to keep records
• textiles

12-MONTH CALENDAR FOR RELIGIOUS AND AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES

FIRST SUSPENSION BRIDGE

8. AZTEC CIVILIZATION
A Mesoamerican civilization located in central Mexico. The arrival of the Spanish conquistadors brought it to a
sudden end.

MANDATORY EDUCATION
 Aztec boys received an education that ultimately prepared them for battle and service in the Aztec military.
For instance, boys between the ages of ten and twenty were required to attend school. Boys of the lower classes
attended schools called Telpochcalli.

CHOCOLATES

• In Aztec culture, cacao beans were considered more valuable than gold.

• Aztec chocolate, which they called xocolatl, was mostly an upper-class extravagance, although the lower classes
enjoyed it occasionally at weddings or other celebrations.

ANTI-SPASMODIC MEDICATION- PASSION FLOWER

• The Ancient Aztecs practiced advanced medicine, using herbs and flowers to meet the wide range of medical
needs necessary to care for the Aztec citizens.

CHINAMPA
 Sometimes referred to as "floating gardens“. Chinampas are artificial islands that were created by interweaving
reeds with stakes beneath the lake's surface, creating underwater fences

CALENDAR SYSTEM
 Like the Mayan calendar, the Aztec calendar consisted of a ritual cycle of 260 days and a 365-day civil cycle.
 The ritual cycle, or tonalpohualli, contained two smaller cycles, an ordered sequence of 20 named days and a
sequence of days numbered from 1 to 13.)
CANOE
• A dugout canoe was very useful for navigating the canals and lake surrounding Tenochtitlan.
• These canoes were made from hollowed-out logs burned by fire.
• Aztec carpenters also made a flat-bottomed boat similar to a raft, consisting of planks of wood tied together
with tight fibers.

9. CHINESE CIVILIZATION
Considered the oldest civilization in Asia. It was known as the Middle Kingdom and located on the far east of
Asia.

PAPER MONEY
• Paper was invented by the Chinese as well as many interesting uses for paper like paper money and playing
cards.
• The first paper was invented in the 2nd century BC and the manufacture later perfected around 105 AD.
• Paper money was an offshoot of the invention of block printing, this replaced the use of jewels and precious
stones as currency.
PRINTING
• Wood block printing was invented in AD 868 and then moveable type around 200 years later.
• This was actually hundreds of years before the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in Europe.
SILK
• Naturally produced by silk worms.
 • The Chinese were the ones who developed the technology to harvest the silk and process it to produce paper
and clothing.
• Silk was a soft and light material much desired by the wealthy throughout the world.
• It became such a valuable export that the trade route running from Europe to China became known as the Silk
Road.
• The silk trade opened China to the outside world making way for cultural, economic and scientific exchanges
bridging the gap between the western world and the middle kingdom.
WHEEL BARROW
• The wheelbarrow is taken for granted today.
• In the time of the Han Dynasty, the wheelbarrow was an amazing invention that changed the lives of many
farmers.
• It looks simple; one wheel and a piece of iron, but could save farmers more work.
• Han Dynasty farmers could now push their heavy loads in the wheelbarrow instead of having to carry them on
their backs, or in buckets attached to a pole on their shoulders.
• The main purpose of this amazing yet simple invention was to transport farmers' goods from one place to
another easier.
• The harvest of crops potentially could speed up because farmers' could carry more supplies faster and easier
than they used to.

TEA PRODUCTION
• Tea is a beverage produced by pouring hot or boiling water over crushed or shredded dried tea leaves.
• It was believed that the first tea was drunk by a Chinese Emperor.
• Tea production was developed when an unknown Chinese inventor created a machine that was able shred tea
leaves into strips.
COMPASS
• The Chinese invented the magnetic compass to help determine the correct direction.
• They used this in city planning at first, but it became very important to map makers and for the navigation of
ships.
THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA
• The largest and most extensive infrastructure that the nation built.
• It was constructed to keep out foreign invaders and control the borders of China.
• It was made with stone, brick, wood, earth and other materials.
GUN POWDER
• Known as huoyao ("fire potion").
• It was developed originally by Chinese alchemists who aimed to achieve immortality.
• They mixed charcoal, sulfur and potassium nitrate but instead of creating an elixir of life they accidentally
invented a black powder that could actually generate large amounts of heat and gas in an instant.
• Gun powder is widely used to propel bullets from guns and cannons which cause countless deaths.
• Gun powder is also used in fireworks during important celebrations in China.

10. INDIAN CIVILIZATION

Indus civilization, also called Indus valley civilization or Harappan civilization. The earliest known urban culture
of the Indian subcontinent. The nuclear dates of the civilization appear to be about 2500–1700 BCE, though the
southern sites may have lasted later into the 2nd millennium BCE.

METALLURGICAL WORKS especially Iron

 • The history of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began prior to the 3rd millennium BCE and continued well
into the British Raj. 
• Metals and related concepts were mentioned in various early Vedic age texts.
• The Rigveda already uses the Sanskrit term Ayas (आयस) (metal).

MEDICINE – exemplified by AYURVEDA

• Exemplified by Ayurveda, who developed a system of traditional medicine still practiced today, and the text
Susruta Samhita, which described medical procedures
• Ayurveda or Ayurvedic medicine is a system of traditional medicine native to India, which uses a range of
treatments, including panchakarma ('five actions'), yoga, massage, acupuncture and herbal medicine, to
encourage health and wellbeing.
ASTRONOMY
• Theories on the configuration of the universe, spherical Earth, 360-day year with 12 months, and the text
SIddhanta Shiromani, which contained astronomical topics
• Ancient Indian astronomy may be classified into two main categories: (1) the Vedic astronomy and (2) the post
Vedic astronomy. The Vedic astronomy is the astronomy of the Vedic period i.e. the astronomy found in the
Vedic Samhitas and brāhmanas and allied literature.

MOHENJODARO
• The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm), and these are marked out
in decimal subdivisions with incredible accuracy, to within 0.005 inches (0.13 mm).
• Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.
ARYABATHA
• Aryabhata or Aryabhata I was an Indian mathematician and astronomer of the classical age of Indian
mathematics and Indian astronomy.
• He flourished in the Gupta Era and produced works such as the Aryabhatiya and the Arya-siddhanta.
• Aryabhata became famous as a mathematician and astronomer. In his only surviving work, Aryabhatiya, he
covered a wide range of topics, such as extracting square roots, solving quadratic equations, and predicting
eclipses.

BRAHMAGUPTA
• Brahmagupta was an Indian mathematician and astronomer.
• He is the author of two early works on mathematics and astronomy: the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta, a theoretical
treatise, and the Khaṇḍakhādyaka, a more practical text.
• Brahmagupta was the first to give rules to compute with zero. 

MADHAVA
• Iriññāttappiḷḷi Mādhavan Nampūtiri known as Mādhava of Sangamagrāma was an Indian mathematician and
astronomer from the town believed to be present-day Kallettumkara, Aloor Panchayath, Irinjalakuda in Thrissur
District, Kerala, India.
• He is considered the founder of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.
• Madhava made pioneering contributions to the study of infinite series, calculus, trigonometry, geometry, and
algebra.

11. MIDDLE EAST CIVILIZATION

The earliest civilizations in history were established in the region now known as the Middle East around 3500 BC
by the Sumerians, in Mesopotamia (Iraq), widely regarded as the cradle of civilization.  Middle Eastern countries
are predominantly occupied by Muslims. In contrast with the Greeks, they focused on science experiments.
AL-KWARIZMI
• Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, or al-Khwarizmi was a Persian polymath from Khwarazm, who produced
vastly influential works in mathematics, astronomy, and geography.
• Around 820 CE, he was appointed as the astronomer and head of the library of the House of Wisdom in
Baghdad.
• Al-Khwārizmī is famous for his mathematical works, which introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals and algebra to
European mathematicians.
• In fact, the words algorithm and algebra come from his name and the title of one of his works, respectively.
• He is known as the “father of algebra”, a word derived from the title of his book, Kitab al-Jabr.
• His pioneering work offered practical answers for land distribution, rules on inheritance and distributing salaries.

Refinement of the numeral system of Indians and introduction of

decimal point notation

REFINEMENT OF THE NUMERAL SYSTEM OF INDIANS AND INTRODUCTION OF DECIMAL POINT NOTATION
• The Hindu-Arabic or Indo-Arabic numerals were invented by mathematicians in India. 
• Persian and Arabic mathematicians called them "Hindu numerals".
• Later they came to be called "Arabic numerals" in Europe because they were introduced to the West by Arab
merchants.
• According to various sources this number system has its origin in Chinese Shang numerals (1200 BC), which was
also a decimal positional value system of base 10.

FOUNDING OF CHEMISTRY (WHERE SOME CONSIDER JABIR IBN HAYYAN TO BE THE FATHER OF CHEMISTRY)

Founding of chemistry (where some consider Jabir ibn Hayyan to be

the Father of Chemistry)

• Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan Al-Azdi, sometimes called al-Harrani and al-Sufi, is considered the father of Arab
chemistry and one of the founders of modern pharmacy.
• He was known to the Europeans as Geber.
• He was born in the city of Tus in the province of Khorasan in Iran in 721 AD.
• He systematized a “quantitative” analysis of substances and was the inspiration for Geber, a Latin alchemist who
developed an important corpuscular theory of matter.

IBN SINA

Experimental medicine and clinical trials, contagious nature of

infectious disease, and clinical pharmacology (from Ibn Sina)

• Ibn sina recognized the contagious nature of tuberculosis.

• Ibn-Sina introduced very advanced drug designing based on
drug delivery, targeting the organ, deposition in the site of
action, pain control, wound healing, clearance after action,
and supporting the organ.

12. AFRICAN CIVILIZATION

The civilizations usually include Egypt, Carthage, Axum, Numidia, and Nubia, but may also be extended to the
prehistoric Land of Punt and others: Kingdom of Dagbon, the Empire of Ashanti, Kingdom of Kongo, Empire of
Mali, Kingdom of Zimbabwe, Songhai Empire, the Garamantes the Empire of Ghana, Bono state, Harla Kingdom. 
Similar to the emergence of other civilizations, African kingdoms used their natural resources to maximize
commerce and industry, leading to centralized government, social stratification, job specialization and the
creation of notable cities and architectural wonders.

CALENDAR

• The Zulu calendar is the traditional lunar calendar

used by the Zulu people of South Africa.

• Its new year begins at the new moon of

uMandulo(September) in the Gregorian calendar.

• The Zulu calendar is divided into two seasons, the

summer iHlobo and Winter ubuSika.

METALLURGY
 • Some recent studies date the inception of iron
metallurgy in Africa between 3000 and 2500 BCE.

• Evidence exists for earlier iron metallurgy in parts of

Nigeria, Cameroon, and Central Africa, possibly from as
early as around 2,000 BCE.

LEBOMBO BONE

• The Lebombo bone (top) is the oldest known mathematical artifact.

• It is a tally stick with 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a baboon's fibula.
• It was discovered within the Border Cave in the Lebombo Mountains of Eswatini.
• The Lebombo bone (bottom) resembles a calendar stick still used in Namibia.

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