Module 3 CE Orientation2

MODULE 3 FIELDS/ CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING:
Module 3.2
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Objectives:
To understand Geotechnical Engineering as a field under Civil Engineering.

To know the trend of Civil Engineering development.
To familiarize with the current softwares and methodologies used in Geotechnical Engineering
To familiarize with the jobs/careers under Geotechnical Engineering
3.2.1 Geotechnical Engineering as a Discipline
Geotechnical Engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with the analysis, design and construction of foundations, slopes, retaining
structures, embankments, tunnels, levees, wharves, landfills and soil or rock..
Geotechnical Engineering is the discipline within the civil engineering related to the performance of the soil mechanics, including their subsurface
conditions, determination of the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties that will influence the project under consideration, and the
assessment of the risks that may be created by conditions of the site.
3.2.2 Areas/ Subfields of Geotechnical Engineering
SOIL MECHANICS
Soil Mechanics includes the study of soil composition, strength, consolidation, and the use of hydraulic principles to deal with issues concerning
sediments and other deposits.
Soil Mechanics is one of the major sciences for resolving problems related to geology and geophysical engineering.
Soil Composition – Is an important aspect of nutrient management. While soil minerals and organic matter hold and store nutrients, soil water is what
readily provides nutrients for plant uptake. Soil air, too, plays an integral role since many of the microorganisms that live in the soil need air to
undergo the biological processes that release additional nutrients into the soil.
The basic components of soil are minerals, organic matter, water and air. The typical soil consists of approximately 45% mineral, 5% organic matter,
20-30% water, and 20-30% air.
Soil mineral and organic matter hold and store nutrients, soil water is what readily provides nutrients for plant uptake. Soil air, too, plays an integral
role since many of the microorganisms that live in the soil need air to undergo to biological processes that release additional nutrients to the soil.
The composition of the soil can fluctuate on a daily basis, depending on numerous factors such as water supply, cultivation practices, and/or soil
type.
pg. 1
Soil Classification - Deals with the systematic categorization based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use
Engineers, typically Geotechnical Engineers classify the soil according to their Engineering properties as they relate for use of foundation support or
building material.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GRAIN SIZE
- were based on grain size
-the terms used to indicate particle size and not to signify nature soil type in this system are clay, silt, sand and gravel the same system with minor
modification was adopted by ISI for general engineering purpose (ISI 1498-1970) is system divides soil into three major groups, coarse grained, fine
grained and organic soils and other miscellaneous soil materials
TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

-it is the classification of soil exclusively based on particle size and their percentage distribution
-this system specifically names the soil depending on the percentage of sand, silt and clay
-the triangular charts are used to classify soil by this system
AASHTO CLASSFICATION SYSTEM SOIL

- otherwise known as PRA classification system
-developed based on particle size and plasticity characteristics of soil mass
-in this system the soils are divided into seven major groups. Some of the major groups further divided into subgroups.
- soil having fine fractions are further classified based on their group index
-when the group index value is higher, the quantity of the material is poorer
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) the most common Engineer classification system in North American for soils, Has three major
classification group:
(1) Course Grained Soil

(2) Fine Grained Soil
(3) Highly Organic Soil.
-coarse grained soils are those with more than 50% of the material larger than 0.075 mm size. coarse grained soils are further classified into
gravels (g) and sands (s)
pg. 2
-fine grained soils are those for which more than 50% of soil finer than 0.075 mm sieve size. They are divided into 3 sub-divisions as silt (s), clay,
and organic salts and clays based on their plasticity nature. They are added in l, m and h symbol to indicate low plastic, medium plastic and high
plastic respectively
3.2.2 SOIL TEST AND SURVEY
A. TEST FOR PARTICLE SIZE
A.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS
Determines the grain size distribution curve of the soil sample passing them through a stack of sieves
Or decreasing mesh opening sizes and by measuring the weight retained on each sieve generally
Applied to the soil fraction lager than 0.075 mm. there are two different procedures for dry and
Wet sievings. Wet sievings is used when the particle aggregate and form hard lumps.
A.2 HYDROMETER TEST
Defines the grain size distribution curve for soils that are too fine to be tested with sieves sorts soil particles
by size using the physical process of sedimentation. The grain size is calculated from the distance of
sedimentation of soil particles. The percent by weight is determined by measuring the unit of the soil-fluid
suspension. if the soil samples have particle sizes ranging from sand to silt or clay, sieving and hydrometer
analysis are combined. stack of sieves
Hydrometer Casagrande cup
B. TEST TO EVALUATE THE EFFECT MOISTURE
B.1 ATTERBERG TEST
Liquid Limit Test
The liquid limit test, defined in ASTM Standard D4318, determines the water content at which the behavior of a clayey soil changes from plastic to
liquid. However, the transition from plastic to liquid behavior is gradual over a range of water contents, and the shear strength of the soil is not
actually zero at the liquid limit. The precise definition of the liquid limit is based on standard test procedures. Liquid Limit can be determined using
the Casagrande cup method, which is widely used in the United States or with a cone penetrometer, which is more prevalent in Europe.
Plastic Limit
Plastic limit test is a test that involves rolling out a thread of the fine portion of a soil on a flat, non-porous surface. The procedure is defined in ASTM
Standard D4318. If the soil is at a moisture content where its behavior is plastic, this thread will retain its shape down to a very narrow diameter. The
sample can then be remolded and the test repeated. As the moisture content falls due to evaporation, the thread will begin to break apart at larger
diameters. The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content where the thread breaks apart at a diameter of 3.2 mm (about1/8 inch). A soil is
considered non-plastic if a thread cannot be rolled out down to 3.2 mm at moisture possible.
pg. 3
Plastic limit test Shrinkage limit test
Shrinkage Limit Test
Shrinkage limit test is a test that evaluates the water content of a soil where further loss of moisture will not result in an additional volume reduction.
The test to determine the shrinkage limit is ASTM D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the liquid and plastic limits.
C. TEST TO DENSITY OF SOIL
C1. LABORATORY TESTS
C1.1 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST

The soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 944 cm3. The diameter of the mold is 101.6 mm. during the laboratory test, the mold
is attached to a baseplate at the bottom and to an extension to the top. The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then compacted into
three equal layers by a hammer that delivers 25 blows to each layer. the hammer has a mass of 2.5 kg and has a drop of 30.5 mm.
Total compactive energy required for SPT=600 KN
Modified Proctor Test
C1.2 MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST
Same mold 944 cm3, 101.6 mm diameter, hammer mass4.54 kg and drop height 45.7 cm mold is connected with base plate at bottom and extension
at top no. of layers is 5, no. of blows to each layer is 25 compaction energy 2700 KN-m/m2
C1.3 GYRATORY COMPACTION TEST
Designed to compact asphalt specimens. It also handles soils, emulsions, and concrete. It is a customer favorite because it is
user- friendly, reliable, durable and well supported. The g2 compacts material at a constant consolidation pressure, a constant
angle of gyration, and a fixed speed of gyration using an electro- mechanical system.
C2. FIELD TESTS
C2.1 SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

can be used in different type of soils and the results obtained are much more appropriate than the core
cutter method the calculation is lengthy as it involves many steps and you need more area of the reach
to test it also tend to be less accurate than nuclear density gauge
C2.2 CORE CUTTER METHOD

well suited for soft soils like clay soils or other cohesive soils or other cohesive soils that are placed as
fills cannot be used for coarse grained soil as the core cutter would not penetrate through them due to
high resistance at the tip of the instrument.
C2.3 WATER REPLACEMENT METHOD

used for determination of field compaction or field density in large excavation pits for earth embankments,
road fills or structural backfills
pg. 4
C2.3 RUBBER BALLOON METHOD

although it can get large samples, direct readings are obtained but it is little awkward method that is slow and
can be abandoned easily in case of balloon breakage
C2.5 NUCLEAR MOISTURE DENSITY METER
fastest of all methods and is easiest to redo when needed cannot be used if rocks are in the path and it can lead to
ambiguous results if miscalibrated
D. TEST FOR STRENGTH OF SOIL
D.1 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO METHOD
is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of standard plunger under controlled density and
moisture conditions it was developed by the California Division of Highways as a method of classifying
and evaluating soil-subgrade and base course materials for flexible pavements may be conducted in
remolded and undisturbed sample
D.2 HVEEM STABILOMETER METHOD
used to analyze the resistance offered by the asphalt aggregate mix in the form of horizontal pressure
towards the traffic wheel induced loading. It is obtained through imposing the vertical stress sample of
the mix is used to determine the strength of pavement in horizontal direction
D.3 TRI-AXIAL DESIGN METHOD
In a triaxia,l resilient modulus test a repeated axial cyclic stress of fixed magnitude, load duration and cyclic duration is applied to a cylindrical test
specimen. While the specimen is subjected to this dynamic cyclic stress, it is also subjected to a static confining stress provided by a triaxial
pressure chamber.
E. SOIL SURVEY
Soil survey is a systematic study of the soil of an area including classification and mapping of the properties and the distribution of various soil units.
The practical use of soil survey is to enable more numerous, more accurate and more useful predictions to be made for specific purposes than could
have been made otherwise.
The objective of soil survey is to map the distribution of the different soil types, describe these types,
and interpret the maps in a form that is useful for land management and ecosystem studies.
3.2.3 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Foundation Engineering is the engineering field of study devoted to the design of those structures, which support other structures, most typically
buildings, bridges or transportation infrastructure. It is at the periphery of Civil, Structural and Geotechnical Engineering disciplines and has distinct
focus on soil-structure interaction.
pg. 5
A foundation is the lowest part of the building structure. It is also called as ground sill, which transfers loads to the ground.
TYPES OF FOOTING
Shallow Foundations
Several types of shallow foundations are discussed below:
1. Isolated /Spread Footing
This is the most common and simplest type of foundation as this is the most economical type
of foundation. They are generally used for ordinary buildings (Generally up to five stories).
Isolated footing type foundation consists of footing at the base of the column. This type of
foundations is independent footings. Usually, each column has its own footing. The footing
directly transfers the loads from the column to the soil. The footings may be rectangular,
square or circular in shape. The size of the footing can be roughly calculated by dividing the
total load at the column base by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
2. Wall Footing or Strip footing
This type of footing is used to distribute loads of structural load-bearing walls to the ground.
Wall foundation runs along the direction of the wall. The width of the wall foundation is generally
2-3 times of the width of the wall. The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of
the wall. Stone, brick, reinforced concrete etc. is used for the construction of wall foundations.
3. Combined Footing
The combined footing is very similar to the isolated footing. When the columns of the structure are closely
placed, or the bearing capacity of the soil is low and their footing overlap each other, combined footing is
provided.
The foundations which are made common to more than one column are called combined footings. They
may be rectangular, tee-shaped or trapezoidal in shape. The main objective is the uniform distribution
of loads under the entire area of footing. For this is necessary to coincide the center of gravity of the
footing area with the center of gravity of the total loads.
4. Cantilever or Strap Footing
Strap footings are similar to combined footings and reasons for considering or choosing strap footing is similar to
the combined footing.
In strap footing, the footings under the columns are built individually and connected by strap beam. Generally,
when the edge of the footing cannot be extended beyond the property line the exterior footing is connected by
strap beam with interior footing.
5. Raft or Mat Foundation
Raft or Mat foundations are used where other shallow foundation or pile foundation is not suitable. It is
also recommended in situations where the bearing capacity of the soil is poor, the load of the structure
is to be distributed over a large area or structure is constantly subjected to shocks or jerks.
Raft foundation consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam slab placed over the entire area of the
structure. In this type of foundation, the entire basement floor slab acts as the foundation. The total load of the structure is spread evenly over
the entire area of the structure. This is called Raft because in this case, the building seems like a
vessel which floats on a sea of soil.
pg. 6
Deep Foundations
Several Types of Deep Foundations Are Discussed Below:
1. Pile Foundation
Pile foundation is a common type of deep foundation. They are used to reduce cost and when as per soil
condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to soil strata which are beyond the reach of
shallow foundations.
Pile is a slender member with a small cross-sectional area compared to its length. It is used to transmit
foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock strata when the bearing capacity of soil near the surface is
relatively low. Pile transmits load either by skin friction or bearing. Piles are also used for resist structures
against uplift and provide structures stability against lateral and overturning forces.
Pile foundations can again be classified based on its material and its mechanism of load transfer or
function. Several types of pile foundations are shown in the following chart.
2. Pier Foundation
Pier is an underground structure that transmits heavier load which cannot be transmitted by shallow
foundations. It is usually shallower than pile foundations
Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural member which transfer heavy load from superstructure to the soil
by end bearing. Unlike pile, it can only transfer load by bearing and by not skin friction.
3. Caisson Foundation
Caisson foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier, construction
of dam etc. It is generally used in structures which require foundation beneath a river
or similar water bodies. Reason for choosing caisson foundation is that it can be floated
to the desired location and then sunk into place.
Caisson foundation is a ready-made hollow cylinder depressed into the soil up to the
desired level and then filled with concrete which ultimately converts to a foundation.
It is mostly used as bridge piers. Caissons are sensitive to construction procedures
and lack construction expertise.
3.2.4 Retaining Wall
RETAINING WALL
Retaining wall could be a structure used for maintaining the bottom surfaces at very different elevations on either aspect of it. It provides lateral
support to vertical slopes of soil. They keep soil that might otherwise collapse into an additional form. The preserved soil is brought up as backfill. It
pg. 7
has to be designed to carry the soil back, otherwise, it will tip over or "overturn”. There are many varieties of materials, which will be wont to produce
holding walls like concrete blocks, poured concrete, treated timbers, rocks, or boulders. Some are straightforward to use, others have a shorter
generation, and however, all will retain soil.
GRAVITY RETAINING WALLS
Depends on its self- weight only to resist lateral earth pressure. massive because it requires significant
gravity load to encounter act soil pressure sliding, overturning and bearing forces shall be taken into
consideration while this type of retaining wall structure is designed that it can be constructed from
different materials such as concrete, stone, masonry units.
TYPES OF GRAVITY RETAINING WALS
1. CRIB RETAINING WALL
are constructed of interlocking individual boxes made from timber or pre-cast concrete then the
boxes are filled with crushed stone or granular materials to create a free draining structure suited
to support planter areas, but it is not recommended for support of slopes or structures
2. GABION RETAINING WALL
are multi-celled, rectangular wire mesh boxes, which are filled with rocks or other suitable
materials employed for construction or erosion control structures used to stabilize steep
slopes
3. CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL
Composed of stem and base slab constructed from reinforced concrete, precast concrete or most
common prestressed concrete type. Used as retaining wall either constructed on site or prefabricated
offsite requires smaller quantity of concrete compared with gravity wall. Its design and construction
shall be executed carefully similar to gravity wall, sliding, overturning and bearing pressure shall
be taken into consideration during its design
4. COUNTER-FORT/BUTTRESSED RETAINING WALL
it is a cantilever retaining wall but strengthened with counter forts monolithic with the back of the wall slab and
base slab counter fort spacing is equal or slightly larger than half of the counter fort height counter-fort wall
height ranges from 8-12 mm
5. ANCHORED RETAINING WALL
this type of retaining wall is employed when the space is limited or thin retaining wall is required suitable for
loose soil over rocks considerably high retaining wall can be constructed using this type of retaining
wall structure system deep cable rods or wires are driven sideways into the earth, then the ends are filled
pg. 8
with concrete to provide anchor. Anchors act against overturning and sliding pressure
6. PILED RETAINING WALL

are constructed by driving reinforced concrete piles adjacent to each other piles are forced into a depth
that is sufficient to counter the force which tries to push over the wall employed in both temporary and
permanent works economical until the height of 6 meters
7. MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH (MSE) RETAINING WALL

among the most economical and most commonly constructed retaining walls
is supported by selected fills (granular) and held together by reinforcements,
which can be either metallic strips or plastic meshes types include panel,
concrete block and temporary earth retaining walls.
8. HYBRID SYSTEMS
Retaining walls that use both mass and reinforcement for stability
3.2.5 Earthworks
Exponent’s engineering geologists and geotechnical engineers are specialists in

characterizing subsurface conditions, determining the history of site grading and
their effects on stability, and evaluating the performance of cut or fill slopes and
compacted fill through monitoring and computer analysis.
Infrastructure is a vital component of our modern society. The reliability of our

infrastructure is based, in part, on the stability of the ground on which it is founded
and the earth with which it is built. Virtually all new infrastructure projects and land
development involve modification of the ground surface topography by grading—
the excavation, hauling, and placement of rock or soil material—to create building
pads, roadway subgrade, and foundations. Grading and earthwork are typically the
least expensive and most reliable means of improving relatively shallow weak or
compressible soil conditions by removal and replacement of the suspect material.
Examples include the removal of landslide shear zones and replacement with
compacted earth material (called a “shear key”) or when volumes of collapsible soil
are removed and compacted as engineered fill.
3.2.6 Ground Improvement
Ground improvement involves the modification of soil properties or constructing

inclusions within the soil to achieve a required performance Hayward Baker’s
experience providing optimal ground improvement solutions spans four decades
and thousands of projects.
The mechanism of achieving ground improvement varies by technique and soil conditions. Densification by means of vibration or displacement is an
effective means of improving granular soils. Reinforcement involves constructing or inserting stiff elements within a soil mass to create an improved
composite material. Soil can be improved by adding cementations materials by either permeation in granular soils or mixing in all soil types. The
insertion of vertical drains decreases the amount of time it takes soils to settle and strengthen when subjected to a surcharge load.
3.2.7 Slope Stabilization
Slope stability is the potential of soil covered slopes to withstand and undergo movement
pg. 9
. Stability is determined by the balance of shear stress and shear strength. A previously
stable slope may be initially affected by preparatory factors, making the slope conditionally
unstable. Triggering factors of a slope failure can be climatic events can then make a
slope actively unstable, leading to mass movements. Mass movements can be caused
by increase in shear stress, such as loading, lateral pressure, and transient forces.
Alternatively, shear strength may be decreased by weathering, changes in pore water
pressure, and organic material.
Slope stabilization is important in the design of such excavations as open pits, quarries, and foundations, rock-fill dams, slopes of other types of
embankments, and reservoirs, where movement may have serious consequences. Investigations into slope stability include measurements of shape,
geologic structures, and soil strengths. Stabilization can be achieved through slope reinforcement by constructing structural elements such as jet
grout or soil mix columns, conventional piles, drilled shafts, or combinations of these. Raito has extensive slope stabilization experience and can
bring that knowledge to bear on your project
3.2.8 Offshore Geotechnical Engineering
Offshore (or marine) geotechnical engineering is concerned with foundation design

for human-made structures in the sea, away from the coastline (in opposition to
onshore or nearshore). Oil platforms, artificial islands and submarine pipelines are
examples of such structures. There are a number of significant differences between
onshore and offshore geotechnical engineering. Notably, ground improvement
(on the seabed) and site investigation are more expensive, the offshore structures are
exposed to a wider range of geohazards, and the environmental and financial consequences are higher in case of failure. Offshore structures are
exposed to various environmental loads, notably wind, waves and currents. These phenomena may affect the integrity or the serviceability of the
structure and its foundation during its operational lifespan – they need to be taken into account in offshore design.
In subsea geotechnical engineering, seabed materials are considered a two-phase material composed of 1) rock or mineral particles and 2) water.
Structures may be fixed in place in the seabed— as is the case for piers, jettys and fixed-bottom wind turbines—or maybe a floating structure that
remains roughly fixed relative to its geotechnical anchor point. Undersea mooring of human-engineered floating structures include a large number
of offshore oil and gas platforms and, since 2008, a few floating wind turbines. Two common types of engineered design for anchoring floating
structures include tension-leg and catenary loose mooring systems. "Tension leg mooring systems have vertical tethers under tension
providing large restoring moments in pitch and roll. Catenary mooring systems provide station keeping for an offshore structure yet provide little
stiffness at low tensions."
3.2.9 SOFTWARES USED IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
BEARING CAPACITY AND SETTLEMENTS – LOADCAPS
software for the computation of bearing capacity on loose or rocky soils, computation of bearing capacity factors, analysis of soil reinforced with
geogrids, calculations of: increase bearing capacity, deformation in the reinforcements, tensile force in the reinforcement for membrane effect
DEEPFOUND-SETTLEMENTS OF MAT FOUNDATIONS ON PILE
the settlements of mat foundations on piles are not easy to calculate. The software DeepFound offers the possibility to calculate the settlements of
mat foundations on piles using the computation method PDR proposed by Poulus (2000) deriving from the combination of the methods
Poulus and Davis (1980) and the method Randolph (1994).
EARTH SMALL DAMS – ESD
software for the check of earth small dams under both static and seismic conditions check under: full tank, empty tank, quickly, emptied
tank. hydraulic piping check determination of the seepage rate through the world, seepage length, saturation line trend
ADONIS
is an easy-to-use yet powerful geotechnical- engineering tool for the linear and nonlinear analysis of geotechnical problems
it features a full graphical user interface (GUI) for pre-processing or post-processing and uses fully automatic mesh generator to create complex
finite element meshes. The graphical interface enables a quick generation of complex models, and the enhanced output facilities provide a detailed
presentation of computational results.
pg. 10
the ADONIS post-processor has a relatively advanced data visualization and interpretation package. Global output visualization tools (contour plots
and deformation plots) together with mouse navigations allow user to quickly home in on regions of most interest. Modeling result can be visualized
using the graphing tools provided..
GEOTECHNICAL AND F.E.M. ANALYSIS SYSTEM – GFAS
G.F.A.S. (geotechnical and F.E.M. analysis system) software for mechanical analysis of soil using finite elements method. The traditional methods of
analysis based on the concept of limit equilibrium (LEM) do not allow the determination of stresses and deformations in the analyzed volumes. These
limitations have led to the need to integrate the conventional analysis with analysis based on numerical models. These methods use the numerical
evaluation of the problem and do not require simplifications to the calculations
.
3.2.10 How to become a Geotechnical Engineer
Geotechnical engineers are geological experts, who work with other professionals to analyze, assess, and ensure geographical stability and safety of
man-made structures. Their objective is to survey the foundation of a construction project—rocks, soil, and other natural formations—and
determine its integrity. They may be a part of designing support structures and making recommendations in regards to any possible problems. Not
only are they responsible for guaranteeing a sound foundation, but they must also factor in the reliability of a structure during any number of natural
disasters, designing safety strategies to combat any threats
.
Geotechnical engineers are not only experts in geological formations and substances, but they are professionals who use engineering principles
to perform many duties. They are responsible for onsite examinations, which includes the supervision of all sample collection, analysis, and data
mining. Geotechnical engineers must determine the physical safety, as well as the impact of chemical compositions in regards to any natural and
construction resources. They are responsible for devising a plan to remove and dispose of any hazardous materials. Due to the safety risks involved
with all construction, geotechnical engineers are charged with a tremendous responsibility; therefore, they should possess the following attributes
and skills:
Critical thinking
Problem solving skills
Sound judgment
Excellent communication
Practical and technical traits
Organization
Technologically savvy (CAD software)
Aptitude for engineering principles
Knowledgeable of geological compositions and formations
Knowledgeable of construction techniques and materials
Environmental concern and passion
To become a geotechnical engineer, individuals should possess,

at minimum, a bachelor’s degree in a related field.
Senior positions require advanced degrees and licensure, while
teaching positions at universities require a Ph.D.
Step 1: Obtain a bachelor’s degree. Aspiring geotechnical engineers will need to earn a degree from an accredited program.
Step 2: Obtain a Professional license.
Step 3: Obtain a graduate degree (optional for advancement). Nearly one quarter of all civil engineers has a master’s degree. If an individual wishes
to work as a project manager or supervisor, it is most likely necessary to have an advanced degree. Many senior positions
require at least a master’s degree in a relevant field.
pg. 11
Chapter 3.4
WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING
Objectives:
To understand Water Resources Engineering as a field under Civil Engineering.

To familiarize with the areas under Water Resources Engineering
3.4.1 Water Resources Engineering as a Discipline
Water resources engineering generally deals with the provision of water for human use, and the development of techniques for the prevention of
destruction from floods. Water resources engineering also includes the planning and management of facilities that are constructed for these tasks
like making canals for irrigation and sewers for drainage and to avoid water logging, and all other issues related with the usage and control of water.
To meet the water requirements of society and the environment, initially an estimate is carried out regarding the water available, the demand now
and projected demand when the work will complete and future considerations, and then the requisite infrastructure is designed, including the water
treatment plants and the pipes network, for the conveyance of water to the taps and waste water from the toilets to the treatment units.
3.4.2 Water Resources
Water resources are origin of water that are essentially required by humans, and water is basically used for agriculture, industry, domestic purposes,
and environmental events. Water on the earth is mostly salt water with only 3% as fresh water.
The majority of the fresh water is frozen in glaciers and the polar ice caps, and the remainder is found as ground water, with only a fraction available
above the ground. Although fresh water is considered to be available as a renewable resource, the supply of pure fresh water is gradually
decreasing in the world. The rate of increase in world population exceeds the rate at which the water supply is increasing so that there is an acute
shortage of water in many parts of the world. During the twentieth century, more than half of all global wetlands were lost.
3.4.3 Areas of Water Resources Engineering
1 Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and
plasmas) and the forces on them. It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical,
civil, chemical and biomedical engineering, geophysics, oceanography, meteorology, astrophysics, and biology
.
Fluid Mechanics can also be defined as the science which deals with the study of behavior of fluids either at rest or in motion. This article needs
additional citations form verification. It can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces
pg. 12
on fluid motion. It is a branch of continuum mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the information that it is made out of atoms; that
is, it models matter from a macroscopic viewpoint rather than from microscopic
Fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research, typically mathematically complex. Many problems are partly or wholly
unsolved, and are best addressed by numerical methods, typically using computers. A modern discipline, called computational fluid dynamics (CFD),
is devoted to this approach. Particle image velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and analyzing fluid flow, also takes advantage of the
highly visual nature of fluid.
2. Hydraulics
Hydraulics is the study of fluids whether in motion or at rest. Hydrodynamics is the study of fluids in motion, and hydrostatics considers the properties
of fluids in static equilibrium (motionless). Concepts from these fields will be used as necessary to explain the operation of hydraulic devices. A water
turbine or wheel operates with a large change in the kinetic energy of water; they are hydrodynamic devices. Specifically, the use of hydraulics (or
pressure hydraulics) for power transmission will be considered here. Power transmission is the result of the force of a confined liquid. The confined
liquid merely transmits the force generated by the power supply; the flow contributes to the other component of work, i.e., displacement. The amount
of work accomplished depends on the overall force and the overall distance to which it is applied. The power supply may be an electric motor,
gasoline engine, or hand power. Although the liquid must flow to cause motion, its velocity is usually sufficiently low so as to have only a small kinetic
energy component relative to the overall work accomplished (making the hydrodynamic component a trivial consideration). Some common systems
that use hydraulics are hand operated hydraulic jacks and presses, power steering and brakes on many vehicles, backhoes, and hitch controls of
agricultural tractors.
Hydraulic systems offer many advantages, including a high level of flexibility due to their
compact size per given level of power, the use of small forces to control large forces,
their relatively simple and economical design and operation, and self-lubricating
components. Energy is easily transferred by fluid under pressure instead of
cumbersome systems of gears and chains or pulleys and belts. Vibration is usually
minimal in hydraulic systems. Safe operation of hydraulic systems is important as the
high pressure involved is potentially dangerous. A failure of the system such as the
accidental release of the system's oil may lead to catastrophe, such as when loaded
booms or weights fall suddenly.
3. Hydrology
Hydrology is the study of water. Hydrologists examine the physical processes involved in the global water cycle, which spans most disciplines in
Earth and environmental sciences. The hydrological community includes physical scientists, engineers, and water resource managers, and in
common practice it is distinct from the oceanography and atmospheric science communities, because hydrology concentrates on surface water and
groundwater in terrestrial environments. The Earth Systems and Environmental Science module adopts this convention, and this article provides an
overview of the core areas of hydrology: the global water cycle, lakes, rivers, wetlands, groundwater, the cryosphere, water resources, aquatic
biology, and water chemistry.
Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water
resources and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is called a "hydrologic engineer", working within the fields of civil
pg. 13
and environmental engineering, earth or environmental science and physical geography. Using various analytical methods and scientific techniques,
they collect and analyze data to help solve water related problems such as environmental preservation, natural disasters, and water management.
Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology, groundwater hydrology (hydrogeology), and marine hydrology. Domains of hydrology include
hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, drainage-basin management and water quality, where water plays the central role.
4. Water Engineering
Water engineering is about how water interacts with all aspects of the built and natural environments.
Water engineering looks at the way that natural systems such as rivers, estuaries and the coasts
behave, as well as designing infrastructure to store and direct water.
5. River Engineering
River engineering is a branch of civil engineering that involves the control and utilization of rivers for
the benefit of human kind. Its scope includes river training, channel design, flood control, water supply,
navigation improvement,
River engineering is also necessary to provide protection against floods and other river disaster. The emphasis is often on river responses, long-term
and short-term, to changes in nature, and stabilization and utilization, such as damming, channelization, diversion, bridge hydraulic structure
design, hazard mitigation, and environmental enhancement, construction, and sand or gravel mining. Evaluation of river responses is essential at
the conceptual, planning, and design phases of a project and requires the use of fundamental principles of river and sedimentation engineering.
6 Water Resource Management
pg. 14
Water resource management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and managing the optimum
use of water resources. It is a sub-set of water cycle management. The field of water resources
management will have to continue to adapt to the current and future issues facing the allocation of water.
With the growing uncertainties of global climate change and the long term impacts of management actions,
the decision-making will be even more difficult. It is likely that ongoing climate change will lead to situations
that have not been encountered. As a result, alternative management strategies are sought for in order to
avoid setbacks in the allocation of water resources.
Ideally, water resource management planning has regard to all the competing demands for water and
seeks to allocate water on an equitable basis to satisfy all uses and demands. As with other resource
management, this is rarely possible in practice. One of the biggest concerns for our water based resources
in the future is the sustainability of the current and even future water resource allocation. As water
becomes scarcer, the importance of how it is managed grows vastly. Finding a balance between what is
needed by humans and what is needed in the environment is an important step in the sustainability of
water resources. Attempts to create sustainable freshwater systems have been seen on a national level in
countries such as Australia, and such commitment to the environment could set a model for the rest of the
world.
3.4.4 Largest Dams in the World
GARDINER DAM
Gardiner Dam is the largest earth filled dam in Canada and one of the largest embankment dams
in the world. The dam is located south of Saskatoon on the South Saskatchewan River. Gardiner
Dam was completed in 1967 and created Lake Diefenbaker, the dam’s reservoir. Lake
Diefenbaker has a capacity of 9.4 cubic kilometers (7,620,700 acre-feet).
The Gardiner Dam’s main purpose is to efficiently utilize the waters of the South
Saskatchewan River for irrigation, recreation, urban water supply, and electrical power.
Gardiner Dam now provides irrigation to about 100,000 acres (40,468.564 hectares) of land,
which allowed new crops to be grown in the region, including pinto beans, peas, and fava
beans.
Gardiner Dam was named for James G. Gardiner, the former premier of Saskatchewan and
Lake Diefenbaker was named after former Canadian Prime Minister John G. Diefenbaker,
who initiated the plans for the dam.
NUREK DAM
Although the Nurek Dam isn’t quite as large as the other dams on this list it is the tallest dam in
the world with a height of 300 meters (980 feet). Nurek Dam is located across the Vakhsh
River, which is the largest river in Tajikstan.
Nurek Dam is one of five hydroelectric dams along the Vakhsh River. Of the five hydroelectric
dams, Nurek Dam provides the most electricity, about 3,000 MW – this accounts for about 75%
of Tajikstan’s electricity needs.The Nurek Dam is used to irrigate1,600,000 acres (650,000
hectares) of farmland in
Tajikstan.
TARBELA DAM
pg. 15
Tarbela Dam, which is located in Pakistan, is the largest earth filled dam in the world. The dam
created the Tarbela Reservoir, which currently has a capacity of 14.3 cubic kilometers
(11,600,000 acre- feet). The Tarbela Dam was built over the Indus River.
Before the dam was built in the late 1960s through the late 1970s, the flow of the Indus River
was unpredictable. This caused the agricultural yield in Pakistan to be uneven, especially
during the
country’s main growing season.
The Tarbela Dam is currently undergoing its fifth extension, which will increase the dam’s
electricity generation capacity by 1,410 MW.
FORT PECK
Fort Peck Dam is another large dam located along the Missouri River in the United States. Fort
Peck Dam has been in operation since 1940 and produces an annual average 2.6 million
mega-watt hours of electricity. Fort Peck Lake, the reservoir created by the dam, is the fifth
largest man-made lake in the United States.
Fort Peck Dam provides much needed water to Montana, which experienced severe droughts
before the dam was completed in 1940. Fort Peck Dam also made it easier to navigate the
Missouri River and the dam was actually the first dam built in the upper Missouri River Basin.
Fort Peck Dam was commissioned by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great
Depression. The construction of Fort Peck Dam provided jobs to over 50,000 people.
OAHE DAM
Oahe Dam was built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers throughout the late 1940s to late
1950s. The Oahe Dam forms Lake Oahe, which is the fourth largest reservoir in the United
States. Lake Oahe hasa capacity of 29 cubic kilometers (23,137,000 acre- feet).
The Oahe Dam generates most of the electricity for the north-central United States. The dam and
lake were named after the Sioux Indian word Oahe, which
means “a foundation” or “place to stand on.” Oahe Dam provides enough electricity to power over
259,000 homes annually.
GARRISON DAM
Garrison Dam is another large dam in the United States and is located on the Missouri River. The
reservoir formed by Garrison Dam is called Lake Sakakawea, which has a volume of 29 cubic
kilometers (23,821,000 acre-ft). Lake Sakawea is the third largest reservoir in the United States.
Garrison Dam is the fifth largest earthen dam in the world and has a height of 64 meters (210 feet)
and a length of 3,444 meters (11,300 feet).
Although the Garrison Dam is an important source of power and irrigation for the surrounding
areas, the building of the dam displaced Native Americans and flooded their farmlands.
THREE GORGES DAM
Overall, the Three Gorges Dam in China is considered the largest dam in the world (but we arranged this
list by reservoir volume). Three Gorges Dam is the world’s largest hydroelectric power plant and has a
installed capacity of 22,500 MW. While the Three Gorges Dam may be impressive in both size and power
output, it is considered one of the world’s biggest environmental disasters. The building of the Three
Gorges Dam has displaced more than 1.2 million people; caused flooding in nearby towns and cities; has
polluted the nearby water and land, threatening the local plants and animals; and has increased the
seismic activity in the area.
Three Gorges Dam has shifted around so much water that it has slowed down the Earth’s rotation.
ASWAN HIGH DAM
pg. 16
The Aswan High Dam is located near Aswan, Egypt close to the border of Sudan. The Aswan High Dam
lies across the Nile River and its reservoir is called Lake Nasser, which is one of the biggest man-made
lakes in the world. Lake Nasser has a capacity of 132 km³ (107,000,000 acre-ft) and the water is used to
irrigate the surrounding land in both Egypt and Sudan.
Aswan High Dam was completed in 1970 and since then, the dam has helped to control the annual
flooding of the Nile River. Additionally, the Aswan High Dam provides about half of Egypt’s power supply.
When the Aswan High Dam was built, the ancient temple complex of Abu Simbel, built in the 13th
century BCE, had to be relocated.
GURI DAM
Guri Dam in Bolívar, Venezuela is the largest dam in the world based on reservoir volume. The dam’s
reservoir can hold up to 135 cubic kilometers (32.39 cu mi) of water. Guri Dam is also one of the
world’s tallest dams with a height of 162 m (531 ft).
In addition to holding back the Caroni River, the Guri Dam is also a hydroelectric power plant and the
second largest in the world based on installed capacity, which is 10,235 MW. The Guri Dam provides
about 73% of Venezuela’s energy needs Guri Dam provides about 12,900GW/h of energy to the entire
country of Venezuela.
KARIBA DAM
Kariba Dam is the world’s biggest dam based on water storage capacity. Located at the former Kariwa
(Kariba) Gorge, the dam creates Lake Kariba, which has a storage capacity of 185 billion cubic metres
of water and a surface area of 5,580km2. The Lake Kariba covers a length of 280km and is 32km wide
at its widest section. curvature The double concrete arch dam is owned by Zambezi River Authority
and was constructed between 1955 and 1959 byImpresit of Italy.
The dam is designed to avert a one in 10,000-year flood event. The dam is 128m high, 617m in length,
and was constructed using 1.036 million cubic meters of concrete. It comprises of two power stations
generating a combined 1,470MW of energy, which constitutes approximately 60% of the hydropower
outputs for Zambia and Zimbabwe.
3.4.5 Largest Dams in the Philippines
SAN ROQUE DAM
LOCATION: San Manuel and San Nicolas Pangasinan

RESERVOIR VOLUME: 835,000,000 m3
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE HEIGHT: 200 m (660 ft)
LENGTH: 1,130 m (3,710 ft)
TYPE OF DAM: Embankment
DESCRIPTION:
It is the largest dam in the Philippines and sixteenth largest in the world. The dam
impounds a reservoir with a surface area of about 12.8 square kilometers extending
north into the municipality of Itogon, Benguet.
MAGAT DAM
pg. 17
LOCATION: Alfonso Lista, Ifugao/ Ramon, Isabela
STRUCTURE HEIGHT: 114 metres (374 ft)
STRUCTURE LENGTH: 4,160 metres (13,650 ft)
TYPE OF DAM: Large Rock Fill Dam
DESCRIPTION:
It was Southeast Asia's first large multipurpose dam. The dam is part of the Magat River
Multipurpose Project (MRMP) which was financed by the World Bank and whose purpose is
to improve on the existing Magat River Irrigation System (MARIS) and to triple the
production of rice in the Cagayan River basin.
AMBUKLAO DAM
LOCATION: Brgy. Ambuclao, Bokod, Benguet
STRUCTURE HEIGHT: 129 m (423 ft) STRUCTURE LENGTH: 452 m (1,483 ft)
TYPE OF DAM: Earth-fill Embankment
DESCRIPTION:
The Ambuklao Hydroelectric Power Plant is one of the oldest power plants in the country
and was among the first large hydroelectric power plants constructed in the Philippines
LA MESA DAM
. LOCATION: Quezon City, Philippines
STRUCTURE HEIGHT: 24 meters (79 ft)
TYPE OF DAM: Earth Dam
DESCRIPTION:
The La Mesa Dam was constructed in 1929 during the United States administration of the
Philippines. The La Mesa dam later became part of a larger dam system with the opening of the
Ipo Dam in Norzagaray, Bulacan in 1936, the Angat Dam in the same locale in 1967. The three
dams
formed part of the Angat-Ipo-La Mesa water system.
PANTABANGAN DAM
pg. 18
LOCATION: Pantabangan, Nueva Ecija
STRUCTURE HEIGHT: 107 m (351 ft)
STRUCTURE LENGTH: 1,615 m (5,299 ft)
TYPE OF DAM: Earth-fill Embankment
DESCRIPTION:
The multi-purpose dam provides water for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation while
its reservoir, Pantabangan Lake, affords flood control. The reservoir is considered one of the
largest in Southeast Asia and also one of the cleanest in the Philippines
3.4.6 How to Become a Water Resources Engineer?
The following are guide on how to become a water resources engineer.
1. Earn a Bachelor’s Degree in engineering (four years)
2. Earn a Master’s Degree in water systems engineering (two years
3. Establish state licensure in environmental engineering (timeline varies)
4. Gain practical experience in the field (one to four years)
5. Become a Professional in water resources and environmental engineering (at least four years)
6. Consider further board and professional certification (at least eight years)
Chapter 3.5
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Objectives:
To understand Transportation Engineering as a field under Civil Engineering.
To familiarize with the current softwares and methodologies used in Transportation Engineering
To familiarize with the jobs/ careers underTransportation Engineering
3.5.1 Transportation Engineering as a Discipline

pg. 19
Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that is involved in the planning, design, operation and maintenance of safe
and efficient transportation systems.
There are a number of attributes of transportation engineering that affect the types of statistical theory that are used in the profession. One important
aspect of transportation engineering is that the transportationengineer is not only interested in the infrastructure (e.g., bridges, rails, etc.) and the
individual units (cars, trucks, railcars) that use the infrastructure, but also the user. Often it is necessary to understand the interaction of all three of
these entities— infrastructure, individual units, and user—to understand the system as a whole. Typically the infrastructure and units are considered
the supply side of the equation, while the users are identified with demand.
These systems include roadways, railways, waterways, and intermodal operations.
Before any planning occurs an engineer must take what is known as an inventory of the area or, if it is appropriate, the previous system in place.
This inventory or database must include information on population, land use, economic activity, transportation facilities and services, travel patterns
and volumes, laws and ordinances, regional financial resources, and community values and expectations. These inventories help the engineer
create business models to complete accurate forecasts of the future conditions of the system.
3.5.2 Branches of Transportation Engineering
1 Highway Engineering
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING is a specialized field within the discipline of Transportation Engineering.

Highways are a major feature of any industrialized country and modern economies depend on them.
Highway Engineering considers all aspects related to the design of the roads themselves, as well as
how pedestrians are managed. Highway Engineers study the traffic volumes and patterns to determine
the best strategies to minimize traffic, prevent collisions and also limit damage to the road structures
caused by the passage of vehicles. Highway Engineers also design highway systems with the aim of
optimizing traffic flow and safety for all vehicles that travel through them.
2 Railroad Engineering
RAILROAD ENGINEERING is a multi-faceted engineering discipline dealing with the design,

construction and operation of all types of rail transport systems. Rail transport or train transport is a
means of transferring passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on transport engineering
covers the physical and economical state of development of railroads, ensuring safety and
convenience of the passengers.
3 Ports and Harbors
pg. 20
PORT AND HARBOR ENGINEERING covers planning of marine terminals and small craft harbors,
ship berthing and maneuvering considerations, port navigation, marine structures, inland navigation,
marine construction planning, sediment management, and port economics. A port and a harbor are
often confused because they are both places used by ships and other water vessels. There are
different functional aspects to each of these destinations. A port is a commercial water facility used
for ships and their cargo. A harbor is a place of safety for ships and other waterborne vessels. A
harbor is a mooring place and offers safe anchorage for the ships. Harbors and ports can be man-
made or natural.
4 Airport Engineering
AIRPORT ENGINEERING provides for convenient passenger access, efficient aircraft operations,
and conveyance of cargo and support materials. Airports provide facilities for changing
transportation modes, such as people transferring from cars and buses to aircraft, cargo transferring
from shipping containers to trucks, or regional aircraft supplying passengers and cargo for
intercontinental aircraft. Airport engineers constantly evaluate new mechanical and computer
technologies that might increase throughput of baggage, cargo, and passengers. The planning,
design, construction, and operation and maintenance of facilities providing for the landing and
takeoff, loading and unloading, servicing, maintenance, and storage of aircraft.
5 Traffic Engineering
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING is a branch of civil engineering that uses engineering techniques to

achieve the safe and efficient movement of people and goods. It focuses mainly on research and
construction of the immobile infrastructure necessary for this movement, such as roads, railway
tracks, bridges, traffic signs and traffic lights. Increasingly however, instead of building additional
infrastructure, dynamic elements are also introduced into road traffic management. Traffic can refer
to the movement of not only vehicles such as cars and trucks that travel on roads and highways, but
also to people and pedestrian paths and walkways. Traffic Engineers are specialists at
understanding and changing the technical aspects of road design to maximize traffic flow and
reduce congestion. Other factors such as road geometry, traffic lights, road signs and pedestrian
walkways are all related to Traffic Engineering and require optimization in order to achieve one
common goal; reducing traffic congestion and improving safety.
3.5.3 Traffic Control Devices
Traffic Control Devices are various aids and devices used to control, regulate and guide traffic.
Types of Traffic Control Devices
1. TRAFFIC SIGNS - great help in regulating traffic by imparting message to the drivers about the need to stop, give way and limit their
speed.
Types of Traffic Signs
1.1 REGULATORY SIGNS -meant to inform the road users for certain laws, regulations and prohibitions; the violation of these signals is
a legal offense.
pg. 21
1.2 WARNING SIGNS -used to warn the hazardous conditions that exist or adjacent to the roadway.
1.3 INFORMATORY SIGNS -used to guide road users along routes, inform them of destination and distance and provide with information to
make travel easier, safe and pleasant.
pg. 22
1.4 TRAFFICS SIGNALS -control devices which could alternately direct the traffic to stop and proceed at intersections using red and green traffic
light signals automatically. The main requirements of traffic signal are to draw attention, provide meaning and time to respond and to have minimum
waste of time. lights glows facing each direction of traffic flow. RED means STOP, GREEN means to GO, YELLOW or AMBER means allows the
CLEARANCE TIME.
1.5 PEDESTRIAN SIGNALS -meant to give the right to pedestrian to cross a road during the“walk period” when the vehicular traffic shall be stopped
by red or stop signal on the traffic signal of the road.
1.5.1 ROAD MARKING -are made of lines, patterns, words, symbols or reflection on the pavement, curb, and sides of islands or on the
fixed objects within or near the roadway; are made using paints in contrast with colour and brightness of the pavements and other
background.
Types of Markings
PAVEMENT MARKINGS -may generally be of white paint. Yellow marking are used to indicate parking restriction.
pg. 23
CURB MARKING -may indicate certain regulation like parking regulation. Also the marking on the kerb and edges of islands with alternate black
and white line increases the visibility from a longer distance.
REFLECTORS -reflector marks are used as hazard markers and guide markers for safe driving during night. Hazard markers reflecting yellow light
should be visible from a long distance of about 150 m.
1.5.2 TRAFFIC ISLANDS-raised areas constructed within the roadway to establish physical channels through which the vehicular traffic
may be guided.
1.5.3 TRAFFIC BOLLARDS -aim to protect people from harm and property form damage in the event of accidental or intentional crashes.
Types of Traffic Bollard
REMOVABLE POSTS -allow users to easily remove and set them up when needed, providing temporary protection for locations when they're
experiencing heavy vehicle or pedestrian traffic. Depending on the size and strength of the bollard, it can function as either visual or physical
deterrent.
COLLAPSIBLE POSTS -also ideal for temporary protection. It is permanently installed in certain locations, but users can raise or lower them
depending on the required clearance.
FIXED POSTS -permanent fixtures that can provide physical protection from vehicle impact.
3.5.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF INTERCHANGES
INTERCHANGE is a road junction that uses grade separation, and typically one or more ramp, to permit traffic on at least one highway to pass
through the junction without interruption from other crossing traffic streams.
Grade Separation is a method of aligning a junction of two or more surface transport axes at different heights (grade) so that they will not disrupt the
traffic flow on other transit routes when they cross each other.
1. Directional Interchange two highways where a high volume of traffic desires to transfer between only two legs of the interchange.
pg. 24
Directional interchange is mainly characterized by providing free-flow movement in all directions with a
small deviation from the direction of travel (direct connections), as opposed to loop ramps, which
require large deviation from the original trajectory. This interchange type is said to be fully-directional
when all the left-turn movements are provided by direct connections, as can be observed in Figure.
Usually these interchange types require four-level structures.
Fully directional interchange (left),
semi-directional interchange (right)
2. Cloverleaf Interchange
It is designed to allow drivers to make turns off and onto the highway from four directions using loop ramps.
Loop ramps safely accommodate left turns and eliminate all cross traffic conflicts. Partial Cloverleaf
Interchanges, also called “parclos”, use one, two or three loops for left turn movements. Parclos are highly
adaptable and can accommodate high traffic volumes
3. Diamond Interchange
This design is utilized when a busy freeway intersects with a lesser road. Traffic leaves and enters the
highway through four ramps. Left turns are made after leaving the highway. Tight Diamond Interchange
has the same general form as the conventional diamond. But, as the name suggests, the spacing of the
design is tighter. The spacing between the two at-grade intersections is usually between 250 and 400 feet.
Single Point Urban Interchange is a traffic signal-controlled diamond-shaped inter-change. Through traffic,
traffic turning left or off the interchange is controlled by a single set of traffic signals that are located at the
top of the interchange.
Diverging Diamond Interchange (DDI) or the Double Crossover Diamond (DCD), was first developed in
France and brought to North America around 2002
. 4. Trumpet Interchange
It may be used instead of a T-intersection when one highway terminates into another highway. A trumpet
interchange may be seen as a combination of a directional and a diamond-shaped interchange.
3.5.5 INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

Intelligent Transportation System is an advanced application which aims to provide innovative
services relating to different modes of transport and traffic management and enable to users to
be better informed and make safer, more coordinated, and “smarter” use of transport
networks. Some of these technologies include calling for emergency services when an
accident occurs, using cameras to enforce traffic laws or signs that mark speed limit changes
depending on conditions.
Although ITS may refer to all models of transport, the directive of the European Union
2010/40/EU, made on July 7, 2010, defined ITS as systems in which information and
communication technologies are applied in the field of road transport, including infrastructure,
vehicles and users, and in traffic management and mobility management, as well as for
interfaces with other modes of transport. ITS may improve the efficiency of transport in a
number of situations, i.e. road transport, traffic management, mobility, etc.
Application areas of Intelligent Transport System

The entire application of ITS is based on data collection, analysis and using the results of the analysis in the operations, control and research
concepts for traffic management where location plays an important role.
pg. 25
 Electronic Toll Collections
Electronic Toll Collection makes it possible for vehicles to drive through toll gates at traffic speed, reducing congestion at toll plaza and
automatic toll collection.
 Emergency Vehicle Notification Systems
The in-vehicle ecall is an emergency call generated either manually by the vehicle occupants or automatically via activation of in-vehicle
sensors after an accident.
 Automatic Road Enforcement
A traffic enforcement camera system, consisting of a camera and vehicle-monitoring device, is used to detect and identify vehicles
disobeying a speed limit or some other road legal requirement.
 Collision avoidance systems
Communication cooperation on the road includes car-to-car, car-to-infrastructure, and vice versa. Data available from vehicles are acquired
and transmitted to a server for central fusion and processing. These data can be used to detect events such as rain (wiper activity) and congestion
(frequent braking activities). The server processes a driving recommendation dedicated to a single or a specific group of drivers and transmits it
wirelessly to vehicles. The goal of cooperative systems is to use and plan communication and sensor infrastructure to increase road safety. The
definition of cooperative systems in road traffic is according to the European Commission.
"Road operators, infrastructure, vehicles, their drivers and other road users will cooperate to deliver the most efficient, safe, secure and comfortable
journey. The vehicle-vehicle and vehicle-infrastructure co-operative systems will contribute to these objectives beyond the improvements achievable
with stand-alone systems."
World Congress on Intelligent Transport Systems- ITS World Congress is an annual trade show to promote ITS technologies. ERTICO– ITS Europe,
ITS America and ITS Asia Pacific sponsor the annual ITS World Congress and exhibition. Each year the event takes place in a different region
(Europe, Americas or Asia-Pacific). The first ITS World Congress was held in Paris in 1994.
3.5.5.1 Intelligent Transportation Technologies
Intelligent Transport Technologies vary in technologies applied, from basic management systems such as car navigation; traffic signal control
systems; container management systems; variable message signs; automatic number plate recognition or speed cameras to monitor applications,
such as security CCTV systems; and to more advanced applications that integrate live data and feedback from a number of other sources, such as
parking guidance and information systems; weather information and bridge de-icing system. Additionally, predictive techniques are being developed
to allow advanced modelling and comparison with historical baseline data.
Wireless communications
The main applications of communication in transportation systems are:
 Critical communications between vehicles and infrastructure to increase efficiency, safety, and reliability.
 Wideband communications for payload or passengers services.
Floating car data/floating cellular data
The most common and widespread use of FCD is to determine the traffic speed on the road network. Based on these data, traffic congestion can be
identified, travel times can be calculated, and traffic reports can be rapidly generated. In contrast to stationary devices such as traffic
cameras, number plate recognition systems, and induction loops embedded in the roadway, no additional hardware on the road network is
necessary.
Floating car data technology provides advantages over other methods of traffic measurement:
 Less expensive than sensors or cameras

 More coverage (potentially including all locations and streets)
 Faster to set up and less maintenance
 Works in all weather conditions, including heavy rain
Inductive loop detection
inductive loop is an electromagnetic communication or detection system which uses a moving magnet or an alternating current to induce an electric
current in a nearby wire. Induction loops are used for transmission and reception of communication signals, or for detection of metal objects in metal
detectors or vehicle presence indicators. A common modern use for induction loops is to provide hearing assistance to hearing-aid users.
pg. 26
Inductive loops can be placed in a roadbed to detect vehicles as they pass through the loop's magnetic field. The simplest detectors simply count the
number of vehicles during a unit of time (typically 60 seconds in the United States) that pass over the loop, while more sophisticated sensors
estimate the speed, length, and class of vehicles and the distance between them. Loops can be placed in a single lane very slow or stopped
vehicles as well as vehicles moving at high speed.
Video vehicle detection
Video vehicle detection (VVD) is the one of the most widely used method. Video detection is an image processor. It consists of a microprocessor-
base CPU and software that analyze video images. Using a mouse and interactive graphics, the user places virtual “detectors” on the video image
displayed on a monitor.
Collision avoidance systems
Communication cooperation on the road includes car-to-car, car-to-infrastructure, and vice versa. Data available from vehicles are acquired and
transmitted to a server for central fusion and processing. These data can be used to detect events such as rain (wiper activity) and congestion
(frequent braking activities). The server processes a driving recommendation dedicated to a single or a specific group of drivers and transmits it
wirelessly to vehicles. The goal of cooperative systems is to use and plan communication and sensor infrastructure to increase road safety. The
definition of cooperative systems in road traffic is according to the European Commission.
ITS in the Connected World
Mobile operators are becoming a significant player in these value chains (beyond providing just connectivity). Dedicated apps can be used to take
mobile payments, provide data insights and navigation tools, offer incentives and discounts, and act as a digital commerce medium.
3.5.6 Different Types of Road Islands
TRAFFIC ISLANDS -raised areas constructed within the roadway to establish physical channels through which the vehicular traffic may be guided
Types of Traffic Islands
1. DIVISION ISLANDS -intended to separate opposing flow of traffic on highway with four or more
lanes
2. CHANNELIZING ISLANDS -used to guide the traffic into proper channel through the
intersection area. They are very useful as traffic control devices for intersection at
grades, when area is large.
3. PEDESTRIAN LOADING ISLANDS -provided at regular bus stop and similar places for
the protection of passengers
4. ROTARY ISLANDS -large central island of rotary intersection; this island is much larger than the
central island of channelized intersection.
pg. 27
3.5.7 Jobs and careers under Transportation Engineering
1. TRANSPORATION ENGINEER
Transport Engineers focus on designing new transportation systems and infrastructures, including highways, airports, trains, bridges, etc.
They do this by analyzing data, identifying problems, and solving them with innovative solutions. Solving these complex problems typically
requires the collection and evaluation of systems, traffic flow, accidents, costs, and other statistics. Transport Engineers may also be required
to collaborate with other parties on certain projects, including utility companies and government departments.
2. HIGHWAY ENGINEER
This job involves many aspects of urban planning, and highway engineers are also tasked with designing and implementing pedestrian travel
routes, such as bicycle lanes. Analyzing traffic patterns, budgeting, safety evaluation and the use of urban planning design controls are key duties
associated with highway engineering.
3. AIRPORT ENGINEER
Airport engineers are responsible for the design and building of airports, hangars and airfields. The precise and careful analysis of air traffic
patterns, wind direction and air traffic safety are of utmost importance to airport engineers.
4. PORT ENGINEER
Port engineers, also known as harbor engineers, design commercial waterways similar to the way that highway engineers design roadways.
Actually working on the water is essential for this type of transportation engineer, as they need to be able to take measurements, assess port, harbor
and canal structures, and perform maintenance.
5. RAILROAD ENGINEER
Railroad engineers, sometimes called locomotive engineers, can work as designers of railways or as operators and dispatchers. Railroad
engineers most commonly work on redesigning the country's existing railroads so that they are safer and more efficient, rather than planning new
railways.
6. TRAFFIC ENGINEER
Traffic engineers may begin their careers by researching and planning traffic studies, including collecting data on road construction, land
development, and traffic signals.
pg. 28
Chapter 3.6
ENVIRONMENT AND ENERGY
Objectives:
To understand Environment and Energy Engineering as a field under Civil Engineering.

To familiarize with the current situation of our environment
To familiarize with technologies and advancements that could help in mitigating pollution
3.6.1 Environmental Engineering as a Discipline under Civil Engineering
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING is branch of engineering that is concerned with protecting people from the effects of adverse environmental
effects, such as pollution, as well as improving environmental quality. Environmental engineers work to improve recycling, waste disposal, public
health and water and air pollution control. The practice of environmental engineering dates back to the dawn of civilization. Ever since groups of
people beganliving in semi-permanent settlements, they have had to deal with the challenges of providing clean water and disposing of solid waste
and sewage. With the growth of cities and the advent large scale farming and manufacturing, people have also had to worry about air quality and soil
contamination. One of the most important responsibilities of environmental engineering is to prevent the release of harmful chemical and biological
contaminants into the air water and soil. This requires intensive knowledge of chemistry and biology of potential contaminants as well as the
industrial or agricultural processes that might lead to their release, with this knowledge, new processes can be modified, to reduce or eliminate the
release of pollutants. Another important function performed by environmental engineers is detecting the presence of pollutants and tracking them
back to their source. In some cases, this can present a significant challenge.
For instance, the source of contamination in a lake could be anywhere within several thousands of acres of land surrounding the lake and its
tributaries. Contamination of oceans can present even greater challenges in identifying the source.
3.6.2 Applications of Environmental Engineering
WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organizations, community, endeavorsor by individuals, usually via system of
pumps and pipes. It is a source, means, or supplying water usually including reservoirs, tunnels, and pipelines and often the watershed from which
the water is drawn.
Six Stages of Water Supply
1. Source water – the lakes, rivers and underground aquifers that are the source of our water supply, fed by rain and melting snow.
2. Water treatment – the processes to filter and purify water so that it is safe for human use.
3. Water distribution systems – the pipes and pumps that deliver clean water to our taps. In BC there are more than 32,000 km of underground water
pipes – that is enough pipe to circle 80% of the way around the earth.
4. Wastewater collection systems – the pipes and pumps that take away used water from our toilets, drains, bathtubs, and laundry. These are also
called sewers. In BC, there are over 26,000 km of municipal sewer pipes underground – that is enough pipe to circle two-thirds of the way around the
earth!
5. Wastewater treatment – the processes to remove contaminants from our used water so that it can be safely returned to the environment. This is
also called sewage treatment.
6. Storm water systems – the pipes, ditches and natural systems that channel our rain water and snow melt away from
our homes and businesses and back to the natural environment. In BC there are over 20,000 km of storm water pipes underground – that is enough
pipe to circle half way around the earth.
Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it more acceptable for a specific end use. The end use maybe drinking,
industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safety returned to the environment.
Seven Methods of Water Treatment
By nature, water is known to be pure as it is composed of strongly bonded atoms of hydrogen and oxygen. However, the water supply across the
globe has to share space with other things such as organic materials, minerals, chemicals and manmade pollutants. This brings about an
undrinkable solution, since it can contain deadly bacteria and viruses, among other disease-causing agents. Luckily, mankind was able to develop
different water treatment methods to allow our water supply to be safe to drink. While there are some methods that are not effective on a larger
scale, all of them make untreated water potable for human consumption. The process of treating water may have slight differences at various
pg. 29
locations, based on the plant’s technology as well as the type of water that needs to be treated. Nevertheless, the basic principles are the same.
The following section talks about the standard processes of water treatment.
1. Coagulation / Flocculation
Coagulation is adding liquid aluminum sulfate or alum and/or polymer to raw or untreated water. The resulting mixture causes the dirt
particles in the water to coagulate or stick together. Then, the groups of dirt particles attach together, forming larger particles named flocs
that can easily be removed via filtration or settling.
2. Sedimentation
When water and flocs undergo the treatment process, they go into sedimentation basins. Here, water moves slowly, making the heavy floc
particles settle to the bottom. Floc that accumulates on the bottom is known as sludge. This is carried on to drying lagoons. Direct Filtration
does not include the sedimentation step and the floc is just removed by filtration.
3. Filtration
In filtration, water passes through a filter, which is made to take away particles from the water. Such filters are composed of gravel and
sand or sometimes crushed anthracite. Filtration gathers together impurities that float on water and boosts the effectiveness of disinfection.
Filters are regularly cleaned by means of backwashing.
4. Disinfection
Before water goes into the distribution system, it is disinfected to get rid of disease-causing bacteria, parasites and viruses. Chlorine is also
applied since it is very effective.
5. Sludge Drying
Solids that have been gathered and removed from water via sedimentation and filtration are transferred to drying lagoons.
6. Fluoridation
Fluoridation treats water supplies of communities to adjust the concentration of free fluoride ions to an optimal level so that dental cavities
can be reduced. It is compulsory for Hunter Water to perform water fluoridation to conform to the NSW Fluoridation of Public Water
Supplies Act 1957.
7. pH Correction
To adjust pH levels, lime is combined with filtered water. This, also, stabilizes naturally soft water so corrosion can be minimized in the
water distribution and plumbing system of customers.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
pg. 30
Wastewater treatment is the process of converting wastewater –water that is no longer needed or suitable for use- into bilge water that can
be discharged back into the environment. Its formed by a number of activities including bathing, washing, used in the toilet, and rainwater
runoff. Wastewater is full of contaminants including bacteria, chemicals and other toxins. Its treatment aims at reducing the contaminants
to acceptable levels to make the water safe for discharge back into the environment.
There are two waste water treatment plants namely chemical or physical treatment plant, and biological wastewater treatment plants.
Biological wastewater treatment plant uses biological matter and bacteria to breakdown waste matter. Physical treatment plants use
chemical reactions. Biological treatment systems are ideal for treating wastewater from households and business premises. Physical
treatment plants are mostly used to treat wastewater from industries, factories, and manufacturing firms. This is because most of the
wastewater from these industries contains chemicals and other toxins that can largely harm the environment.
1. Screening and Pumping
The incoming wastewater passes through screening equipment where objects such as rags, wood fragments, plastics, and grease are
removed. The material removed is washed and pressed and disposed of in a landfill. The screened wastewater is then pumped to the next
step: grit removal.
2. Grit Removal
In this step, heavy but fine material such as sand and gravel is removed from the wastewater. This material is also disposed of in a landfill.
3. Primary Settling
The material, which will settle, but at a slower rate than step two, is taken out using large circular tanks called clarifiers. The settled
material, called primary
sludge, is pumped off the bottom and the wastewater exits the tank from the top. Floating debris such as grease is skimmed off the top and
sent with the settled material to digesters. In this step, chemicals are also added to remove phosphorus.
4. Aeration / Activated Sludge
In this step, the wastewater receives most of its treatment. Through biological degradation, the pollutants are consumed by
microorganisms and transformed into cell tissue, water, and nitrogen. The biological activity occurring in this step is very similar to what
occurs at the bottom of lakes and rivers, but in these areas the degradation takes years to accomplish.
5. Secondary Settling
Large circular tanks called secondary clarifiers allow the treated wastewater to separate from the biology from the aeration tanks at this
step, yielding an effluent, which is now over 90% treated. The biology (activated sludge) is continuously pumped from the bottom of the
clarifiers and returned to the aeration tanks in step four.
6. Filtration
The clarified effluent is polished in this step by filtering through 10-micron polyester media. The material captured on the surface of the disc
filters is periodically backwashed and returned to the head of the plant for treatment.
7. Disinfection
To assure the treated wastewater is virtually free of bacteria, ultraviolet disinfection is used after the filtration step. The ultraviolet treatment
process kills remaining bacteria to levels within our discharge permit.
8. Oxygen Uptake
The treated water, now in a very stabilized high quality state, is aerated if necessary to bring the dissolved oxygen up to permit level. After
this step, the treated water passes through the effluent outfall where it joins the Oconomowoc River. The water discharged to the river
must meet stringent requirements set by the DNR. Pollutant removal is maintained at 98% or greater.
9. Sludge Treatment
The primary sludge pumped from the bottom of the primary clarifiers in step three, along with the continuous flow of waste activated sludge
from the aeration / activated sludge process in step four, must be treated to reduce volume and produce a usable end product. The sludge
treatment process involves four steps as described here.
pg. 31
3.6.3 AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT
In this day and age, pollution control systems are a must. Air pollutants are
generated through both natural— e.g., volcanic eruptions and wildfires—and
human-made sources—including mobile and stationary ones. Mobile refers
to moving sources, such as airplanes, trains, and automobiles, while stationary
refers to fixed industrial sources, such as power plants, factories, and other
facilities. Stationary sources are further broken into major and area sources:
major sources emit either 10 or more tons of a single air pollutant or 25 or more
tons of a combination of air pollutants, while area sources emit less than 10 tons
of a single pollutant or less than 25 tons of a combination of pollutants. In high
enough concentrations, the pollutants produced by either mobile or stationary
sources could cause adverse effects to the atmosphere, the surrounding environment,
and human life, such as increasing the average global temperature,
TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
Air pollutants are generated by nearly every facet of the industrial process, including raw material sourcing, product manufacturing,
maintenance and repair services and distribution. Consequently, there are several different types of air pollution control equipment available for air
pollutants produced by both mobile and stationary sources across a wide range of industries. However, this article focuses mainly on control
equipment for stationary-sourced air pollutants, such as those produced during combustion processes.
In an industrial setting, air pollution control equipment is an umbrella term referring to equipment and systems used to regulate and
eliminate the emission of potentially hazardous substances—including particulate matter and gases—produced by manufacturing, process system,
and research applications into the air, atmosphere, and surrounding environment. Control equipment has applications in a wide range of
industries, preventing the release of chemicals, vapors, and dust and filtering and purifying the air within the work environment. Typically, fans or
blowers direct industrial exhaust and emissions into the air pollution control equipment and systems which remove or reduce air pollutants through
the use of one or more of the following processes:
1. Scrubbers
Some of the most commonly used air pollution control devices in manufacturing and processing
facilities, industrial air scrubbers employ a physical process— i.e., scrubbing—which removes
particulates and gases from industrial emissions, such as smokestack exhaust (in the case of
exhaust air scrubbers), before they are released into the atmosphere. There are two main
categories of scrubbers—dry scrubbers and wet scrubbers.
pg. 32
pg. 33
2. Air Filters
Air filters are devices used to control air pollution which employ a specific type of
filtration media—e.g., fabric, sintered metal, ceramic, etc.—to collect and remove dry
particulates and contaminants, such as dust, pollen, microbes, chemicals, etc. from
air passing through them. These devices are utilized in residential, commercial, and
industrial applications to remove pollutants from exhaust air and improve the air
quality within the work environment. For industrial applications, there are several
types of air filters available, including HEPA filters, fabric filters, and cartridge dust
collectors.
. 3. Cyclones
Also referred to as cyclone dust collectors—are air pollution control devices, which, similarly to air
filters, separate dry particulate matter from gaseous emissions. However, rather than employing
filtration media, cyclones utilize centrifugal force to collect and remove particulates. As gas
streams enter a cyclone, they flow along a spiral path within the cylindrical chamber. This swirling
motion forces large particulates against the chamber wall, which slows their inertia, causing them
to drop into the collection hopper below for further processing and disposal. The cleaned gas
streams continue upward and out of the cyclone.
While cyclones are typically employed for filtration applications of particulates ≥50 μm in
diameter, some models are capable of greater than 90% efficiency for particulates ≥10–20 μm in
diameter. Efficiency increases or decreases depending on larger or smaller particulate diameters,
respectively. Typically, additional filtration devices used to control air pollution, such as
baghouses, are employed following cyclones in an air pollution control system to remove the
smaller particulates not previously separated and collected from the gas stream by the cyclones.
4. Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), like air filters and cyclones, are air pollution control
devices used to collect and remove particulate matter, such as dust, from industrial
emissions and exhaust. ESPs employ transformers to create high static electrical
potential difference between charging electrodes and collecting plates. As gas streams
pass between the two components, an electrical charge is introduced to the particulates,
which attracts the particulate matter to the collecting plates. Similarly, to air filters, PM
accumulation is periodically removed from the collecting plates and deposited in a
collection hopper below, either through mechanically dislodging the particulates or by
introducing water to clean off the particulates. ESPs which employ the latter method are
known as wet ESPs. As ESPs typically have multiple collection plates, their efficiencies
often exceed 99%.
5. Mist Collectors
Mist collectors, also known as mist or moisture eliminator filters, are air pollution control
devices which remove moisture and vapor—e.g., smoke, oil, mist, etc.— from gas
streams. These devices employ fine mesh-like filters to separate liquid droplets from the
gas and collect them into a separate chamber for further processing and, potentially,
recovery and reuse.
Mist collectors maintain high filtration efficiencies for submicron liquid particles, with some
models offering 99.9% efficiency for particles ≥0.3 μm in diameter. While mist collectors
are capable of processing acidic and corrosive gas streams, they cannot handle gas
streams containing large particulates, as they may cause an obstruction within the
collector’s filter. They also arenot used in applications which have temperatures above
120°F.
pg. 34
6. Incinerators
Incinerators are devices which employ combustion methods to break down pollutants
into non-toxic byproducts. While these devices can be used to incinerate wastes in solid,
liquid, and gaseous form, they are widely employed in a variety of industrial applications
to maintain air quality and regulate gas emissions by converting VOCs, hydrocarbons,
and other hazardous air pollutants (HAP) into innocuous compounds, such as carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, and oxygen. Typically, incinerators are succeeded by scrubbers in an
air pollution control system, as the scrubbing process removes any additional
compounds formed through the combustion process.
Depending on the composition of the waste product, the incineration process can be
either self-sustaining or requires supplementary fuel to ensure complete combustion of
the waste compounds. Additionally, some incinerator models are available with
regenerative and recuperative capabilities and are suitable for both continuous and
batch applications. There are several types of incinerators available, including thermal
oxidizers and catalytic oxidizers.
7. Catalytic Reactors
Catalytic reactors, also referred to as selective catalytic
reduction (SCR) systems, are air pollution control devices widely used to mitigate nitrogen oxide
(NOx) emissions produced by the burning of fossil fuels in industrial applications. These devices
first inject ammonia into the industrial exhaust and emissions, which reacts with the NOx
compounds to produce nitrogen and oxygen. Similarly, to incinerators, these devices also employ
other catalysts which enable some of the remaining gaseous pollutants to undergo combustion for
further processing and reduction. One common application of catalytic reactors is in modern
automobiles; the three-way catalytic converter in a car’s exhaust system is used to reduce the
amounts of NOx, CO, and other VOCs in the engine emissions.
While for NOx reduction and removal, SCR systems can
achieve more than 90% efficiencies, for other gaseous pollutants these devices can achieve 99.99%
efficiencies with lower energy requirements compared to incinerators. Despite the high efficiencies
possible, SCR systems are not suitable for all gaseous pollutant reduction applications as the large
amounts of catalyst required are costly, and the systems cannot process emissions and exhaust
containing particulate matter.
8. Biofilter
Biofilters are air pollution control devices whichemploy microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, to
degrade and remove water-soluble compounds. Similarly, to incineration devices, biofilters destroy the
pollutants to reduce the amount present in industrial emissions and exhaust. However, the
microorganisms in biofilters absorb and metabolize gaseous pollutants, such as VOCs and organic
HAP, without generating byproducts typically produced through combustion, such as NOx and CO.
These devices are capable of achieving over 98% efficiencies
3.6.4 IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Impact assessments are carried out to assess the consequences of individual projects -- Environmental Impact Assessment -- or of
policies and programmes -- Strategic Environmental Assessment.
Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a proposed project or
development, taking into account inter- related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse.
UNEP defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool used to identify the environmental, social and economic impacts of a
project prior to decision-making. It aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design, find ways and means to
reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment and present the predictions and options to decision-makers. By using EIA both
environmental and economic benefits can be achieved, such as reduced cos and time of project implementation and design, avoided
treatment/clean-up costs and impacts of laws and regulations.
pg. 35
Although legislation and practice vary around the world, the fundamental components of an EIA would necessarily involve the following
stages:
Screening to determine which projects or developments require a full or partial impact assessment study;
Scoping to identify which potential impacts are relevant to assess (based on legislative requirements, international conventions, expert
knowledge and public involvement), to identify alternative solutions that avoid, mitigate or compensate adverse impacts on biodiversity (including the
option of not proceeding with the development, finding alternative designs or sites which avoid the impacts, incorporating safeguards in the design of
the project, or providing compensation for adverse impacts), and finally to derive terms of reference for the impact assessment;
Reporting the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or EIA report, including an environmental management plan (EMP), and a non-
technical summary for the general audience.
Review of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), based on the terms of reference (scoping) and public (including authority)
participation.
Decision-making on whether to approve the project or not, and under what conditions; and
Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing. Monitor whether the predicted impacts and proposed
mitigation measures occur as defined in the EMP. Verify the compliance of proponent with the EMP, to ensure that unpredicted impacts or
failed mitigation measures are identified and addressed in a timely fashion.
Strategic Environmental Assessment
Sadler and Verheem (1996) define Strategic Environmental Assessment

(SEA) as the formalized, systematic and comprehensive process of
identifying and evaluating the environmental consequences of proposed
policies, plans or programs to ensure that they are fully included and
appropriately addressed at the earliest possible stage of decision-making
on a par with economic and social considerations. Since this early
definition the field of SEA has rapidly developed and expanded, and the
number of definitions of SEA has multiplied accordingly. SEA, by its
nature, covers a wider range of activities or a wider area and often over a
longer time span than the environmental impact assessment of projects.
SEA might be applied to an entire sector (such as a national policy on
energy for example) or to a geographical area (for example, in the
context of a regional development scheme). SEA does not replace or
reduce the need for project-level EIA (although in some cases it can), but
it can help to streamline and focus the incorporation of environmental
concerns (including biodiversity) into the decision-making process, often
making project-level EIA a more effective process. SEA is commonly
described as being proactive and ‘sustainability driven’, whilst EIA is
often described as being largely reactive.
pg. 36
3.6. 5. How to become an Environmental Engineer?
Positions require a minimum of a bachelor's degree (B.S.), usually in environmental engineering, civil, or chemical engineering. Some
undergraduate and graduate civil engineering programs offer concentrations in environmental engineering.
Students generally study basic engineering principles, ecosystem processes, fate and transport of organic contaminants, alternative
energy technologies, air quality control technologies, principles of sustainability, water and wastewater treatment, mathematics, and computer-aided
design (CAD). Lab and field work are often part of the curriculum.
It's important to gain practical experience. Participate in an internship or cooperative engineering programs if you can. These programs
award college credit for structured job experience.
Some colleges offer a combined 5-year program that leads to both a bachelor's and a master's degree. A graduate degree can open up
opportunities as instructors at some colleges, and also in research and development positions. accredited programs. Education through an ABET-
accredited program is usually necessary for professional licensing.
Skills Needed for: "Environmental Engineer"
1. Reading Comprehension -- Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work related documents.
2. Active Listening -- Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made, asking
questions as appropriate, and not interrupting at inappropriate times.
3. Writing -- Communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of the audience.
4. Science -- Using scientific rules and methods to solve problems.
5. Critical Thinking -- Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or
approaches to problems.
6. Speaking -- Talking to others to convey information effectively.
7. Time Management -- Managing one's own time and the time of others.
8. Complex Problem Solving -- Identifying complex problems and reviewing related information to develop and evaluate
options and implement solutions.
9. Negotiation -- Bringing others together and trying to reconcile differences.
10. Management of Financial Resources -- Determining how money will be spent to get the work done, and accounting for these
expenditures.
3.6.6 Energy Systems Engineering as a Discipline under Civil Engineering
ENERGY SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
Energy Systems Engineering is a multidisciplinary programme that aims to meet the current and growing challenge of dwindling fossil fuel
resources and the critical demand for alternative, renewable energy sources as a national, Europe-wide and global priority. The programme covers
fundamental engineering knowledge and skills in such areas as energy generation, conversion, electrical power systems and energy management
(buildings, transport, industry, etc.), along with modules on energy sources, energy policy, economics and associated environmental issues. The
programme will provide you with the skills to develop as a professional engineer who specializes in dealing with the breadth of energy systems used
to generate, convert, transmit and manage energy throughout multiple networks, including electrical power, fuel, IT, water, transport and cities.
Optional modules will provide you with a technical focus on different sectors of the industry. The early years of the programme will cover the
fundamental sciences and mathematics, along with introductory modules on energy systems and sources. Multidisciplinary energy systems design
projects will be supported by advanced modules in engineering design, analysis and information technology.
Electronics and Computing Engineering is a course that aims to integrate two separate engineering fields to meet the joint demands made
by the electronics and computer industries in today's world. This programme combines coursework in different aspects of both fields over four years,
with an emphasis on the design of computing systems. Electronics and computers, and their joint applications, are playing an ever-increasing role in
our lives as Information Communications Technology (ICT), with everything from consumer goods to space shuttles using electronic hardware
(circuits) and computer software integrated together. The increased use of ICT in every aspect of our lives ensures the continued relevance of this
area of engineering.
Companies who design integrated electronics and computer systems require engineers who possess the software skills to complement
traditional electronic hardware skills. The Electronic and Computing Engineering degree programme has been developed in response to these
industry demands to develop students' hardware and software engineering skills in an integrated way and the analytical powers to apply them jointly.
pg. 37
Graduates of this course are ideally placed to pursue their specialism in ICT, which has wide applicability both nationally, with many
indigenous technology companies and the multinational sector, and internationally. With the exponential development of ICT technologies worldwide,
graduates will be at the forefront of people being employed in this area.
Energy engineers work across the full energy lifecycle, including extraction, production, conversion, transmission and distribution, and play
an integral role in processing energy from a variety of sources, e.g. solar, wind and geothermal power, nuclear power, water, oil, gas and biofuels.
The primary responsibilities of energy engineers vary depending on the specific project that they are working on, their professional
background and expertise, and the sector in which they are employed. However, various activities are common across the board.
If you enter this profession, you’ll be researching new methods and techniques to extract energy from scarce natural reserves; you’ll be
designing, developing and building plants and equipment for extraction, production and distribution; and furthermore, you’ll be developing and
improving existing procedures to enhance efficiency in the extraction, production and distribution cycles, reduce wastage and develop cleaner forms
of energy.
What do I need to do to become an energy engineer?
To become an energy engineer, you will need a degree in an engineering or scientific subject. Some employers may also expect you to
have a relevant postgraduate qualification.
You’ll need great organizational skills to manage projects and budgets. You’ll also be able to work out how to solve problems when fixing
technical issues. Related skills
Communication
Financial planning
IT
Numeracy
Organization
People management
Problem solving
Teamwork
Time management
3.6.7 Sources of Renewable Energy
Renewable energy engineers focus their efforts on developing new means for energy extraction and designing energy-efficient machinery.
The sector for green jobs is continually growing, so students getting a degree in this field can expect to see a lot of job opportunities after graduation.
Renewable energy engineers are part of the growing sector of green jobs that involve environmentally conscious production. These
individuals maximize the energy potential of clean energy sources including wind, solar, geothermal and hydropower. Renewable energy engineers
monitor and develop alternative energy outputs. They may pursue different careers paths such as consultants and researchers. Every day we rely on
energy to provide us with electricity, hot water, and fuel for our cars. Most of this energy comes from fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
These are nonrenewable energy sources, which means that if we use them all up, we can never get more during our lifetime. Fossil fuels also
contribute greatly to global climate change by releasing carbon dioxide into the air when they are burned. Because fossil fuels can run out and are
bad for the environment, it is important that we start switching to other energy sources, like renewable energy.
Renewable Energy
pg. 38
Renewable energy sources are typically used as substitute energy. These are energy sources that are constantly being replenished, such
as sunlight, wind, and water. Renewable energy sources are usually much more environment friendly than fossil fuels.
Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and
rural (off-grid) energy services.
Types of Renewable energy sources
1. Solar energy or energy from the sun, is harnessed using solar collectors. This collected energy can
then be used to provide heat, light, or other forms of electricity. The heat is collected using modern
equipment that includes photovoltaic panels, solar collectors, and solar attic fans. Solar collectors are
used for collecting heat that is used for heating water while solar attic fans are used domestically for
cooling. The photovoltaic panels turn sunlight into electricity directly.
2. Wind energy is the energy that we get from the wind. Windmills have been used for hundreds of
years to pump water from the ground. Today, we use large, tall wind turbines that use the wind to
generate electricity. Many wind turbines are often placed together in wind farms in flat areas with strong
winds.
3. Hydropower. Most hydropower plants use a dam on a river to create a reservoir to store water. As
water is released in the reservoir, it flows through a turbine and causes it to spin. This activates a
generator that produces electricity
4. Geothermal Energy/Geothermal Power - is renewable energy accumulated https://wwfrom the

earth's surface. It comes from radioactive decomposition of material and the original formation of the
planet. It is environmentally friendly and economical. However, it is only found in limited areas where
there exist tectonic plate borders. Geothermal energy is used for electricity in the Philippines, El
Salvador, and Iceland.
5. Biomass energy is usually collected from the decay of animal waste and plant matter which are
constantly renewed. As a source of energy, it can be directly burned to produce heat or transformed
to biofuel or biogas
biofuels include biodiesel and ethanol.
Ethanol is formed when plants such as sugarcane and corn are fermented; the ethanol is then
used as a source of energy for vehicles
Biodiesel, which is created from animal fats and vegetable oils, is used as heating oil and it is
also used in vehicles.
pg. 39
3.6.8 How to Become a Renewable Engineer?
The following are guides on how to become a Renewable Energy Engineer
1. Earn a Bachelor's Degree. The first step to becoming an energy engineer

involves earning a bachelor's degree.
2. Work as an Engineer.
3. Earn a Professional License.
4. Work as an Energy Engineer.
pg. 40

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MODULE 3 FIELDS/ CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING:

To understand Geotechnical Engineering as a field under Civil Engineering.

3.2.1 Geotechnical Engineering as a Discipline

3.2.2 Areas/ Subfields of Geotechnical Engineering

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GRAIN SIZE

- were based on grain size

TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

AASHTO CLASSFICATION SYSTEM SOIL

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

(1) Course Grained Soil

3.2.2 SOIL TEST AND SURVEY

A. TEST FOR PARTICLE SIZE

A.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS

A.2 HYDROMETER TEST

Hydrometer Casagrande cup

B. TEST TO EVALUATE THE EFFECT MOISTURE

B.1 ATTERBERG TEST

Liquid Limit Test

Plastic limit test Shrinkage limit test

Shrinkage Limit Test

C. TEST TO DENSITY OF SOIL

C1. LABORATORY TESTS

C1.1 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST

Modified Proctor Test

C1.2 MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST

C1.3 GYRATORY COMPACTION TEST

C2. FIELD TESTS

C2.1 SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

C2.2 CORE CUTTER METHOD

C2.3 WATER REPLACEMENT METHOD

C2.3 RUBBER BALLOON METHOD

C2.5 NUCLEAR MOISTURE DENSITY METER

ambiguous results if miscalibrated

D. TEST FOR STRENGTH OF SOIL

D.1 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO METHOD

D.2 HVEEM STABILOMETER METHOD

D.3 TRI-AXIAL DESIGN METHOD

3.2.3 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Several types of shallow foundations are discussed below:

1. Isolated /Spread Footing

2. Wall Footing or Strip footing

4. Cantilever or Strap Footing

5. Raft or Mat Foundation

3.2.4 Retaining Wall

GRAVITY RETAINING WALLS

TYPES OF GRAVITY RETAINING WALS

1. CRIB RETAINING WALL

2. GABION RETAINING WALL

3. CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL

4. COUNTER-FORT/BUTTRESSED RETAINING WALL

5. ANCHORED RETAINING WALL

6. PILED RETAINING WALL

7. MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH (MSE) RETAINING WALL

Exponent’s engineering geologists and geotechnical engineers are specialists in

Infrastructure is a vital component of our modern society. The reliability of our

3.2.6 Ground Improvement

Ground improvement involves the modification of soil properties or constructing

3.2.7 Slope Stabilization