Lecture 2

2.1 The electromagnetic wave equation

According to Maxwell’s equations, an oscillating electric field generates an oscillating
magnetic field and vice versa. The two of them propagate in empty space together, as an
   
electromagnetic wave, in which E ( r , t ) and B ( r , t ) (the electric and magnetic field vectors)
are at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation, at any point in space defined

by the position vector r , and at any time t .

We assume that the electromagnetic wave travels in an arbitrary direction. Then the
equations describing the harmonic plane wave motion will involve the electric and magnetic
   
field vectors, E ( r , t ) and B ( r , t )
       
∂2 E ( r , t ) ∂2 E ( r , t ) ∂2 E ( r , t ) 1 ∂2 E ( r , t )
+ + − 2 0,
= (0.1)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c ∂t 2
       
∂2 B ( r , t ) ∂2 B ( r , t ) ∂2 B ( r , t ) 1 ∂2 B ( r , t )
+ + − 2 0,
= (0.2)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c ∂t 2
1
where c = is the speed of light in a vacuum, ε 0 - the dielectric permittivity of vacuum
ε 0 µ0
and µ0 - the magnetic permeability of vacuum. Each of these vector equations (0.1) and (0.2)
is equivalent to three scalar equations satisfied by the components of the electric and magnetic
 
field vectors: E = ( Ex , E y , Ez ) and B = ( Bx , By , Bz )
 ∂ 2 E x ( x, y , z ; t ) ∂ 2 E x ( x, y , z ; t ) ∂ 2 E x ( x, y , z ; t ) 1 ∂ E x ( x, y , z ; t )
2

+ + − 0
=
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c2 ∂t 2
∂ 2 E y ( x, y , z ; t ) ∂ 2 E y ( x, y , z ; t ) ∂ 2 E y ( x, y , z ; t ) 1 ∂ E y ( x, y , z ; t )
2

+ + − 2 0 ,(0.3)
=
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c ∂t 2
∂ 2 E z ( x, y , z ; t ) ∂ 2 E z ( x, y , z ; t ) ∂ 2 E z ( x, y , z ; t ) 1 ∂ E z ( x, y , z ; t )
2

+ + − 0
=
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c2 ∂t 2
and similarly

∂ 2 Bx ( x, y, z; t ) ∂ 2 Bx ( x, y, z; t ) ∂ 2 Bx ( x, y, z; t ) 1 ∂ Bx ( x, y, z; t )
2

+ + − 2 0
=
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c ∂t 2
∂ 2 B y ( x, y , z ; t ) ∂ 2 B y ( x, y , z ; t ) ∂ 2 B y ( x, y , z ; t ) 1 ∂ B y ( x, y , z ; t )
2

+ + − 2 0 ,(0.4)
=
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c ∂t 2
∂ 2 Bz ( x, y, z; t ) ∂ 2 Bz ( x, y, z; t ) ∂ 2 Bz ( x, y, z; t )
1 ∂ Bz ( x, y, z; t )
2

+ + − 2 =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c ∂t 2

In equations (3) and (4) the dependence on the position vector r was replaced by the
   
dependence on its components ( x, y, z ) , since r = xi + yj + zk .
In most of the physical situations, it is possible to reduce the number of scalar equations
satisfied by the electric and magnetic field quantities by an adequate choice of the frame of
coordinates. For example, we can choose the direction of propagation such that it coincides
 
with the Oz axis. This means that E and B change only along the Oz axis, and consequently,
   
E = E ( z , t ) and B = B ( z , t ) .
As we have already mentioned, electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. In a
vacuum or a homogeneous, anisotropic medium, the two fields oscillate perpendicularly on
each other and perpendicularly to the direction of propagation. The direction of propagation is

given by the direction of the wave vector k . The wave vector is defined as a vector whose
magnitude is called the wavenumber and it is given by
 2π
k k=
= , (0.5)
λ
measured in m −1 , where λ is the wavelength.

With Oz as a direction of propagation, that is with k  Oz , two distinct situations can occur:
        
= E  Ox E E= (
x u x , B  Oy B )
B=y u y , k  Oz k (
kz uz ) ( )
or
        
= E  Oy E E= (
y u y , B  Ox B )
x u x , k  Oz. k
B= kz uz ( ) ( )
Note that the directions of the field vectors must be in a relation of the form:
  
= k const E × B .
This means that the actual direction of propagation is determined by the direction of the cross
vector of the electric and magnetic field vectors.
        
Let us consider the first
= case E  Ox E E=u
x x , B  Oy B B
= u
y y , k( Oz k kz uz . ) ( ) ( )
Such a wave propagates in the positive z-direction, and the differential waves equations read:
 ∂ 2 Ex ( z , t ) 1 ∂ Ex ( z , t )
2

− 2 0
=
∂z 2 c ∂t 2
, (0.6)
∂ 2 By ( z , t ) 1 ∂ 2 By ( z , t )
− 2 0
=
∂z 2 c ∂t 2

They are differential equations of the second order, with partial derivatives, in the
unknown functions Ex ( z , t ) and By ( z , t ) . The denotations Ex and By mean that the change
in the electric field is always parallel to Ox and that of the magnetic field is always parallel to
Oy.
Since Ex ( z , t ) and By ( z , t ) satisfy identical equations, we expect them to exhibit
identical space – time evolution. Equations (6) indicate a direct proportionality between the
second derivative with respect to the space coordinate z and with respect to the temporal
coordinate t. It is then safe to assume that the solution is a sine or cosine function whose
argument is a linear combination of the space-time coordinates. Such functions are described
as “harmonic”.

2.2 The electromagnetic wave function

In the following, we will start with a proposed solution, and we will prove that it
satisfies (6). We will work only with the electric field intensity since the magnetic field
undergoes a similar space-time evolution.
Let us assume that the solution of equations (6) is of the form:
Ex ( z,t ) = E0 x sin ( kz − ω t )
(0.7)
By ( z,t ) = B0 y sin ( kz − ω t )
These are the wave functions of a plane harmonic electromagnetic wave, satisfying the wave
equations given by (6). They describe the electromagnetic disturbance at any arbitrary position
z and time t.
E0 x and B0 y are the field amplitudes (maximum values). They are measured
V
in volts per meter ( ) and tesla (T), respectively. These quantities are not independent. In
m

fact, the amplitude of the electric field vector E = E0 x is c times larger than the amplitude of

the magnetic field vector B = B0 y , meaning
 
E =c B , (0.8)
if the wave propagates in a vacuum. If it is in a medium where the speed of the electromagnetic
waves is v < c , then
 
E =vB . (0.9)
The argument of the sine function is noted by ϕ and is called the wave phase.
) kz − ωt .
ϕ ( z , t= (0.10)
If necessary, an initial phase ϕ0 can be added to the phase of the wave function.
The electromagnetic wave is called a plane wave because magnitudes of the electric
and magnetic field vectors in the electromagnetic wave, Ex ( z , t ) and By ( z , t ) , are constant for
fixed z and t . To put it differently, the wave amplitude and phase are constant across any
plane perpendicular to the z axis. Note that, according to the wave equations (0.8) the electric
and magnetic fields of the electromagnetic wave vibrate in phase.
The surface which is the locus of the points oscillating in phase is called the wavefront.
For waves described by equations (0.8), the wavefronts are planes. A point source which emits
electromagnetic waves has spherical wavefronts. However, at large distance values from the
point source, where the radius of the wavefront is very large, the wave can be considered plane
in the vicinity of the axis of the optical system.
The phase ϕ ( z , t=
) kz − ωt of an electromagnetic wave has two components: a spatial
phase term ( kz ) and a temporal phase term ( ω t ). The first one describes the propagation along
the direction of propagation and the second describes the propagation in time. Note the
similarity of the two expressions:
periodicity parameter times  variable
 

2π
k= z
λ
2π t
ω=
T
 2π
The parameter describing the periodicity in space is the wavenumber = k k= ,
λ
measured in m-1 . The wavelength λ is the distance after which the wave repeats itself. In a
vacuum the wavelength is computed as
c
=λ cT = ,
f
1
where T is the period and f = is the wave frequency. In a transparent material the wave is
T
v
λmat
= v= T .
f
The parameter which describes the temporal periodicity is the angular frequency
2π rad
ω = 2π f , measured in
= = s −1 . Sometimes we will call it simply frequency. The
T s
period T is the time interval after which the wave repeats itself.
The frequency does not depend on the medium in which the wave travel. It is
determined by the mechanism which produces the wave. Therefore, the frequency in any
material is equal to the frequency in vacuum,
f mat = f .

Discussion about the wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic waves propagating

in vacuum and in an arbitrary medium.

The electromagnetic waves propagate in vacuum as plane waves in which the phase is
constant for fixed z and t . Mathematically, this can be written as:
ϕ = kz − ωt = const (0.11)
If we differentiate the above equation, we obtain
kdz - ω dt = 0 , (0.12)
which gives the phase speed c of the waves traveling in vacuum
dz ω
c= = . (0.13)
dt k
 On the other hand, if we use the wave function (8), and perform the necessary
derivatives
∂Ex ∂ 2 Ex
= kE0 x cos ( kz - ωt ) , 2
= -k 2 E0 x sin ( kz - ωt ) , (0.14)
∂z ∂z
∂Ex ∂ 2 Ex
= -ω E0 x cos ( kz - ωt ) , = -ω 2 E0 x sin ( kz - ωt ) , (0.15)
∂t ∂t 2
to substitute in the wave equation:
∂ 2 Ex 1 ∂ 2 Ex
− 2 = 0, (0.16)
∂z 2 c ∂t 2
we obtain
1
-k 2 E0 x sin ( kz - ω t ) + ω 2 2 E0 x sin ( kz - ω t ) = 0 (0.17)
c
and consequently
ω 1
=c = . (0.18)
k ε 0 µ0
Numerically we obtain
1 1 m
= c =  3 ⋅ 108
(0.19) .
ε 0 µ0 C 2
−7 Ns
2 s
8.85 ⋅ 10 −12
⋅ 4π ⋅ 10
Nm 2 C2
Equation (19) gives the speed of light in empty space.
However, when light travels in a transparent, homogenous, isotropic medium having an
electric permittivity ε = ε 0ε r and magnetic permeability µ = µ0 µr , the speed is
1 1 1 1 c
v= = = ⋅ = . (0.20)
εµ ε 0 ε r µ0 µ r ε 0 µ0 ε r µ r ε r µr
The constants ε r and µr can be obtained by purely electric and magnetic
measurements. For instance, one can use a plane capacitor charged by a battery and measure
both the force exerted between its plates and the force between the connecting wires. Knowing
these forces, the dielectric constant and magnetic constant of the insulator between the plates
are determined and substituted in (0.20) to obtain the speed of the light in the medium under
study. ε r and µr are higher than unity, which means that light speed in a medium will always
be less than light speed in empty space.
The index of refraction n of a transparent, homogenous, isotropic medium is defined
as the ratio of the speed of an electromagnetic wave in empty space to the speed in the medium
c
n= . (0.21)
v
It is a measure of the slowing factor for light traveling in that medium. For instance, if the index
of refraction is equal to 2, then the wave travels at half the speed it does in empty space. By
using equation (0.20), n can be expressed as a function of the electric and magnetic properties
of the medium
c c
n= = = ε r µr . (0.22)
v c ε r µr
For most of the materials that are transparent to visible light
µ  µ0 (0.23)
which means that they are nonmagnetic. Then,
 n  εr . (0.24)
Hence the magnetic properties of the medium in which light propagates have a small effect on
its propagation.
A short justification of light dispersion: when an electromagnetic wave is incident on a
medium, it electrically polarizes the molecules. In other words, the molecules get aligned (more
or less) to the field lines, thus changing the value of ε , which, in its turn, changes the index of
refraction. This process is wavelength dependent: different wavelengths will induce different
polarizations of the molecules and, as a result, ε and n will be different. So, the index of
refraction changes with wavelength
n = n (λ ) . (0.25)
This phenomenon is known as light dispersion, and it will be discussed later in this course.
Light dispersion by different materials is due to their electric properties.

Example 1

A plane harmonic infrared wave traveling through a transparent medium is given by

 z 
=Ex ( z , t ) E0 x sin 2π  −7
− 3 × 1014 t  (SI units). Find the refractive index of the
 5 × 10 
medium at that frequency, and the vacuum wavelength of the disturbance. Write the
expression of the magnetic field induction B y ( z , t ) in the medium.

Known data:

2π -1 2π
• k
Wave number = m= × 107 m -1 (in the material!)
5 × 10 −7
5

• direction of propagation: k  Oz

• B  Oy (since Oz is the direction of propagation) We will write By ( z , t )
• Angular frequency ω = 2π × 3 × 1014 s-1

Solution:

ω
2π × 3 × 1014 s -1 m
The speed of the wave in the material is v
= = = 1.5 × 108
k 2π s
× 107 m -1
5
m
3 × 108
c s= 2
The refractive index is n= =
v 1.5 × 108 m
s
The wavelength in vacuum is
 2π m 2π
λ0 =
cT =
c 3 × 108
= 10−6 m =
= 1000nm (IR)
ω s 2π × 3 × 10 s
14 -1

The amplitude of the magnetic field in the material is

E0 x E0 x
B=
0y = (T)
v 1.5 × 108
Then, the expression of the magnetic field will be in the material:

E0 x  z 
By ( z , t ) 8
sin 2π  −7
− 3 × 1014 t 
1.5 × 10  5 × 10 
Calculate By ( z , t ) in vacuum!