a ay =} > = ES a > e ry a i= a o rs ~ oOXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press isa department ofthe University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in ‘the UK and in certain other countries © Tim Kirk 2014 ‘The moral rights of the author have been asserted rst published in 2014 All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be ‘Feproduced, stored in a retrieval system. or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the priot permission in ‘writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law. by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerving, reproduction outside the scope ofthe above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press. at the adzess above, ‘You must not circulate this work in any other form and you ‘must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available 9780198393559 13579108642 Paper used in the production ofthis book is a natural, recyclable product made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The manufacturing process conforms tothe environmental regulations ofthe country of origin, Printed in Great Britain by Bell & Bain Ltd, Glasgow Acknowledgements ‘his work has been developed independently from and is not endorsed by the International Baccalaureate (1B) ‘Cover: © James Brittain(Corbis; p191: Chase Preuninger; 211: NASAWMAP Science Team; p117: vlaxShutterstock; 205: NASAWMAP. Artwork by Six Red Marbles and Oxford University Press ‘We have tried to trace and contact all copyright holders before Publication. f notified the publishers wil be pleased to rectify “any errors or omissions at the earliest opportunity.Introduction and acknowledgements Many people seem to think that you have to be really clever to understand Physics and this puts some people off studying it in the first place. So do you really need a brain the size of a planet in order to cope with IB Higher Level Physics? The answer, you will be pleased to heat, is, 'No’. In fact, it is one of the world's best kept secrets that Physics is easy! There is very little to learn by heart and leven ideas that seem really difficult when you first meet them can end up being obvious by the end of a course of ‘study, But if this is the case why do so many people seem to think that Physics is really hard? | think the main reason is that there are no safety nets! or‘short cuts' to understanding Physics principles. You won't get far if you just learn laws by memorising them ‘and try to plug numbers into equations in the hope of getting the right answer. To really make progress you need to be familiar with a concept and be completely happy that you understand it This will mean that you are able +0 apply your understanding in unfamiliar situations. The hardest thing, however, is often not the learning or the understanding of new ideas but the getting rid of wrong ‘and confused ‘every day explanations’ This book should prove useful to anyone following a pre university Physics course but its structure sticks very Third edition Since the 1B Study Guide's first publication in 2002, there have been two significant IB Diploma syllabus changes. The aim, to try and explain all the core ideas essential for the IB Physics course in as concise a way as possible, has remained the same. | continue to be grateful to all the teachers and students who have taken time to comment and I would welcome further feedback, In addition to the team at OUP, | would particularly lke to thank my exceptional colleagues and all the outstanding students at my current school, St. Dunstan's College, London. It goes without saying that this third edition could not have been achieved without Betsan's continued support and encouragement. This book is dedicated to the memory of my father, Francis Kirk. Tirm Kirk August 2014 INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS — closely tothe recently revised international Baccalaureate syllabus. It aims to provide an explanation (albeit very brief) ofall ofthe core ideas that are needed throughout the whole IB Physics course. To this end each ofthe sections is clearly marked as either being appropriate for everybody or only being needed by those studying at Higher level. The same is true of the questions that can be found at the end of the chapters. | would like to take the opportunity to thank the many people that have helped and encouraged me during the ‘writing ofthis book. In particular I need to mention David Jones and Paul Ruth who provided many useful and detailed suggestions for improvement ~ unfortunately there was not enough space to include everything, The biggest thanks, however, need to goto Betsan for her ‘support, patience and encouragement throughout the whole project. Tim Kirk, October 2002Contents {Italics denote topics which are exclusively Higher Level] 1 MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTIES tensity 39 The realm of physics ~ range of magnitudes of ‘Superposition 40 quantities in our universe 1 Polarization a The Si system of fundamental andderived units -—«2-~—_‘Usesof polarization a Estimation 3 Wave behaviour ~ Reflection 43 Uncertainties and error in experimental measurement 4 — Snell's law and refractive index: 44 Uncertainties in calculated results 5 Refraction and critical angle 45 Uncertainties in graphs 6 Difraction 46 Vectors and scalars 7 Two-source interference of waves a IB Questions ~ measurement and uncertainties 8 Nature and production of standing (stationary) 2 MECHANICS waves 48 Notion Boundary conditions 43 Graphical representation of motion 10 (B Questions — waves 50 Uniformly accelerated motion 11 5 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Projectile motion 12 _ Electric charge and Coulomb's law st Fluid resistance and free-fall 13 Electric fields 52 Forces and free-body diagrams 14 Electric potential energy and electric potential Newton’ first law 15 difference 53 Equlcun te Flette curent st Newton's second law tp Flctrie circus 55 Newtow’sthid kaw ig _ Resistors inseres and parale 56 Mass and weight ag Potential divider circuits and sensors ° Solid friction 29 Resistivity 58 Work 2 Example of use of Kirchofs iaws 58 Energy and power go _ Internal resistance and cells 60 Momentum andimpuse oa Magnetic force and fields at 1B Questions ~ mechanics 24 Magnetic forces 2 Examples of the magnetic field due to currents 63 3 THERMAL PHYSICS IB Questions — electricity and magnetism 64 Thermal concepts 2 Heat andinteral energy zg 6 CIRCULAR MOTION AND GRAVITATION Specific heat capacty Sp. Uniform circular motion 6 Phases (states) of mater and latent heat 29 Angular velocity and vertical circular motion 66 The gas laws 1 59 Newtris law of gravitation ° The gas laws 2 39 'B Questions ~ circular motion and gravitation 68 Molecular model ofan ideal gas a1? ATOMIC, NUCLEAR AND 18 Questions ~ thermal physics 32 PARTICLE PHYSICS 4 WAVES Emission and absorption spectra 6 Oscillations 33 Nuclear stability 70 Graphs of simple harmonic motion 34 Fundamental forces at Travelling waves 35 Radioactivity 1 2 Wave characteristics 36 Redioactivty 2 3 Electromagnetic spectrum ap Hallie 7 Investigating speed of sound experimentally 33 Nuclear reactions 7sFission and fusion Structure of matter Description and classification of particles Ouatks Feynman digrams IB Questions ~ atomic, nuclear and particle physics 8 ENERGY PRODUCTION Energy end power generation ~ Sankey diagram Primary energy sources Fossil fuel power production Nuciesr power process Nuclear power ~ safety and risks Solar power and hydroelectric power Wind power and other technologies Thermal energy transfer Radiation: Wien's law and the Stefan—Boltzmann law Solar power The greenhouse effect Global warming IB Questions ~ energy production 9 WAVE PHENOMENA Simple harmonic motion Energy changes during simple harmonic motion Digraction Two-source interference of waves: Young's double-siit experiment Muttiple-stit diffraction Thin parallel films Resolution The Doppler effect Examples and applications of the Doppler effect 8 Questions — wave phenomena 10 FIELDS Potential (gravitational and electric} Equipotentals Gravitational potential energy and potential Orbital motion Electric potential energy and potential Electric and Gravitational Fields compored 1B Questions — fields 11 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Induced electromotive force (emf) Lena's law and Foraday's law Atternating current (1) Alternating current (2) Rectification and smoothing circuits Capacitance 6 2 78 73 80 aL 82 83 84 85 86 9 88 89 90 on 92 93 94 95 96 @ 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 10? 108 109 110 ait 112 113 114 115 116 a? Capacitor discharge 18 Copacitor charge 119 |B Questions — electromagnetic induction 120 12 QUANTUM AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Photoelectric effect sat Matter waves 122 ‘Atomic spectra and atomic energy states 123 Bohr model ofthe atom 124 The Schrédinger model of the atom 125 The Heisenberg uncertainty principle and the loss of determinism 126 Tunnelling, potential barrier and factors affecting tunnelling probability 1? The nucleus 128 Nuclear energy levels and radioactive decay 129 |B Questions — quantum and nuclear physics 130 13 OPTION A— RELATIVITY Reference frames 1 Maxwell's equations 132 Special relativity 133 Lorentz transformations 134 Velocity addition 135 invariant quantities 136 Time dilation 137 Length contraction and evidence to support special relativity 138 Spacetime diagrams (Minkowski diagrams) 1 139 Spacetime diagrams 2 140 The twin paradox 1 140 Twin paradox 2 14 Spacetime diagrams 3 142 Mass and energy 143 Relativistic momentum and energy 144 Relativistic mechanics examples 145 General relativity ~ the equivolence principle 146 Gravitational red shift 147 ‘Supporting evidence 148 Curvature of spacetime 149 Black holes 150 IB Questions - option A relativity 1st 14 OPTION B — ENGINEERING PHYSICS Translational and rotational motion 152 Transiational and rotational relationships 153 Translational and rotational equilibrium 154 Equilibrium examples 155 Newton's second law — moment of inertia 156 Rotational dynamics 157 CONTENTS | aeSolving rotational problems Thermodynamic systerns and concepts Work done by an ideal gas The fist law of thermodynamics Second law of thermodynamics and entropy Heat engines and heat pumps Fluids ot rest Fluids in motion ~ Bemouli effect Bernouli- examples Viscosity Forced oscillations and resonance (1) Resonance (2) {B Questions ~ option 8 - engineering physics 15 OPTION C — IMAGING Image formation Converging lenses Image formation in convex lenses Thin lens equation Diverging lenses Converging and diverging mirors The simple magnifying glass Aberrations The compound microscope and astronomical telescope Astronomical reflecting telescopes Radio telescopes, Fibre optics Dispersion, attenuation and noise in optical fibres Channels of communication Xroys Xray imaging techniques Ultrasonic imaging Imaging continued IB Questions — option C - imaging 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 187 168 169 170 st we 173 a4 175 176 1? 178 179 180 181 182 184 185 188 197 188 189 16 OPTION D — ASTROPHYSICS Objects in the universe (1) Objects in the universe (2) The nature of stars stellar paralax Luminosity Stellar spectra Nucleosynthesis The Hertesprung~Russell diagram Cepheid variables Red giant stars Stellar evolution The Big Bang model Galactic motion Hubble aw and cosmic scale factor The accelerating universe Nuclear fusion ~ the Jeans ererion Nucleosynthess off the main sequence Types of supernovae The cosmological priniple and mathematica models Rotation curves and dark matter The history ofthe Universe The future ofthe Universe Dork energy Astrophysics research IB Questions astrophysics 1? APPENDIX Graphs 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 aun 212 23 a4 215 Graphical analysis and determination of relationships 216 Graphical analysis ~ logarithmic functions ANSWERS. ORIGIN OF INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONS INDEX ae as as aigi The realm of physics — range of magnitudes of quantities in our universe ‘ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE — INCLUDING THEIR RATIOS Physis seks 10 explain nothing less than the ‘Universe itsel In attempting 0 do this, the range ofthe magnitudes of various quantities veil be huge 1f the numbers involved are going ro mean anything, ti important to get some feel for thei relative staes. To avoid “getting lost among the numbers ts helpful to state them fo the nearest order of magnitude or power fof ten. The numbers are just rounded up oF down as appropiate. Comparisons can then be easily made beeause working Out the ratio between two powers of {en isjust a mater of adding or subtracting whole numbers. The diameter of an atom, 10- m, does not sound that much larger than the diameter of a proton in its nucleus, 10-" m, but the ratio between them is 10° or 100,000 times bigger. Tiss the sare ratio as between the size ofa rallway station (order ‘of magnitude 10! m) and the diameter of the Berth (order of magnitude 10° m) electrons ® a protons. Carbon atom Earth For example, you would probably fel very pleased with yourself it you designed a new, ‘environmentally friendly source of energy that could produce 2.03 x 10°, from 0.72 kg, ‘of natural produce. But the meaning of these ‘numbers is not dear is this lot or is ta litle? In terms of orders of magnitudes, this new source produces 10? joules per Kilogram of produce. This doesnot compare terribly ‘well with the 10° joules provided by a slice of bread or the 10" joules released per kilogram of pet You do NOT need to memorize all of the values shown inthe tables, Bt you should tny and develop afamiiarity with them. RANGE OF MASSES 1 Mass/Ke 1052 | total mass of observable 19% |Universe we | f local gal mast 20° le i 10% | gaeetin 20 “Tt nsec soe anasto ioe 19° | laden oil supertanker 10+ Jelephant RANGE OF LENGTHS mn ‘aes or observable Universe so | 108 oe aus of oct gla (Milky Wa to tony (ky Wo) 108 distance to nearest star 108 10 10! 10 [aston om Eat Sun 20° “| amance rm rtto Moon 8s ofthe ar 10° ~| deepest part of the 10¢ -{ocean/ highest mountain 192 {tallest building man % mouse 10° 10-4 410-2 _|length of fingernail to-t _|erainofsand « |thiekness of piece of paper do | bloed coruscle 10-4 + human blood corpuscle 10-8 bacterium 10-1 | bacte tone | wavelength offight 10-20. 10-10 haemoglobin molecule diameter of hydrogen atom 10-*. 10-12. oe pct 10 fyavelenaf emma ay «, [electron yH camaterof proton 10-8 tori | lameter of prot RANGE OF TIMES RANGE OF ENERGIES Time/s 10 4 Energy/ tose _| 28e ofthe Universe 104 -} energy released in a supernova gots _| ageofthe Earth to! 10% -| ogeofspecies—Homo | | sp 0% | Sapiens ‘energy radiated by Sun in t second 0 | 10% 10 > typical human lifespan so 44 10% toe | te" energy released in an earthquake to | 18y 108 | energy released by annihilation of 10? 10! + i kgof matter 10° -{ heartbeat 10:0 - energyina lightning discharge so 107, | pxiagortiahrequency |) yor | enomynendedtocharge scar bates a to kinetic fate ball | passage of ight act netic energy a tenis bal 10+ fpeszageorenscoes || yo-« | rasa 10 ‘energy in the beat ofa fly's wing 10-8 | 10 10-1] bration ofanioninasote | | oi] Peiodof visible ight 10 10-8 | wom 9-20._| passage of light across: 10-18 gnerey needed to remove electron oem | Fomine surface ofametal 10-2] passage oflghtacrass 10 Shucleus to MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTIES aeThe SI system of fundamental and derived units FUNDAMENTAL UNITS ‘Any measurement and every quantity can be thought of as being made up of two important parts: 1. the momber and 2 the unis ‘Without both parts, the measurement docs not make sense For example a person's age might be quoted as seventeen” bout without the ‘years’ the situation i not cess. Are they 17 minutes, 17 months oF 17 years old? inthis ease you would know if you saw them, but a statement ike length = 4.2 actualy says nothing, Having sad this, & is eeally surpeising to see the numberof candidates who forget to include the unis in their answers to examination questions In onder forthe units to be understood, they need to be defined ‘There are many possible systems of measurement that have been developed. In science we use the international System of ‘units (SD). In St, the fundamental or base units are follows Quantity Stunit st symbot mass Kilogram kg Length mete » Time second lect current ampere Amount of substance mole mol Temperature kelvin K (luminousintensty candela ad ‘You do not need to know the precise definitions of any of these tunits inorder couse them propery. — DERIVED UNITS. ¥aving fixed the fondamental units al other measurements can be expresedas diferent combinatlons ofthe fdamental Units. other words, all the other units are derived units, For example, the fundamental lis of unis doesnot contain» unit forthe measurement of peed. The defnition of sped can be sed to work out he derived unt Since speed = Ssuance units of dance Unis of speed = ats of dance tes seconds (oronounced ‘metres per second’) Of the many ways of writing this unit, the last way (ms!) is the best Sometimes particular combinations of fundamental units are so common that they ate given a new derived name. For ‘example, the unit of force isa derived unit—it turns out to be kg m s~. This unit is given a new name the newton {§) 30 that IN= Ligms>, The great thing about STs that, so long as the numbers that are substituted into an equation are in units, then the answer will also come out in St units You can always ‘play safe’ by converting all the numbers into proper S{ units. Sometimes, however this would be a waste of time. There are some situations where the use of SI becomes «awkward. Io astronomy, for example, the distances involved are so lange that the ST Unit (ue metre) always involves large orders of magnitudes. in these cases, the use of a diferent {but non St) unit is very common. Astronomers ean use the astronomical unit (AU), the lght-year (ly) oF the parsee (pe) 25 appropriate. Whatever the unit the conversion to SI units is simple arithmetic TAU = 1.5 x 10!'m 1ly=9.5 x 10% m Ipe=3.1 x 10m ‘There are also some units (for example the hour) wich are 40 common that they ae often used even though they do not form Part of SL, Once again, before these numbers are substituted into equations they need to be converted. Some common unt ‘conversions are given on page 3 ofthe IB data booklet, The table below lists the SI derived units that you will meet. Stderived unit _stbase unit Alternative St unit newton (N) hems - pascal (Pa) gars Nm? here (2) = joule a) gms Nm wate (¥) kgm's ust coulomb (c) As - volt (vy kemsta) wat ohm (9) kemsrat Vat weber (Wb) gmt) vs tesla (7) kgs as Wom? Deequerel (Bq) 5 - PREFIXES: For example, 1 KW = 1000 W. 1 mW poanes ape epested use of scientific notation, an altematve so use one of the ls of agreed prefixes gven on page 2 in the IB data booklet, These can be very useful but they can abo lea to eros tn calelations. t's very easy to forget io include tne omnenang tsar 0° W (in other words, 5) Rc MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTIESEstimation ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE. is important to develop a “eeling’ for some ofthe numbers that you use. When using a calculator, tis very easy to make a simple mistake (eg by entering the data incortectly). A good ‘way of checking the answer isto fist make an estimate before resorting tothe calculator. The multiple-choice paper (paper 1) does not allow the use of calculators. Approximate values for each ofthe fundamental Suns are sven below. Lkg A packet of sugar, 1 litre of water. A person would be about 50 kg oF more Im Distance between one’s hands with arms outstretched 1 Duration ofa heartbeat (when resting —it ean easily double with exercise) Lamp Cureent flowing rom the mains electricity when a computer is connected, The maximum current to 2 domestic device would be about 10 A oF 59 Thelvin 1K isa very low temperature. Water feezes at 273 K and boils a 373 K. Room temperature Is about 300 K Y mol 12.gofeathon-12. About the number of atoms of carbon in the ‘ead’ of a pencil ‘The same process can happen with some of the derived unit. Tims! Walking speed. Acar moving at 30 m = would be fast ms? Quite aslow acceleration. The acceleration of gravity istoms? IN A small force ~ about the weight of an apple LV Batteries generally range from a few volts up to 20 or So, the mains is several hundred volts 1 Pa Avery stall pressure. Atmospheric pressure is about 10°Pa 11 Avery small amount of energy the work done lifting an apple off the ground POSSIBLE REASONABLE ASSUMPTIONS Bveryay situations are very complex. In physics we often simpliy @ problem by making simple assumptions. Even i we know these assumptions are not absolutely tue they allow us to gain an understanding of what is going on. At the end ofthe calculation itis often possble to go back and work out what would happen | “The table below lists some common assumptions. Be careful not to assume too much! Additionally we often hav some quantity is constant even if we know that ln realty itis varying slightly al the time. if our assumption turned out not tobe tue, assume that ‘Assumption Example Object treated as point paride ‘Mechanics Lineat motion and wanslational equilibrium Friction is negligible ‘Many mechanics duations — but you need to be very careful No thermal energy (Theat) los “Almost all ermal situations Mass of connecting sting, ec. is negligible ‘Many mechanics stations Resistance of ammeter is 7270 Circuits Resistance of voltmeter is infinite Circuits Internal resistance of banery Is 1670 Cheeus ‘Material obeys Ohm's law Circuits ‘Machine 100% efficient ‘Many situations Gas is ideal ‘Thermodynamics Collision is elastic ‘Only gas molecules have perfectly elastic eallsions| ‘Object radiates as a perfec: black body Thermal equilrium, eg. planets ‘SCIENTIFIC NOTATION Numbers that are to big or too small for decimals are often vwritten in scientific notation: ax 10" where ais a number berween 1 and 10 and bis an integer, ce, 153.2 = 1,532 x 10% 0.00872 72x10 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES [Any experimental measurement should be quoted with its ‘uncertainty This indicates the possible range of values for the quantity being measured. At the same time, the number of significant figures used well act as a guide to the amount of uncertainty. For example, a measurement of mass which is quoted as 23.456 g implies an uncertainty of + 0.001 g lita five significant figures), whereas one of 23.5 g implies fan uncercainy of © 0.1 g (thas three significant figures). ‘A simpie role for calculations (multiplication or division) ito ‘quate the answer to the same numberof significant digs as the LEAST precise value tht Is used. For a more complete analysis of how to deal with uncertainties in caleulated results, see page 5 MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTIES eaUncertainties and error in experimental measurement ERRORS ~ RANDOM AND SYSTEMATIC (PRECISION ‘AND ACCURACY) ‘An experimental error just means that there is a difference between the recorded value and the ‘perfect’ or ‘correct’ valve. [Bros can be categorized as random or systematic. Repeating readings does not reduce systematic errors. Sources of random errors include + The readability of the instrument. + ‘The observer being less than perfect. + The effects of a change in the surroundings. Sources of systematic errors include + An instrument with zero error. To correct for zero erro the value should be subtracted from every reading. Systematic ad random errors can often be recognized from {raph of che results, quantiyA 1 perfect results % random error ‘A systematic eror quantity Perfect results, random and systematic erors of two proportional quantities, + Aninstrument being wrongly calibrated ‘+The observer being less than perfect in the same way every An accurate experiment Is one that has @ small systematic error, whereas preeise experiment is one that has a small random error, probability that result has a certain value val true valu measured true {value measured value value (a) (b) Two examples illustrating the nature of experimental results (@) an accurate experiment of low precision () ales accurate but more precise experiment GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF UNCERTAINTY ‘In many situations the best method of presenting and analysing data i to use a geaph, If this is the case, a neat way ‘of representing the uncertainties iso use error bars, The sraphs below explains their use. Since the eror er represents the uncertainty range, the ‘Dest- Stine of the graph should pass through ALE of the rectangles created by the error bar, ESTIMATING THE UNCERTAINTY RANGE An uncertainty range applies to any experimental value, The idea is that ‘instead of just giving one value that Implies perfection, we give the likely ‘ange for the measurement. 1. Bstimating from frst principles All measurement involves a readability certor. we use a measuring cylinder to find the volume of aliquid, we might think thatthe best estimate is 73 cm’ but we know that its not exactly this value (73.00000000000 em) ‘Uncertainty range is 5 env. We say volume = 73 4 5 em’ Normally the uncertainty range due to readability is estimated as below. Device Example Uncertainty Analogue Rulers, meters with + (haf the smallest scale ‘moving pointers scale division) Digital scale Top-pan balances, (the smallest seale digital meters division) 2. Estimating uncertainty range from several repeated he time taken fo arly to go down a slope fs measured five times the readings in seconds might be 201, 1,82, 1.97, 2.16 and 1.94. The average of these five readings i 1.98 s. The deviaion af the largest and smallest readings can be calculated (2.16 ~ 1.98 = 0.18; 1.98 ~ 1.82 =0.16). The langst value i taken athe tuncenainy range tn this example te time i 1.98 5 0.185 I would also be appropriate o quote this 35 2.0 + 0.25 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN UNCERTAINTIES Inorder to be cautious when quoting uncertainties, final values {rom caleulations are often rounded up to one significant ‘igure, eg. a calculation that finds the value ofa force to be 4.264 N with an uncertainty of + 0.362 N is quoted as 43 £04 N. This can be unnecessarily pessimistic andi i also accepable to express uncertainties to two significant figures. For example, the charge on an elecron is 1.602176565 x10™" © + 0.000000035 x10-" C. In data booklets this is sometimes expressed as 1.602176565(35) x 10°" & & quantity ‘quantity 2 5 \ e mistake | the best flies assumed incjuded by al the error bars in the upper two sraphs. This is not tue in quantiy® the lower graph. a7 MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTIESUncertainties in calculated results MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF UNCERTAINTIES. For example if the mass of a block was measured as 10: 1 g and the volume was measured as 5.0 + 0.2 ex, then the ful, ‘calculations for the density would be as follows. Best value for density gem ‘The largest possible value of density = = 2.292 g em ‘The smallest possible value of density = = 1.731 gem Rounding these values gives density ‘We can express this uncertainty in one of three ways — using absolute, fractional or percentage uncertainties, o£03gan* Ia quantity pis measured then the absolute uncertainty would be expressed as =4p, ‘Then the fractional uncertainty s Ap at, which makes the percentage uncertainty ap AP 100%. Inthe exarope above, the fractional uncertainty ofthe density s 2015 oF $15%. “Thus equivalent ways of expressing this error are density = 2040.3 gem OR density = 2.0 gem? 15% ‘Working out the uncertainty range is very me consuming, ‘There are some mathematical ‘shortcuts that can be used. ‘These ae introduced in the boxes below. MULTIPLICATION, DIVISION OR POWERS Whenever two ot more quantiles are multiplied or divided and they each have uncerintes, the overall uncertainty is approximately equal othe addition ofthe percentage (ractional) uncertain Using the same numbers from above, 16 {ts \Tos av=402a0 AV (0.2en! + (RS 14% of 20 gem” = 0.28 gam"'= 0.3 gem So density = 2.0: 0.3 gem? as before 1m symbols. ify Then 3S ots twas ed Power relationships are just a special case of this law. uy hen 22=[e Del aways posse ror exampleif ace measured be 400.1 em in ength tong each side, hen inty in length = OF = = % Uncercanty in length = 4 Sh = +2.5.% 66cm? 9% uncertainty fn (eng) 3 x (th uncertainty in length) Volume = (length) = (4.0) 4% Uncertainty i (volume) x (42.5%) 15% Absolute uncertainty = 7.5% of 64 cx? = 4.8 cm =5 em ‘Thus volume of cube = 64 £5 em? OTHER MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS Ifthe calculation involves mathematical operations other than multiplication, division of ralsing to @ power, then one has to find the highest and lowest possible values. ‘Addition or subtraction ‘Whenever two or more quantities are added or subtraced and they each have uncertainties, the overall uncertainty is equal t0 the addition of the absolute uncertainties, In symbols Mya Ay= Aa + Ab {note ALWAYS added) uncertainty of thickness in a pipe wall external radius of pipe = 6.1 m4 0.1 cm (~ 2%) Hiaternal radius of pipe em 0.1 cm (~2%) thickness of pipe wall 1—53.em = 0.8m “uncertainty in thickness = (0.1 + 0.1) em o2em 425% Other functions There are no ‘short-cats' possible. Find the highest and lowest valves. eg. uncertainty of sn #1 8= 60" 5° 35006 5 # a= 6045" best value to sin 9 = 0.87 max. sin 9= 0.91 sin, sin J = 0.82 sin 8=087 £0.95 worst value wed MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTIES ajUncertainties in graphs ERROR BARS. Plotting a graph allows one to visualize all the readings a one time. Ideally al of the points should be ploted with their error bars. In principe, the site ofthe error bar could ‘well be diferent for every single point and so they should be individually worked out, quantity best ft line ‘quantity b ‘A {ull analysis n order to determine the uncertainties in the sradient of bes straight-line graph should always make use of the error bars for all of the data points. mn practice, i would often take too much time to ad all the correct eror bats, so some (or all ofthe folowing short-cuts ‘could be considered, + Rather than working out error bas for each point — use the worst value and assume that all of the other error bars are the same, ‘+ Only plot the eror bar for the ‘worst point, Le. che point that s furthest from the line of best. Ifthe line of best fit is within the tims of this err bar, then it will probably be ‘within the limits ofall the error bas, + Only plot the exror bats for dhe fst and the last points ‘These are often the most important points when considering the uncertainty ranges calculated fr the gradient or the intercept (sce right), *+ Only include the error bars for the axis that has the worst “uncertainty, UNCERTAINTY IN SLOPES the gradient ofthe graph aus {oan wncertainty inthe gradient. Using the steepest andthe shallowest lines possible (Le. the lines that are still consistent ‘withthe error bars) the uncertainty range forthe gradient is ‘objained. This process is represented below. been used to calculate a iy, then the uncertainties of the points will give rise steepest gradient quantity.a Shallowest gradient ‘quantity b UNCERTAINTY IN INTERCEPTS Tithe intercept of the graph has been used to calculate a ‘guantiy, then the uncertainties of the points wil give rise ‘oan uncertainty inthe intercept. Using the steepest and the shallowest lines possible (le. the lines that are sil consistent with the error bars) we can obtain the uncertainty in the result. This process represented below, quantiya ‘maximum value of intercept best value, fineceg ‘minimum value ofintercept ‘quantity b ai MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTIESVectors and scalars DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VECTORS AND SCALARS Ifyou measure any quantity, it must have a number AND a uit. Together they express the magnitude of he quantity Some quantities aso have a direction associated with them. A ‘quantity that has magnitude and direction is called a veetor ‘quantity whereas one that has only magnitude is called a scalar quantity. For example, all forces are vectors. ‘The table sts some common quanthies. The fis two quantities in the table are linked to one another by ther definitions (see ‘page 9), All the others are in no particular order. Sealars Displacement <> Distance Velocity <> speed ‘Vectors ‘Acceleration, Mass Force nergy (all forms) Momentum ‘Temperature lecticfeld strength Potential or potential diference ‘Magnetic feld strength Density Gravitational feld strength Area Although the vectors used in many of the given examples are forces, the techniques can be applied to all vectors, REPRESENTING VECTORS tn most books a bold eters wed vo represent a vector reas norma eter eesens a soa For esa F ould be wed o represent a force in magntide AND Girection, The lst below shows some thet recognized mead, F, Pork Vector ar best shown in Sharan xing ars + dhe elatve magnitudes, ofthe vectors involved tre shown by ie relative engi of the anows pull ‘ction + the direction of the ‘vectors is shown by the direction ofthe arcows. ‘ADDITION / SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS we have a 3 N and a 4N force, the overall force (resultant force) can be 3N = aN 1 Nand 7 iN depending on the dizections involved. anything berween , tL 4 * tN COMPONENTS OF VECTORS tis also possible to “split one vector into two (or mare) vectors. “This process s called resolving and the vectors that we get are called the components of the orginal vector. This can bea very useful way of analysing a situation if we choose to resolve all the ‘vectors into two directions that are at rght anges to one another F, Spliting a vector into components ‘These ‘mutually perpendicular’ directions ae totally Independent of each other and can be analysed separately. If appropriate, both directions can then be combined at the end to Work out the final resultant vecor forces \ Push Weight Pushing a block along a rough surface ‘The way to take aN aN the declan, tan account — -7 Srodoaaae Gugamandwe 3N AN Lo yy tennis aa : “Tis process isthe same as adding vectors in tum =the “tail of one vecor i drawn staring fom the head of the previous vector. Parallelogram of vectors TRIGONOMETRY Vector problems can always be solved using scale diagrams, bur this ean be very time consuming. The mathematics of eigonometry often makes it much easier to use the ‘mathematical functions of sine or cosine. This is particularly appropriate when resolving The diagram below shows how to calculate the values of either ofthese components. oY A Asin ® Ay ‘Acos 8 sd See page 14 for an example. MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTIES SeIB Questions — measurement and uncertainties 1. An objec lied from ret down an incined plane. The distance travelled by the object was measured at seven different times. A graph was dhen constructed ofthe distance travelled against the (time taken? as shown below. distance wavelied (em) Go or 0203-0405 (time taken)?/5? 4) () What quantity is given by the gradient of such a graph? ic (a) Explain why the graph suggests thatthe collected datais valid but includes a systematicerror. (2 (i) Do these result suggest that distance is proportional 1 (time taken)? Explain your answer. By (iv) Making allowance forthe systematic eror,caleulate ‘the acceleration ofthe abject. pI by The folowing graph shows tha same data afer the uncertainty ranges have been calculated and drawn as error bars ra 8 distance travelied/| Yo or 02030405 (time taken}*/5? [Ad wo ines to show he range of ihe posible acceptable values forthe gradient ofthe gwoph. (2) 2. "Telengs fhe eso rectangular plate te messed, and the lara stows the messed aes ih fcr uncer <0 05 m—> 125 + 05mm.» | Which one of the following would be the best estimate ofthe percentage uncertainty in the calculated area ofthe plate? A £002% Gam 6 BIw ». 5% 3. A stone is dropped down a well and hits he water 20 s after itis released. Using the equation d = by F and taking 9 =9.81 m+, aealelator yields a value forthe depth d of ‘the well as 19.62 m. If the time is measured to $0.1 s then the bes estimate ofthe absolute eror ins A401 m ©. 410m, 402m D. 420m, 4. Imorder to determine the density ofa certain type of wood, the following measurements were made on a eube ofthe wood, Mass = 0938 Length of each sie = 9.3 cm ‘The percentage uncertainty in the measurement of mass is 40.5% and the percentage uncertainty in the measurement, of length is 1.0%. “The best estimate forthe uncertainty in the density s A. 405% 43.0% B 415% D, 43.5% 5, Astronauts wish to determine the gravitational acceleration on Planet X by dropping stones from an overhanging cif ‘Using a steel tape measure they measure the height of the liflass=7.64 m+ 0.01 m. They then drop three similar stones fom the cli iming each fall using a hand-held lecironie stopwatch which displays readings to one ‘hundredth of a second. The recorded times for three drops are 2.465, 2.31 Sand 2.40 4) Explain why the sme readings vary by more ‘than a tenth ofa second, although the stopwatch ‘ves readings to one hundredth of a second, uy » Obsain the average time £10 fall. and weit It in the form (value + uncertainty), to the appropriate ‘number ofsgeticant digi a 6) The astronauts then determine the gravitationel acceleration a, on the planet using the formula a, = # Calculate a, from the values of sand s, and determine the ‘uncertainty inthe calculated value, Express the result the form, 4, = (value £ uncertainty) to the appropriate number of significant digits. BI 6. This question is about finding the relationship between the forces between magnets and their separations. Inn experiment, wo magnets were placed with thelr North seeking poles facing one another. The force of repulsion, f ‘and the separation of the magnets, d, were measured and the results are shown in the table below. Separation dim Force of repulsion IN 0.08 400) 0.05 198 007 o74 0.09 032 a) Plota graph of log (force) against log (distance). 3} ) The law relating the force tothe separation Is ofthe form Soke (0) Use the graph to find the value of ra (i) Calculate a value for k,gving Is units BI (RD) te ovestions — MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTIES2 Nees Motion ¢ DEFINITIONS ‘These technica terms should not be confused with thelr everyday” ue. In particular one should nole that + Vector quantities always have @ direction associated wrth them, ‘+ Generally, velocity and speed are NOT the same thing This is particularly important if the object isnot goin ina straight line. ‘+ The units of acceleration come from is definition, (ms) ¢ s = ms“ + The definition of acceleration is precise. I is related to the change in velocity (not the same thing a the change in speed), Whenever the motion of an object changes, itis called acceleration For this reason acceleration does not necessarily mean ‘constantly increasing speed ~it is possible to accelerate while at constant speed if the direction is changed + A deceleration means slowing down, le. negative acceleration if velocity is positive. ‘Symbol [Definition Example st | Vector or unit | scalar? Displacement | 5 _ |The distance moved ina [The displacement from London to | _m Vecior particular direction Rome is 1.43 x 10° m southeast, Velocity voru |The rate of change of The average velocity during aight | mas Vector displacement. from London to Rome is 160 ms" velocity = sineeetéanheeest | southeast. Speed voru [Thevate of change of distance, |The average speed during aight | ms” Scalar spect = me ine from London to Rome is 160 m s* [Acceleration | 2 |The ate of change of velodiy, | The average acceleration ofaplane | ms Vector twtr | on dhe runway daring take-off s 3.3 min a forwards direction, This ‘means thet on average its velocty changes every second by 351m "1 acecleration INSTANTANEOUS VS AVERAGE ‘But during te race, her instantaneous speed wes changing all the Ttshould be noticed that the average value (over a period time, At the end of the fst 2.0 seconds she had tavelled 10.04 em of ime) is very diferent o the instantaneous value ft one This means that her average speed over the ft 20 Seconds was particulae time), 5.02:m5°. During these fst wo seconds, her instantaneous speed was increasing ~ she was accleratng. I she started a est, (speed = 0.00 ms") and her average speed (over the whole 10 seconds) was 5.02 ms then her instantaneous speed at 2 seconds In the example below, the positions of sprinter are shown at lrent ries alter the start ofa race. ‘The average speed over the whole race is easy to work Out spus be more than this Infact the instantaneous speed for ths 4 the total distance (100 m) divided by the total time (11.38) sinter was 9.23 nba it would not be possible to work this ving 6.8 ms. ‘out from the information given. start finish 4=000m d=1004m d=28.21m 3=4799m d= 69.12 m 100.00.m . Fe. é at 3 3 =00s 20s t=A0s 605 t=808 t FRAMES OF REFERENCE 1 technical terms what we are doing sta daionary observer on the side ofthe Ito things ere moving inthe same -‘ToVing ftom ane frame of reference road, We moved from thisrame of teleence ‘nto another, The velocities of 25 ms"? _intothe driver's ame of reference. straight line but are travelling t diferent and 30 ms" were measure speeds, then we can work out their relative velocities by simple addition or subtraction as appropriate. For example, Imagine two cars traveling along a straight road at diferent speeds. ceo, gap between the cars one car (travelling at 30 m $") dvertakes the other car (travelling at 25 ms") then according tothe driver of the slow car, the relative velocity of the {ast caris +5 ms~ lone car overtaking another, as seen by an. observer on the side ofthe road. fone car overtaking another, as seen by th driver ofthe slow car. MECHANICS PoyGraphical representation of motion THE USE OF GRAPHS Graphs are very usefl for representing the changes that happen when an abject isn motion. There ae thee possible sraphs that can provide useful information ‘+ displacement-sime or dstance-time graphs + yelocity-time or speed-time graphs + acceleration-time graphs. There are two common metbods of determining particular physical ‘quantities from these graphs. The particular physical quantity determined depends on what i being ploted om the raph 1, Finding the gradient of the line. ‘Tobe a litle more precise, one could find elther the gradient of «a straight-line section ofthe gran (this finds an average value), oF “the tangent tothe graph at one poi (this finds an instantaneous vale) 2, Finding the area under the line, ‘To make things simple at the beginning, the graphs are normally introduced by considering objects that are just moving {in one particular direction. If this isthe case then there is rot much difference between the scalar versions (distance oF speed) and the vector versions (displacement or velocity) as the F the parachutist accelerates downwards, As the parachutist gets faster, the ai friction increases until WF ‘The parachutistis at constant velocity (the acceleration is zer0) Lifting a heavy suitcase W, weight of suitcase Ifthe suitcase is too heavy tif, itis not moving: acceleration = zero “PLR=W Cartravelling in a straight line Fis force forwards, due to engine Ps force backwards due toir resistance ‘alltimes force up (28) = force down (W) IFF> Pthe car accelerates forwards IFF=Prthe caris at constant velocity (zero acceleration) IFF < Pthecardecelerates (ie. theres negative acceleration and the car slows down) Person in a lift that is moving upwards lift moving upwards The otal force up from the oor ofthe ft = The total force down cue to gravity. IFA > Whe person's cctersting pars, tf = Whe person i at constant velocity (acceleration = rer] IFR'< W the person is decelerating accelerations neat mechanics [GSIEquilibrium EQUILIBRIUM I the resultant force on an objects zero then iti said 10 be n translational equilibrium (or justin equilibrium) Mathematically this is expressed as follows: Tanslational equilibrium does NOT mean the same thing as being at rest. For example ifthe ehild in the previous example isallowed to swing back and forth, there are times when she is Drenro ‘instantaneously at vest but he is never in equilibrium From Newton's frst law, we know thatthe objects inthe following situations must be in equilibrium. 1 Am object that constantly at res 2. An object that is moving with constant (uniform) velocity ina straight line. Since forces are vector quantities, @2er0 resultant force means no force IN ANY DIRECTION, For 2-dimensional problems itis sufiient co show that the forces balance in any two non-parallel directions. Uf thsi the case then the object is in equilibrium. tension, P Attheendofthe Forces arenot ‘swingthe forces _balancedinthe centre oa arenotbalanced asthe childisin circular ; butthechildis motion andis instantaneously accelerating (see page 65). atrest. ifn equilibrium: T sin 8 =P (sincenoresuitant horizontal force) T cos @=W (since no resultant vertical force) DIFFERENT TYPES OF FORCES Name offorce [Description ‘Gravitational force | The force between objecs asa result of thelr masses. This is sometimes refered to as the weight of the object but this term is, unfortunately, ambiguous ~ see page 19. Blectrostatic force | The force between objects asa result oftheir electric charges, Magnetic force ___ | The force between magnets and/or electic currents ‘Normal reaction | The force between two surfaces dha acts at Fight angles to the surfaces If wo surfaces are smooth then this is the only force that ats between ther. Friction [The force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces and acts along the surfaces. Air resistance or drag can be thought of asa frictional force ~ technically this is known as fuld friction, Tension ‘When a string (o spring) is stretched, thas equal and opposite forees on its ends palling outwards, ‘The tension force isthe force that the end of the string applies to another object. ‘Compression "When a rod is compressed (squashed), i has equal and oppose forces on its ends pushing inwards The compression force is the force that the ends ofthe rod applies to another object. This isthe opposte of the tension force Upthrust [This is the upward force that acts on an object when its submerged in auld. Its the buoyancy force that causes some objects to float in water (see page 164). ite This force ean be exerted on an object when a fluid flows over tin an asymmetrical way. The shape of the wing of an airratt causes the aerodynamic lift that enables the aiteraft to ly (see page 166). (HEN) mechanicsNewton's second law NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION Newtons first law states that a resultant force causes an acceleration, ils second law provides a means of calculating the value ofthis aceleralon, The best way of stating the second law is use the concept of the momentum of an object. This concept is ‘explained on page 23 ‘A conrect statement of Newton's second lave ‘using momentum would be ‘he resultant force is proportional tothe rate of change of momentum’. It we use ST units (and you always should) then the law fs even easier to state ~ the resultant force is equal ‘0 the rate of change of momentum’. In symbols, this is ‘expressed as follows ap tnstunits #= SE . ae or, in full callus notation, ? = ‘pis the symbol forthe momentum of a body. ‘Until you have studied what this means this will ‘not make much sense, but this version of the law is sven here for completeness. {An equivalent (but more common) way of stating [Newton's second law applies when we consider the action of a force on a single mass. the amount ‘of mass stays constant we can state the lar as follows. ‘The resultant force is proportional to the acceleration.’ If we also use SI units then ‘the resultant force is equal to the product ofthe mass and the acceleration’ {In symbols, in SL units, F=ma. ZTS resultant force acceleration measuredin mass measured measured in rewtons kilograms ms" Note: + The = ma’ version of the law only applies if we ‘use SI units ~ for the equation to work the mass "must be in kilograms rather than in grams. + isthe resultant force. If there are several forces acting on an object (and this is usually true) then fone needs to work out the resultant force before applying the aw. 4+ This ie an experimental lave ‘+ ‘There are no exceptions - Newton's laws apply throughout the Universe. (To be absolutly precise, Einstein's theory of relativity takes aver at very large values of speed and mass.) “The F= ma version ofthe law can be used whenever the situation ie simple for example, a constant force acting ona constant mass giving a constant acceleration, Ifthe situation is more difficult eg. a changing force or a changing mass) then one needs 0 the r= vse the P= 2 version EXAMPLES OF NEWTON'S SECOND LAW 1, Use of F=maina simple 2N— no ition between biock and surface a mass of 3 kg is accelerated in a straight line by a resultant force of 12 N, the acceleration must be 4 m 57, Since Fama, 12 7 f= Baams 2, Use of F= main acceleration = 1.5m s~? a slighaly more complicated situation 2 N—>| friction force fa mass of 3 kgs accelerated ina straight line bya force of 12N, and the resultant acceleration is 1.5 ms, then we can work out the fiction that must have been acting Since r : lA- resultant force = 3 x 1.5 =45N “This resultant force = forward force ~ fiction therefore, trction = forward force ~ resultant force 212-45 75N fiction (max, 8.0) ‘normal reaction 3 Useof 2-dmensional situation Aa ‘A mass of 3 kg feels a gravitational pull towards the Barth of 30 N. ‘What will happen if tis placed on a 30 degree slope given thatthe ‘maximum friction between the block andthe slope is 8.0 N? ‘normal reaction ‘component into siope 30° 4 “component down the slope: {into slope: normal reaction = component into slope The block does not accelerate into the slope. down the slope: component down slop BON x sin 30" =15N ‘maximum friction force up slope = 8 N resultant force down slope = 15 ~ 8 =7NNewton’s third law ‘STATEMENT OF THE LAW Newton's second law isan experimental law that allows us to calculate the effet that a force has. Newton's third law highlights "he fact that forces always come in pals. It provides a way of checking to see if we have remembered all the forces involved. Tes very easy to state, ‘When two bodies A and B interact, the force that A exerts on B is equal and opposite tothe force that exerts on A, Another way of saying the same thing is that “Tor every action on one object there isan equal but opposite reaction on another objet to notice include + The two forces in the pair act om different objects ~ this ‘means that equal and opposite forces that act on the same object are NOT Newton's third law pairs ‘+ Not only are the forces equal and opposite, but they must be ofthe same type. In other words if the force that A exerts on Bisa gravitational force, then the equal and opposite force exerted by B on A Is also a gravitational force EXAMPLES OF THE LAW Forces between roller-skaters Fone roller skater pushes another, they both feel aforce. The forces must be equal and opposite, but the ‘acceleration will be diferent (since they hhave different masses), The person with the smaller mass will gain the greater velocity a 8 ‘Abook on a table ~ Newton's third law R, reaction from table These two forces arena thd law pits. There must be another force (ona diferent object) that W, weight pairs with each one: Ifthe table pushes Ifthe Earth pulls the book Upwards on the book down with force W, then the with force R, then the book must pull the Earth up ‘book must push down on with force W. the table with force R, Aroller-skater pushes off from a wall push of wall push of gid on gil, ‘on wall 25ms-t—— ‘The mass ofthe The force on the wall and girl causes her Earth) is so toaccelerate large that the backwards. force an it does not effectively cause any acceleration, "Fpush forward from the ground on the cor In order to accelerate, there must bea forwatd fore onthe car. The engine makes the wheels turn and the wheels push on the ‘round. force from car on ground = — force from groundan car BBBIE ccuanicsMass and weight WEIGHT ‘Mass and weight are wo very diferent things. Unfortunately their meanings bave become muddled in everyday language _Mass fs the amount of matter contained in an object (measured in kg) whereas the weight ofan object i a force (measured in N} Ian objects taken to the Moon, its mass would be the samme, but its weight would be less (dhe gravitational forces on the ‘Moon are less than on the Barth). On the Barth the two terms are often muddled because they are proportional. People talk ‘about wanting to gain or lose welght ~ what they are actually worried about is gaining or losing mass. es * ‘To make things wort, the rerm ‘weight’ can be ambiguous ‘even to physicists. Some people choose to define weight asthe ‘pravitational force on an abject. Other people define itt be the reading on a supporting scale, Whichever definition you use, ‘you weigh less atthe top of a bullding compared with atthe bottom = the pull of gravity is slightly less! Weight canbe defined as eter {a} the pul of gravity, Wor {b) the force on a supporting scale. ‘two different definitions of ‘weight’ [Albough these two definitions are the same ifthe abject is in equilibrium, they are very diferent in non-equilibrium situations, For example, if both the object and the scale were put into a lit and the lift accelerated upwards then the tions would give diferent values. spremdh UopesaIaDIe Ifthe lit is accelerating upwards: RW “The safe thing to do to avoid using the term weight if at all possible! Stick tothe phrase ‘gravitational frce’ or force of sravity and you cannot go wrong. Gravitational force = mg Com the surface ofthe Earth, gs approximately 10 N kg" whereas on the surface ofthe moon, g= 1.6 N kg-* MECHANICSSolid friction FACTORS AFFECTING FRICTION ~ STATIC ‘AND DYNAMIC Triton is the force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces. I arises because the surfaces involved are not perfectly smooth on the microscopic seal. Ifthe surfaces are prevented {rom relative motion (dey are at res) then this san example of stati friction, Ifthe surfaces are moving, then i called ‘dynamic friction or kinetic friction, Friction arises from the ‘unevenness ofthe surfaces. push causes motion to -— RIGHT friction opposes mation, ‘acting to LEFT ‘A.key experimental fact is thatthe value of sate tition ‘changes depending on the applied force. Up toa certain ‘maximum force, F,. the resultant force is eto, For example, if wwe try to get a heavy block to move, any value of pushing force below F,, would fal to get the block to accelerate fiction, F = zero wi Tnereasing push force block accelerates <—F=oW The value off, depends upon + dhe nature ofthe two suracs in contact. + the normal reaction force between the two suraces. The ‘maximum fictional force and the normal reaction force are proportional. 1 he two surfaces are kept in contac by gravity, the value of uy does NOT depend upon the area of contact (Once the object has started moving the maximum value of friction slightly reduces. nother words, RS Faw Fortwo surfaces moving over one another, the éynamic frictional force remains roughly constant even Ifthe speed changes sgh. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION Experimentally, the maximum frictional force and the normal reaction force are proportional. We use this to define the ‘coefficient of friction, y, coefficient of fiction = jy reaction, F ‘tional gravitate atvaction Fax = ‘The coefficient of fcton is defined fom the maximum value that ction can ake Pug where R= normal reaction force 1 shouldbe noted that 4+ Since the maximum value for dynamic fection ess than the maximum vale for tat reton the values forthe coefficients of fcion wal be dierent HH + the coefficient of ection ia ratio benween two frces i has no unis 4+ ifthe surfaces are stoth then the maximum feton is reroie. + the coefficient of con ies than 1 unless the surfaces are stuck together. Fs wkeand Fy = dt EXAMPLE, a Block is placed om a slope, the angle ofthe slope can be ‘increased until the block just begins to side down the slope. ‘This turns out tobe an easy experimental way to measure the ‘coefficient of static fricton, reaction ‘component of W down sin 8) x aad shall ‘4 component of W into slope (W/cos 6) Mbalanced, Pe wsing R= Weosd 6s increased, ‘When block just starts moving, P= Fou a) MECHANICSWork WHEN IS WORK DONE? ‘Work is done when a force moves its point of application in the direction of the fore. Ifthe force moves at right angles to the direction of the force, then no work has been done. 1) before after y block now atrest —"s. force force work has been done S| ‘distance block now higher up ~ work has been done 2) before after force springhas been compressed = work has been do force — [atone ame istance A) before afer ll WW ‘book supported by shelf — ‘no wark is done 5] before after constant y velocity Trition-fee surface Tiction-Fee surface object continues at constant velocity ~ no workis done In the examples above the work done has had different results + In) the force hos made the object move faster. +12) the objet has been ited higher in the gravitational He + In.) the spring has been compressed. 4+ In 4) and 5), NO work is done, Note that even though ‘the objec s moving in the last example, there is no force ‘moving along ts direction of action so na work is done. DEFINITION OF WORK Work sa sealar quand. Ws definition sas follows F jee] watkdone = Fs cos @ Work done =Fs.cos 0 Ifthe force and the displacement are inthe same direction, ‘this cam be simplified to “Work done = force x distance’ ‘From this definition, the SI units for work done are N'm. We define 2 new unit called the joule: = 1. Nm. EXAMPLES (1) lifting vertically smal distance large force (2) pushing slong rough slope “The task in the second ease would be easier to perform (it Involves les force) but overall it takes more work since work hhas to be done to overcome friction. In each case, the useful work isthe same, Ihe force doing work is not constant (for example, when a spring i compressed), then graphical techniques can be used. H+ original ength —> rar “The total work done is the area under the foroe-displacement raph. he Fae total work done = area under graph =1 ahead 0 Xow exte Useful equations forthe work done indude: + work done when iting something vertically = mgh where m represents mass (in kg) 4 represents the Barth’ gravitational field strength (10 N kg!) represents the height change (in m) work done in compressing or extending a springEnergy and power Kexos (* 003 ibs 2505 ary) PE= 750) | ke = 500) Pe= 5004 CONCEPTS OF ENERGY AND WORK Energy and work are Hnked together. When you do work on an objec, i gains energy and you lose energy. The amount of energy transferred is equal to the ‘work done. Energy is a measure of the amount of work done. This means thatthe units of energy must be the same asthe units of work = joules ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS — CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Inany situation, we must be able to acount for the changes in energy. If sos by one object, it must be gained by another. This s known as the principle of conservation of energy. There ae several ways of stating this principle: + Overall the tral energy of any closed system must be constant. + Energy is neither created nor destroyed, it just changes form, + There is no change in the total energy inthe Universe, ENERGY TYPES Kineticenergy Gravitational potential_Elastic potential energy Radiant energy __Electrostatie potential ‘Thermal energy Nuclear energy Solar energy Chemical energy Electrical energy Internal energy Light energy Equations forthe fits three types of energy are given below. Kinetic energy = 1 mv* where mis the mass (in hg), vis the velocity in mm =!) = were ps the momentum ee page 23) kgm), and me etm fo) Gravitational potential energy = mg where epresens mas (nk) # represen the Harts gravtaona eld 10k), represents the helgt change im) Elastic potential energy = 4 & Ax* where kis the spring constant (in. N m~), A.tis the extension (in m) SS = POWER AND EFFICIENCY EXAMPLES 1 Power 1. Agrashonper (mas 8g sess Powerisdetned asthe RaTBatwnich ||” hindegt push for Oe and 50 energy traeree Tis esame as || cenit fumpe ls m high Caen therate ar nich wok done (ts takeoff speed) the Powe = Ss wd power deve Time aken oe 0) Ropes ‘the Stunifor powers he oul per KBat start = mt second (5°), Aner ni for power i 3 = mgh conservation of defined the wat. 1W = 13 ney 1 something is moving ata constant velocity vagainst a constant freional Force F, the power Preeded is P= F 2. Rfficiency (i) Powe epenung on the situation, we can categorie the energy transferee (work one) as useful or not. night bul, the usefl energy would be light energy, the wiaw ‘weated energy would be thermal energy (and non-visible forms of radiant energy) Vik = VEX TORTS 6ms 0.008 x 10 x 1.8 Or 2 A.6OW lightbulb has an elficency of 10%. How much energy fs wasted We detneeeny athe ra of = tcl energy tothe oul eer ee ee Unrated. Poul ome ofthe iit equation include: Energy wasted — 54 x 60 x 600 tency = mul wrk OUT 0 stn = etl energy OUT ~ oral energy IN useful power OUT lfciency “Total power IN Since tis is a ratio it doesnot have any units Often eis expeessed as a percentageMomentum and impulse DEFINITIONS — LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE. Tinear momentum (always given the symbol p is defined as ‘the product of mass and velocity Momentum = mass x velocity pamy “The St units for momentum must be kg m 5% Altemative ‘units of Ys can also e used (see below). Since velocity i ‘a vector, momentum must be a vector. In any sitvation, particularly fit happens quickly, the change of momentum ‘Sp is called the impulse (Ap =F 0. USE OF MOMENTUM IN NEWTON'S SECOND LAW [Newton's second law states thatthe resultant force is proportional to the vate of change of momentum. “Mathematically we ean write this as (final mom init momentin) _ Sp ea ar Example 1 ‘A Jet of water leaves a hose and hits a wall where its velocity is brought to rest. I the hose cross-sectional area is 25 cm, the velocity of the water is 50 ms" and the density of the ‘water is 1000 kg.m-?, what is the force acting on the wall? velocity = 50m st bt density of recat a lwater = 1000 kg m~3 ‘area = 25 cm? = 0,0025m* Im one second, a jet of water 50 m long hits the wall So volume of water hitting wall = 0.0025 x 50 = 0.125 m? every second mass of water hitting wall = 0,125 x 1000 = 125 kg every second momentuin of water hitting wall = 125 x 50 = 6250 kgm s* ‘every second “This waterfall brought to rest, ‘change in momentuen, Ap = 6250 kg ms? force = SF 2 250 Example? ‘The graph below shows the variation with time ofthe force on football of mass 500 g. Calculate the final velocity of the bal, The football was given an impulse of approximately 190 0.01 = 1 Ns during this 0.01 s. =; oo ‘hrea under graph is the total 5 90- iimpuls to the . Ap=mav. 2 30. 20. 10 fey 000°0.82 0.04"006 0.08 040 time/s final velacityy— 10 ms~ CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM “The law of conservation of linear momentum states that ‘the total linear momentum of a system of interacting particles remains ‘constant provided there is no resultant external force’ ‘To sce why, we start by imagining two Isolated particles A and B that collide with one another. 1+ The force from A onto B, F, will cause B's momentum to ‘change by a certain amount ifthe sme taken was At, then the momentum change (the Jimpase) given to B wil be given by Ap, = Fy At + By Newton's third law, the force from B onto A, f,, wil be equal and opposite tothe force fron A omt0 B, Fy + Since the time of contac for A and Bis the same, then. the momentam change for A's equal and opposite co the “+ ‘This means that the total momentum (momentum of A plus the motnenturn of 8) will remain the same. Total ‘momentum is conserved, ‘This argument con be extended up to any number of interacting particles so long asthe system of particles is sill isolated, If his the case, the momentum is still conserved. ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISIONS ‘The law of conservation of linear momentum is not enough to always predict the outcome afte 2 collision (or an explosion}. This depends on the nature ofthe colliding bodies. For ‘example, a moving railway truck, my velocity v, collides with an identical stationary truck m,, Possible outcomes are: (a) elastic collision ‘atrest new velocity 66 lo (b) totaly inelastic collision Yer new velocity ___ Calera (c)inetastic collision ewvetciy=—> new veacty = 3 (6 lero) In (a) the trucks would have to have elastic bumpers. I this ‘wre the case then no mechanical energy a ll would be lost In the collision. collision in which no mechanical energy is lost called an elastl collision. in reality collisions ‘betneen everyday objects always lose some energy ~ the ‘only real example of elastic collisions is the collision berveeen ‘molecules, For an elastic collision, the relative veloity of approach always equals the relative velocity of separation. In (0) the railway trucks stick together during the colision (the relative velocty of separation is 210). This callision is what is known as a totally inelastic collision. a large amount of mechanical energy is lost (as heat and sound}, but the total momentum is suill conserved Im energy terms, (c) is somewhere between (a) and ()- Somme energy is lost, but the railway trucks do not jin together. This isan example of an Inelastic collision. Once again the total momentum is conserved. Linear momentum is also conserved in explosions. MECHANICSIB Questions — mechanics 1, Two identical objects A and # fall from rest from different heights. 7B takes twice as long as A to reach the ground, What isthe ratio ofthe heights from which A and B fell? Neglect air resistance AbVvE BIZ Gis 2. A trolley s given an inal push along a horizontal floor to get it moving. The wolley then travels forward along the floor, sradually lowing. What Is tue of the horizontal forces) on the tolley while ii slowing? Dos ‘A.There is a forward force and a backward force, but the Iorward force is larger. 1B. There isa forward force and a backward force, but the backward foreeis larger. . There is only a forward force, which diminishes with time, D. There is only a backward force, 3. Armass is suspended by cord fom a ving wich Isattached by wo further s cofds to the coling and r the wall as shown, The cord from the ceiling ‘makes an angle of les than 45° with the vertical al as shown. The tensions in the three cords are labelled Sand Pin the di How do the tensions R, and Tin the tee cords ‘compare in magnitude? AR>T>S © 4. ADEN force causes a 2.0 kg mass to acelerate at 8.0m along ‘horizontal surface. The cotfcent of dynamic friction i B. S>R>T ser D. R=S>T Ao B. od cos 5. Amathlete trains by dragging a heavy load across 3 rough horizontal sulace, D. 08 ‘The athlete exer a force of magnitude F on the load at an angle of 25° othe horizontal, 8) Once the lad is moving at a steady speed, the average horizontal frictional force acting on the load is 470 N, Calculate the average value of F that will enable the Toad to move at constant speed, el ) The load is moved a horizontal distance of 25m in 1.2 hour. Calculate (the work done on the load by the force. a (i) the minimum average power required to move the lod. eB) ) The athlete pulls the load pila the same speed as in par (a) Explain, in terms of energy changes, why the minimum average power required is greater than in (O)Gi). 2 ‘aaaes 1B QUESTIONS ~ MECHANICS 6. Acarand a truck are both travelling atthe speed limit of 60 km hi but in opposite directions as shown, The tack as twice the mass of the ca. sto fae ‘The vehicles collide head-on and become entangled together. a) During the collision, how does the force exerted by the carom the truck compare with the force exerted by the rruck on the car? Explain 2 In what direction will the entangled vehicles move after collision, oF wll they be stationary? Support your answer, referring toa physics principle. py ©) Determine the speed (in km hr!) of the combined wreck immediately ater the collision. BI 4) Tow does the aceleratin ofthe car compa with the acceleration ofthe truck during the colliion? Explain, [2] ©) Both the car and truck drivers are wearing seatbelts ‘Which dtivers likely to be more severely jolted in the collision? Explain. py f) The total kinetc energy of the system decreases as a result ofthe collion. Is the principle of conservation af energy violated? Explain. 0 7. a) Annet force of magnitude Facts on a body. Define the ‘impuse Io the force. a 1) A ball of mass 0.0750 kg i avelling horizontally witha speed of 2.20 m 5". It strikes a vertical wall and rebounds horizontally ball mass 0.0750 kg Qo— 2.20ms-t Due tothe collision with the wal, 20 % of the bal’ inltat iinet energy is disipated. (i) Show that the ball rebounds from the wall with speed of 197 ms" a (1) Show thatthe impulse given tothe ball by the walls 0.313 Ns e ‘The bal strikes the wall at time t= 0 and leaves the wall at time ¢= 7. ‘The sketch graph shows how the force F hat the wall exerts on the ball assumed to vary with ime f F a ‘The ime Tis measured electonically 10 equal 0.0894 s. Use the impulse given in (oH) to estimate the average value off @1 EL Thermal concepts TEMPERATURE AND HEAT FLOW Hot and cold are just labels that identify the direction in whieh thermal energy {sometimes known as heat) willbe ‘naturally transferced when two objects are placed in thermal contact. This Teadsto the concept ofthe ‘hotness’ of an object. The direction of the natural flow of thermal energy between two “objects is determined by the ‘hotness’ fof each object. Thermal enesey naturally flows from hot £0 cold rw ‘The temperature of an abject is 2 ‘measure of how hot tis. In other ‘words, if two objects are placed in thermal contact then the temperature sillerence between the two objects will determine the direction ofthe natural twanser of thermal energy. Thermal energy Is naturally transferred ‘down’ the temperatute difference ~ from high temperature to low temperature ventually, the two objects would dpe expected to reach the same temperature. When this happens, they are seid to be in thermal cequilibetum, Kelin scale 88 400 33K Heat isnot a substance that flows from one object to another. What hnas happened is that thermal energy thas been transferred. Thermal energy (heat refers to the non-mechanical iransler of energy between a system and ts surroundings. 300K. 23K 200K 100k oK direction of transfer of thermal energy KELVIN AND CELSIUS ‘Most ofthe time, there are only tivo sensible temperature scales to chose between ~ the Kelvin seale andthe Celsius sale. Im order to use them, you do not need to understand the details of how ther of these scales has been Most everyday thermometers are marked with the Celi scale and temperatures quoted in degrees Celsius (°C) ‘There isan casy relationship between a temperature Tas measured on the Kelvin Teale ant the corresponding temperature 25 measured on the Celsius scale, The approximate relationship s (eo) +273 ‘This means that the sliferentzer0 points, ‘sae ofthe unit used on each seale is identical, but they have “The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature sale anda measurement this sale is also called the absolute temperature ‘Zero Kelvin i called absolute zero (see page 29). ofined, but you do need to know the relation beeween them, 400°C mercury boils 357°C Celsius scale 300°C 200°C so0"c water bolls: water freezes mercury freezes: carbon dioxide freezes ————>} =200°C 273°C EXAMPLES: GASES For a given sample of aga, the pres, the volume and the temperature ae all related to one another. «The pressure, Ps the force per unit area from the gos acting 11 90° on the contelner wal, a ‘The Sl units of pressure are N m-* or Pa (Pascal) 1pa=1Nar? Gas pressure can also be measured in atmospheres (1am ~ 10° Pa) ‘+ "The volume, ¥, of the gas s measured in m? or cm* (m= 10m) + The temperature, ¢ of the gas is measured in °C or Tn order to investigate how these quantities are interrelated, we choose «one quantity to be the independent variable (the thing we alter and measure) «+ another quantity to be the dependent variable (the second ‘thing we measure) +The thitd quantity needs tobe controled (Le. Kept constant “The specie values that willbe recorded also depend on the ‘mas of gas being investigated and the type of gas being use so these need to be controlled as wel. THERMAL PHYSICS (aaHeat and internal energy MICROSCOPIC VS MACROSCOPIC When analysing something physica, we have a choice. + The macroscopic point of view considers the system as. a whofe and sees how i interacts wih its surroundings * The microscopic point of view looks inside the system to see how its component parts interact with each other So fat we have lonked atthe temperature ofa systezn in 3 macroscopic way, but all objects ate made up of atoms ond molecules, ‘According o Kinetle theory hese partices are coastantly in random motion ~fience the name, See below for mote delat, ings (a molecule ‘a combination of atoms), the diference fs aot important 1 this stage. The paricles can be thought ofa te ‘points’ of ‘mass with velocities tha are continually changing. Although atoms and molecules ace diferent INTERNAL ENERGY H the temperature ofan object changes then ft must have fained (or lost) energy, From the mieroscopic point of view, the molecules must have gained (or Jost) this energy ‘The two posse fonts are kinetic energy and potential energy speed ina random direction —»— "molecule has KE +r @ resultant force back towards equilibrium position due to neighbouring molecules ‘“smolecule has PE equilibrium position *+ The motecules have kinetic energy because they are moving. To be absolutely precise, 2 molecale can have either translational kinetic eneegy {the whole malecule i ‘moving ins cern direction) or otational kinetic energy {the molecule is rotating about one or more axes). *+ The molecules have potential energy because ofthe Intermolecular forces. we imagine pulling two ‘molecules further apart, this would require work against the intermolecular forces The total energy thatthe molecules possess (random kinetic lus inter molecule potentials called the internal energy ofa substance. Whenever we heat a substance. we increas is lovernal energy Temperature isa measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance. ‘two substances have the same temperature, then their ‘molecules have the same average kinetic energy. same tempersture same average kine molecules with lage mass moving with lower average speed ‘molecules with smal ‘mass moving with higher average speed KINETIC THEORY ‘Molecules are artanged in different ways depending on the hase ofthe substance (i. solid, quid or gas). SOLIDS Mactoscopically, solids havea fixed volume and a fixed shape Tiss because the molecules are held in position by bonds, However the bonds are not absolutely rigid. The molecules ‘irate around a mean (average) postion. The higher the temperature the greater the ibcations Each molecule vibrates ‘round amean ae afer a8 held close together by the intermolecular bonds. molecules, uguins A liguld aso.nasa fixed volume but ts shape can change ‘The molecules are also vibrating, but they are not completely ‘xed in position. There are tl strong forces between the ‘molecules. This keeps the molecules close to one ant they are fre 19 move around each other. bur Bonds between. neighbouring ‘molecules; these can bbe made and broken, re allowing a molecule to ids Orecalb eves move to move throughout the liquid by moving around ‘tsineighbours. GASES A gs will always expand to fil the container in which tts Pt. The molecules are not fixed fn postion, and any forces between the molecules are very weak, This means that the ‘molecules are essentially independent of one another, but, they do occasionally collide. More deaitis given on page 31 (P/ | Molaculesin condom ‘mation; no fixed Bonds {J between molecules so fA | they are free to move “ HEAT AND WORK Many people have confused ideas about heat and work. tn answers fo examination questions i is very comuion to read, forexample, chat ‘heat rises’ - when what is meant is that the transfer of thermal energy is upwards * When a force moves through a distance, we say that work ‘is done, Work isthe energy that has ben transmitted from ‘oe system to another from the macroscopic point of view. ‘+ When work is done on a microscopic level (Le. Individual molecues), we say that heating has taken, Place, Heat isthe enesgy that has been transmitted, It con either increase the kinetic energy of the molecules or their Potential! energy or of course, both In both cases energy is being transferred, ea THERMAL PHYSICSSpecific heat capacity DEFINITIONS AND MICROSCOPIC EXPLANATION In theory, ifan abject could be heated up with no enexpy loss then the inerease in temperature A depends on thzee things: + the energy given to the object the mass, m, and + the substance from which the objects made 1000 + sn00 ¥ ae different temperature change small temperature change since more molecules large temperature change since fewer molecules ‘two different blocks with the same mass and same energy input will have a different temperature change. ‘We define the thermal eapaeity Cof an objec s the energy required to raise its temperature by 1 K.Diflerent objects (even diffrent samples ofthe same substance) will have ifferent values of heat capacity. Specific heat eapacity s the energy required to raise @ unit mass ofa substance by 1K. Specific’ here just means ‘per unit mass. tn symbols, yermal capacity ¢ = 2 (1 K~ or ‘Thermal capacity =: (0x oF °C Specificheat capacity wan Q=mear (kg CF org kg Note +A particular gas can have many different valves of specific heat capacity = depends on the conditions used ~ se page 161. ‘These equations refer to the temperature difference resulting fom the addition ofa certain amount of enezgy ka other words it generally takes the same amount of energy to rise the temperatute ofan objeet from 25 °C to 35 °C as ‘ndoes for the same object go trom 402 °C to 412°C. This isonly true so long as energy i not lost foun the object. ‘+ lan object is raised above room temperature ie start to lose enengy. The hotter it becomes, the greater the rate at ‘which it loses energy increasein temperature ifno energy lost "\ eras ina real situation ‘temperature Time ‘Temperature change ofan object being heated at a METHODS OF MEASURING HEAT CAPACITIES AND ‘SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES The are :wo basic ways 10 measure heat capacity. 1, Electrical method ‘The experiment would be set up as below: heater (placed object] G voltmeter ammeter (@) oo iy. + te speacheat capa ¢= safle Sources of experimental ertor + loss of thermal energy from the apparatus + the container for the substance andthe heater will alsa be warmed up, + will ake some time for the energy to be shared ‘uniformly through the substance 2. Method of mixtures ‘The known specific heat capacity of one substance can be used to find the specific heat capacity of another substance before temperature Ty (hot) temperature Ty S\ /¥ (cow) a a ay Taig ¥ nat Tone after Procedure ‘+ measure the masses of the liquids m, and my + measure the two staring temperatures 7, and 7, ‘+ ix the two liquids together. ‘+ record the maximum temperature of the mixture Ty. Tino energy is lost from the system then, ‘energy lost by hot substance cooling down = energy gained by cold substance heating up 16 (Ey ~ Tru) = 6 Tres ~ Ty) Again, the main source of experimental error isthe loss of thermal energy from the apparatus; particularly while the Tiquids ate being transfered, The changes of temperature of the container also need tobe taken into consideration for @ more accurate result. THERMAL PHYSICS [EaPhases (states) of matter and latent heat DEFINITIONS AND MICROSCOPIC VIEW ‘when a substance changes phase the temperature remains constant even though thermal energy isl being transferred. '§ soo 2 Nnatgnead # acolo 7 5 300 Tiguid and solid moe 200. 100 Teepe dbakahk Sie in cosine orale el ead) Stns oo s sin adhe ter re Change mo sb vapor tne bonds eg bole sakes oe nh ome boteDosatete nds res ven tsever cmon mie ik hate mos mus tora 100. be moi wih he sane ene Therpei tent heat ans ened he Speicleathen = 2 kg) @=ML puts ace rmperatute vol the melting temperature/*C B iE 2 ‘nergy supplied) Phase-change graph with temperature vs energy In the example above, the specific heat capacity of the liquid is less than the specific heat capacity ofthe soll asthe gradient ofthe line that corresponds tothe liquid phase is greater than ‘he gradient of the lin that corresponds tothe solid phase A given amount of energy will cause a greater increase in ‘temperature for the liquid when compared with the slid METHODS OF MEASURING Te two possible methods for measuring lateat heats shown, below are very similar in principle to the methods for measuring specific heat capacties (see previous page) |. A method for measuring the specific Iatent heat of vaporization of water up lectrical circuit heater toelectrical circuit G water voltmeter @)ammeter hearer We ‘beaker variable power supply ‘he amount of thermal energy provided to water a its boiling point is calculated using electrical energy = {¢V. The mass ‘vaporized needs to be recorded. ny Ga, = my Sources of experimental error ‘+The specticlatent heat + Loss of thermal energy from the apparatus. + Some water vapour will be lost before and after timing, 2. A method for measuring the specific latent heat of fusion of water Providing we know the specific heat capacity of water, we can ‘aleulate the specific latent heat of fusion for water tn the ‘example below, ice (at 0 °C) is added to warm water and the ‘temperature of the resulting mix is measured. ice water imix together temp: T°C ASS: Mater + Mice temp: Tink no energy 6 lost from the system then, energy lost by water cooling down = energy gained by ice m, Ty) = Mee Lin + Ma on Fae oo as Py Ty) Sources of experimental ersor + Loss (or gain) of thermel energy fom the apparatus, + Hlthe ice had not started at exactly zero, then there would ‘be an additional term in the equation in order 10 account forthe energy needed to warm the ice up 1 0 °C. + Water clinging tothe ie before the transfer. au THERMAL PHYSICSThe gas laws 1 GAS LAWS. Tor the experimental methods shown below, the graphs below outline what might be observed, The tends can be seen more Clearly if this information i presented ina slighily diferent way. (4) constant volume ‘+ Although pressure and volume both vaty linearly with Celsius temperature, neither pressure nor volume is proportional to Celsius temperature, + A cilferent sample of gas would produce a diferent straight- line variation for pressure (or volume) against temperature bbat both graphs would extrapolate back to the same low temperature, ~273 °C. This temperature is known as absolute zero, ‘+ As pressure increases, the volume decreases, Infact they are Inversely proportional (a) constant volume £ graph extrapolates pressure /Pa 2 back ag a TH oh mperata 40) 200 —f00 6 {2) constant pressure Spee temperature I (b} constant pressure > =, graph extapotates volume /m 2 backto ~273°C £ pr co =300 —20 ho odo ‘absolute temperate /K ° tem_./°C (3) constant temperature ne (6 constant temperature 7 & 2 § zg 3 5 , 3 volume Fn x Points to note vaume/™* From these graphs fora fixed mass of gas we can say that ¥, 2 1. Atconstant ¥, pa Tor, onstant (the pressure law) 2 Avconsannp,Yx For constant Charess aw) 3. avconstant pacar V= constant Boye’ aw) ‘These relationships are known as the ideal gas laws. The temperature is always expressed in Kelvin (see page 25). These laws do not always apply o experiments done with real gases, ‘A real gas said to ‘deviate from ideal behaviour under certein conditions (eg. high pressure) EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 1 Temperature tas the independent varlable; Pas the ‘dependent variable; Vas he conto. tomperaturet measured pressure gauge ho measure P sixed volume of air + Fixed volume of gas strapped inthe flask, Pressure fs measured by a pressure gauge ‘+ Temperature of gas altered by temperature of ath - time is needed to ensure bath and gas at same temperature. 2, Temperature ta the independent variable; Vas the dependent variable; # asthe contzl temperature t measured cepilary tube Scale to messure V {length and volume) t | ater bath L bead of sulfic acid zero of scale + Volume of gas is trapped in capillary tube by bead of concentrated sulfueic acid. + Concentrated sulfuric acd is use to ensure gas remains dry, ‘+ Heating gas causes Ito expand moving bead. + Pressure remains equal 10 atmospheric ‘+ Temperature of gas sltered by temperature of bath time is needed to ensure bath and gas at seme temperature. 3. Pas the independent variable; Vas the dependent variable: tasthe conto aero eae scale to repped ale esse ge measure jomessutep length air => pump andvoume) sitcom carteectoh ‘+ Volume of gas measured against calibrated sale ‘+ Increase of pressure forces oil column to compress gas ‘+ Temperature of gas will be altered when volume is changed; time is needed to ensue gas i always at room. temperature THERMAL PHYSICS agThe gas laws 2 EQUATION OF STATE ‘The three ideal gas laws can be combined together to produce ‘one mathematical relationship, BY Fe constant ‘This constant wll depend on the mass and type of gs. 1 we compare the value of this constant for diferent masses cof diferent gases, it tums out to depend on the numberof, ‘molecules that ae inthe gas not their type. In this case ‘we use the definition of the mole 1 state that for moles of ideal gas we 2h universal constant “The universal constant i calle the molar gas constant f. ‘The SI unit for Ris Jmol"! K-* R= 8316S mol K* a Summa: mR OF pYe HRT EXAMPLE a) What volume will be occupied by 8 g of helium (mass ‘number 4) at room temperature (20 °C) and atmosphere pressure (1.0 x 10° Pa) 2moles T=204-273= 293K AED _ 2X 8314x293 _ 9.049 m! ? axe OOP by How many atoms are there in 8g of helium (mass number 4)? v= 2 moles surmber of atoms =2 x 6.02 x 10 12x 10 DEFINITIONS ‘The concepts of the mole, molar mass and the Avogadro ‘constant are all introduced so as to be able to relate the mass ‘ofa gas (an easily measurable quantity} to the number of -molecules that are present in the gas. Ideal gas ‘An Ideal gas is one that follows the gas laws for all values of of P, Vand (see page 28). Mole ‘The mole is the basic SI unit for “amount of substance’, One mole of any substance is equal to the amount ‘of that substance that contains the same number of particles as 0.012 kg of ‘carbon-12 (°C), When writing the unit itis (slightly) shortened to the mol. Avogadro ‘Thisis the number of atoms in 0.012 kg constant, N, of carbon-12 ("C). Its 6.02 x 10. ‘Molar mass ‘The mass of one mole ofa substance is called the molar mass. A simple rule applies. Ifan element has a certain mass ‘number, A, then the molar mass will be A grams. no Kes ‘number of toms umber of moles = 7 aT IDEAL GASES AND REAL GASES: ‘An ideal gas Is a one that follows the gas laws for all values of p. Vand T and thus ideal gases cannot be liquefied. The microscopic description of an ideal gas is given on page 31. Real gases, however, can approximate to ideal behaviour providing that the intermolecular forces are small enough 10 be ignored, For this to apply, the pressure/density of the {gas must be low and the temperature must be moderate. LINK BETWEEN THE MACROSCOPIC AND MICROSCOPIC ‘he equation of sate fran eal gas pV nF lnk the three tnacroscopic properties ofa ga (p Vand 7 Kinet theory {page 26 describes a gas esbeing composed of molec in random motion and or this theory to be va each of these Iiacrscopc properties must be linked the microscope beviou of molec. {detailed analysis of how a lage numberof randomly ‘moving molecules interact beastly prec another formula that allows the inks between he macroscopic an the microscopic abe iene. The derivation of he formula ‘nly uses Nevwons laws and a handful of asumptons. These "sumptions detrbe fom the microscope perspective what we sean by an el gs. “he dt this derivation i mot equted by the 18 slabs bat the assumptions and he approach are outlined othe folowing pa. The result ofthis derivation that the pressure and oume of the ideale gas are rate to ust wo quan: p= 2B, +The mimber af molecules resent + The average random kinetic energy per molecule, B. ‘Equating the right-hand side of this formula with the right- hnand sie of the macroscopic equation of state for an ideal gas shows that: ho aun= 2%, era 2 NE, 3k ee 7N,7 1 (the molar gas constant) and N, (Avogadto constant) are fixed numbers so this equation shows thatthe absolute temperature is proportional tothe average KE per mofectle Te B, “The ratio fis called the Bolezmann’s constant by ky Baer Ber (UB) tHermat paysicsMolecular model of an ideal gas KINETIC MODEL OF AN IDEAL GAS before wall Assumptions: ‘+ Newion’s laws apply to molecular / behaviour S + there are no intermolecular forces except during a colision a ‘+ the molecules are treated as points ‘+ the molecules are in random motion + the collisions between the molecules ate elastic (no energy 5 lost) after ‘+ there is no time spent in these collisions. The pressure ofa gas is explained as {oliows: “A J ‘Asingle molecule hitting the walls of the + When a molecule bounces off the walls ofa container its momentum, changes (due to the change in

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