Urinary system.

• Excretory systems regulate the chemical

composition of body fluids by removing
metabolic wastes and retaining the proper
amounts of water, salts, and nutrients.
Components of this system in vertebrates
include the kidneys, liver, lungs, and skin.

• Not all animals use the same routes or

excrete their wastes the same way
humans do. Excretion applies to metabolic
waste products that cross a plasma
membrane. Elimination is the removal of
feces.
Vertebrates Have Paired
Kidneys
• All vertebrates have paired
kidneys. Excretion is not the
primary function of kidneys.
Kidneys regulate body fluid
levels as a primary duty, and
remove wastes as a secondary
one.
The Human Excretory System
• The urinary system is made-
up of the kidneys, ureters,
bladder, and urethra.
• The nephron, is kidney's
functional unit.
• Waste is filtered from the
blood and collected as urine in
each kidney. Urine leaves the
kidneys by ureters, and
collects in the bladder. The
bladder can distend to store
urine that eventually leaves
through the urethra.
Functions of the Urinary System
a. Filters blood plasma, eliminates metabolic waste, returns
useful chemicals to blood.
e.g.. nitrogenous wastes from protein catabolism (50% urea,
also ammonia, uric acid, creatinine).

b. Regulates blood volume and pressure by eliminating/

conserving water as necessary.

c. Regulates osmolarity of body fluids.

d. Secretes renin, controls BP, electrolyte balance.

e. Secretes erythropoietin (EPO), controls RBC count.

f. Regulates PCO2 and acid-base balance.

g. Detoxifies free radicals and drugs.

h. Gluconeogenesis during starvation.

 KIDNEY

• Are paired, reddish, bean-

shaped organs.
• Have 12 cm long, 6 wide, and
3 thick.
• Lateral (convex) border and
medial (concave) border
• Each kidney is embedded in a
thick layer of Adipose tissue
that cushions the organ.
• The renal sinus is a cavity on
the concave border through
which the renal vessels (blood
and lymphatic), and nerves
pass and contains the calyx,
renal pelvis and the initial part
of the ureter.
RENAL CAPSULE:

• The kidney is enclosed

within 3 connective tissue
layers:

• Outer renal fascia: binds to

abdominal wall.

• Middle adipose capsule:

cushions kidney.

• Inner renal capsule:

encloses kidney for
protection from trauma/
infection.
 Cortex and Medulla

A gross section of the kidney reveals that the outer cortex has a
somewhat different texture from the deeper medulla. This difference
reflects the disposition of various portions of the many nephrons
which comprise the kidney.
• The cortex consists of convoluted tubules together with the renal
corpuscles.

• The medulla consists of loops of Henle and collecting ducts.

– The medulla has a remarkable interstitial environment, hypertonic and
poorly oxygenated.
• The cortex and medulla together comprise millions of individual
nephrons, all packed together.

• The cortex and medulla surround and drain into the hollow pelvis, the
funnel-shaped beginning of the ureter. Like the ureter, the pelvis is
lined by transitional epithelium.
 Kidneys
• Are organized in lobes
and lobules.
• A lobe consist of one
medullary pyramid and the
cortical tissue at its base
and sides.
• There are 8 to 18 lobes in
each kidney
• A lobule consist of a single
medullary ray and the
cortical and medullary
tissue next to it.
• Inside the cortex lobules
are bordered by
interlobular arteries
• The cortical tissue found just below the
capsule is divided into medullary rays
and cortical labyrinth.
• Medullary rays, are regions where
parallel arrays of straight tubules travel
perpendicular to the capsule and
extend from the cortex to the medulla.
• The cortical labyrinth contains renal
corpuscles and tubules. A central band
of cortical labyrinth separates the
medullary rays.
• Each medullary ray with half of the
adjacent cortical labyrinth on either
side is a lobule .
• The medullary rays (collecting ducts
and straight tubules) are extensions of
the medulla that extend into the cortex.
 Cortical labyrinth.
Cortical labyrinth

• The combination of the renal

corpuscle, the proximal and
distal tubules
• cortical region of the section at
low power is viewed you will
observe circular structures
interspersed between cross-
sections of tubes.
• As a whole, this is called the
cortical labyrinth and the circular
structures are the renal
corpuscles while the tubes are
convoluted tubules made
primarily of the convoluted
tubule segments of the proximal
tubule and some of the distal
tubule
Vascular Parenchyma
 Renal vasculature

Distributing vessels
• Interlobar arteries and veins arise from the renal artery
and vein and ascend between lobes (as the adjective interlobar
suggests) from the pelvis across the medulla toward the cortex.
 
• Arcuate arteries and veins branch from the interlobar
vessels and "arch" (as the adjective arcuate suggests) across
the boundary between cortex and medulla.

• CLINICAL NOTE:  Interlobar and arcuate vessels do not

extend into the cortex.  Therefore, to minimize the risk of
bleeding during renal biopsy, the biopsy needle should be
aimed tangentially through the cortex to avoid damaging one of
these larger vessels.

• Interlobular arteries/arterioles and veins ascend from

the arcuate vessels and pass up into the cortex perpendicular to
the surface of the kidney. 
• The kidney has three distinct capillary networks, each with a
different function.

Afferent arteriole and glomerular capillaries

– Each glomerulus receives its blood from one afferent
arteriole (afferent means "incoming" and refers to the
glomerular capillaries).  The afferent arterioles arise from
interlobular arteries.
Efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries
 
– Blood leaves the glomerulus through a short and inconspicuous
efferent arteriole (efferent means "outgoing") and enters
either peritubular capillaries or vasa recta.
Peritubular capillaries
envelope all of the convoluted tubules of the cortex and recover the
materials (water, ions, nutrient molecules) which are pumped across
the tubular epithelium.
 
–  Peritubular capillaries eventually return blood to the
interlobular veins.
Vasa recta
 
• Vasa recta ("straight
vessels") are bundles of
thin vessels which carry
blood into and out of the
medulla.
• The parallel clustering of
arterial and venous flow
creates a counter-current
exchange so that blood
flow does not erase the salt
gradient of the medulla
• Vasa recta eventually
return blood to arcuate
veins.
 Venous Drainage

Cortical capillaries drain

to interlobular veins
Medullary capillaries drain
to venulae rectae
Interlobular veins and
venulae rectae drain to
arcuate vein, interlobar
vein and the renal vein.
 Mesangial cell

Mesangial cells are specialized cells around blood

vessels in the kidneys.
Anatomical Location
• Mesangial cells are located among the glomerular
capillaries within a renal corpuscle.
Function
• Glomerular capillaries consist of endothelial cells
with large fenestrations, and are therefore very
permeable ("leaky") for most solutes in blood
plasma. Mesangial cells are thought to aid in the
regulation of glomerular filtration, perhaps by
contractile activity. They are also major contributors
to the extracellular matrix in the glomeruli.
Glandular Parenchyma

Uriniferous Tubule

• Nephron

• Collecting duct
• The essential tissue composition of kidney is that of a
gland with highly modified secretory units and highly
specialized ducts.
• Kidney (corpuscles and tubules)
In contrast, the secretory units of the kidney, called
renal corpuscles, comprise a relatively small
proportion of the kidney. The bulk of the kidney
consists of highly specialized tubules, which
correspond to the duct tree of a typical gland.
Together, the renal corpuscle and its associated
tubule is called a nephron.
• The Nephron
• The nephron consists of a
cup-shaped capsule
containing capillaries and
the glomerulus, and a
long renal tube. Blood
flows into the kidney
through the renal artery,
which branches into
capillaries associated with
the glomerulus. Arterial
pressure causes water and
solutes from the blood to
filter into the capsule.
Fluid flows through the
proximal tubule, which
include the loop of Henle,
and then into the distal
tubule. The distal tubule
empties into a collecting
duct. Fluids and solutes
are returned to the
capillaries that surround
the nephron tubule.
 Renal corpuscles .
• The renal corpuscles are
the sites where the process
of urine formation begins
with a filtrate of blood
plasma.
• Each renal corpuscle
consists of an epithelial cup
called Bowman's capsule
enclosing a knot of
capillaries and other
elements called the
glomerulus.
• (Renal corpuscles may also
be called "Malpighian
corpuscles", after Marcello
Malpighi, who introduced
microscopy to medicine).
Each renal corpuscle has several parts
• Bowman's capsule is the outer, epithelial
wall of the corpuscle.
• Bowman's space, also called "urinary
space", is the space lying within Bowman's
capsule.
 
• The glomerulus is the conspicuous "little
ball" which occupies most of the corpuscle,
comprising several distinct elements.
• Glomerular capillaries have an
endothelium that is fenestrated (full of
holes).
• Podocytes are epithelial cells covering the
glomerular capillaries.
• Immediately adjacent to each glomerular
capillary, in between the podocytes and the
capillary endothelium, is the filtration
membrane .
• Mesangium is a supporting tissue
consisting of mesangial cells and matrix.
  
• The beginning of the proximal tubule is the
"drain" carrying fluid away from Bowman's
space
 Bowman's space and Bowman's capsule

• Bowman's space, also called the urinary space, is the space

within Bowman's capsule surrounding the loops and lobules
of the glomerulus.  This is the space into which the glomerular
plasma filtrate collects as it leaves the capillaries through the
filtration membrane. 
• Bowman's capsule is the outer epithelium which encloses
Bowman's space.  This epithelium is simple squamous,
becoming cuboidal at the proximal tubule. 
• Although Bowman's capsule is rather obviously a simple
squamous epithelium, it is less apparent that the glomerulus is
also closely enveloped by epithelium.  The peculiar structure of
podocytes obscures the fact that they are indeed epithelial cells.
 Thus Bowman's space is entirely lined by epithelium
• The outer, "parietal" epithelium of the renal corpuscle is
Bowman's capsule. 
• The inner, "visceral" epithelium is comprised of podocytes.
 The Glomerulus
• The Glomerulus ("little
ball") is essentially a small
knot of capillaries and
supporting structures
suspended within
Bowman's capsule. The
glomerulus is the source of
the initial filtrate of plasma
that is eventually
processed into urine
• Several elements comprise the
glomerulus :
• Cells
– Capillary endothelial cells line the
fenestrated glomerular capillaries. 
– Podocytes stand upon pedicels
("little feet") on the outer side of the
glomerular capillaries.
– Mesangial cells are concentrated
between capillaries at the vascular
pole of the corpuscle.
 
• Extracellular materials
– The filtration membrane is a sheet
of porous material between capillary
endothelium and podocyte pedicels,
composed of endothelial and
podocyte (epithelial) basement
membranes 
– Mesangial matrix is a local variation
on connective tissue matrix. 
 Glomerular capillary endothelium

• In the kidney, the endothelium of

glomerular capillaries is perforated with
many small holes, or fenestrated (from
Latin fenestra, window). Each
endothelial cell has a shape like a slice
of very holey Swiss cheese, rolled into
a cylinder to make a segment of
capillary. The fenestrations are too
small to allow blood cells through, but
plasma can pass freely out of the holes
and into the filtration membrane.
• The capillaries of renal glomeruli are
exceptionally leaky. Although the
filtration membrane holds back cells
and plasma proteins, the remaining
fluid (water, mineral ions, and small
molecules) passes freely into
Bowman's space and hence along the
renal tubule
 Filtration membrane

• Immediately outside the capillary

endothelium is the filtration membrane.
 This membrane represents a fusion of the
endothelial basement membrane with the
basement membrane of the glomerular
epithelium (podocyte). 
• Pathology:  Anything which clogs or
thickens the filtration membrane can
interfere with the passage of fluid and hence
reduce the rate of filtration.
• As plasma passes through the capillary
fenestrations, water, ions, and small
molecules pass through the filtration
membrane into Bowman's space, while
serum proteins are retained in the
capillaries.  The outside of the filtration
membrane is supported by podocytes.
• The filtrate which accumulates in Bowman's
space drains into the proximal tubule, and
hence to the loop of Henle, the distal tubule,
and the collecting duct.  In these various
segments of the renal tubule, the filtrate is
modified into urine, chiefly by reabsorption
of non-waste components
 Podocytes

• Podocytes ("footed cells") are

extraordinary (one might say bizarre)
epithelial cells which support the filtration
membrane without obstructing the flow of
filtrate. Each podocyte stands upon
branched pedicels, or "foot processes",
which rest on the filtration membrane.
• Between adjacent pedicels are gaps
called filtration slits which permit free
passage of fluid filtrate into Bowman's
space.
 Mesangial cells and matrix

• Glomerular mesangial cells are

inconspicuous and rather non-descript
cells concentrated toward the vascular
pole of the glomerulus.  These cells
produce the mesangial matrix and may
contribute to maintenance of the
filtration membrane.
• Mesangial cell nuclei may sometimes be
recognized as small, irregularly shaped,
and rather heterochromatic nuclei
within the glomerulus.
• Extra-glomerular mesangial cells, also
called lacis cells, occupy the space
between the glomerulus and the macula
densa of the distal tubule.
• The mesangial matrix is extracellular
material which surrounds the mesangial
cells.  Apart from offering some
mechanical support to the glomerular
capillaries, the function of mesangial
matrix is unknown.
 External Mesangium

• The extraglomerular
mesangium is located
inside the triangle
between the arterioles
and macula densa.
• EMC are also called
lacis cells and
Polkissen’s cells.
 Macula densa / juxtaglomerular apparatus
(juxtaglomerular complex)

• The juxtaglomerular apparatus

is a complex of structures associated
with the vascular pole of each renal
corpuscle.  The juxtaglomerular
apparatus has two principal
components:
• The macula densa is a patch of
densely-packed epithelial cell nuclei
along the distal convoluted tubule,
adjacent to the afferent arteriole at
the vascular pole of the corpuscle
from which the tubule arose.  It may
function as a sensor for sodium and/
or chloride concentration.
 
• Juxtaglomerular cells ("J-G
cells") in the wall of the afferent
arteriole are specialized smooth
muscle cells containing secretory
granules, the source of the hormone
renin
 Tubules

• The renal tubule receives plasma filtrate from the glomerulus and
processes it into urine. 
• Each tubule is differentiated into several specialized segments. 
• Different aspects of filtrate reabsorption are localized in different
segments.  
– The proximal tubule, in the cortex, reabsorbs most minerals and other
nutrients from the tubular fluid and passes them to blood in the
peritubular capillaries.
– The loop of Henle dips into the medulla where it helps establish the
hypertonic environment of medullary interstitial fluid.
– The distal convoluted tubule returns to the juxtaglomerular apparatus of
the corpuscle from which the tubule arose.
– Finally, the collecting duct leads back through the medulla to drain into
the pelvis.

• The functional differentiation of the different tubular segments is

associated with variation in the structure of tubular epithelial cells.
 This structural specialization is in turn reflected in the microscopic
appearance of the tubules.
Proximal Tubule

Formed 2 portions:
Convolute and straight.
The PCT drains the GF from
the glomerular capsule.
Is the longest component of
nephron (15mm) and the
largest part of the cortical
labyrinth.
They begin the reabsorption
and secretion processes
related with the production
of final urine from the GF
Reabsorbs 65% of Na, water,
glucose, amino acids, and
proteins
• The proximal convoluted
tubule follows a tortuous
course in the vicinity of the
renal corpuscle from which
it originated and will be cut
in cross section many times.
• Four characteristics
distinguish the proximal
convoluted tubules from
other cortical tubular
structures present on the
slide:
• (1) It is the most commonly
seen tubule in the cortex,
• (2) the cytoplasm of its cells
is more acidophilic than that
of the distal and collecting
tubules,
• (3) lateral cell boundaries
are not seen by light
microscopy, and
• (4) the apical cell surface
has a brush border.
• The next part of the nephron is the loop of
Henle which can be subdivided into 3
portions: (1) the descending thick limb;
(2) the thin loop and (3) the ascending
thick limb.
• The descending thick limb is a straight
continuation of the proximal convoluted
tubule which it resembles closely. It is found
in the medullary ray and a short distance
into the medulla, where there is an abrupt
change of the descending thick limb into the
thin loop of Henle.
• The thin loop of the medulla is composed
of squamous cells and they may sometimes
be confused with capillaries. However, they
do not contain blood, they have a thicker
epithelium, their lumen is usually wider and
their nuclei are larger and protrude into the
lumen more than endothelial nuclei.
• The thin loop turns back towards the cortex
and is continuous with the ascending
thick limb of Henle's loop, which is found
in the medulla and the medullary rays. The
cells of the ascending thick limb are
distinctly smaller than those of the
descending thick limb, do not stain as
intensely and lack a brush border. Lateral
cell boundaries are not usually distinct.
Loop of Henle
Is an U-shaped epithelial tubule,
includes thick (PT) and thin D
descending limb and thin and thick S
(DT) ascending limb. T
It extends from the PCT in the cortex,
dips into the medulla, and return to
the cortex, where it empties into
the DCT. D D
Acts as a countercurrent multiplier the S S
interstitial fluid of the medulla. T T
The medullary interstitium is isotonic
near the corticomedullary junction
and gradually becomes most
hypertonic near the tips of the
medullary papillae
The thin descending limb is permeable
to both water and salt, but it is
more permeable to water. It loose
water and the fluid become more
hypertonic.
The thin ascending limb is
impermeable to water, but allow
the diffusion of salt and urea,
decreasing the tonicity of the
tubular fluid.
• The loop of Henle consists of a descending limb, having an initial
short thick segment followed by a long thin segment, and an
ascending limb, having a thin segment followed by a thick
segment.

• The descending thick segment is lined by simple cuboidal

epithelium that is structurally similar to the proximal convoluted
tubule.  This segment is essentially a continuation of the proximal
tubule (sometimes called pars recta in contrast to pars convoluta).
• The descending thin segment is lined by simple squamous
epithelium.
• The ascending thin segment is also lined by simple squamous
epithelium.
• The ascending thick segment is lined by simple cuboidal
epithelium that is structurally similar to the distal convoluted
tubule (as for the proximal tubule, this segment is sometimes
called pars recta of the distal tubule in contrast to pars convoluta). 
 Distal
Tubule
Formed 2 portions:
Convolute and straight.
The DST is the thick ascending
limb of the loop of Henle.
It extend from the medulla to
near of the corpuscle of the
same nephron.
It drain into the DCT.
DCT is located in the cortical
labyrinth, and has 5 mm
length.
Reabsorbs 20% of Na, and
water, and secrete K,
(increase its function in
response to aldosterone
Reabsorbs bicarbonate.
• The ascending thick limb travels
from the medullary ray to the
vascular pole of the renal
corpuscle where it continues as
the distal convoluted tubule.
Cells of the distal convoluted
tubule: 1) are cuboidal, 2) do not
stain as eosinophilic as the
proximal tubule, and 3) do not
have distinct cell borders. The
macula densa is a region of the
distal tubule adjacent to the
vascular pole of the renal
corpuscle. It consists of cells that
are taller and thinner than those
of the opposite side of the distal
tubule, giving the appearance of
more tightly packed nuclei.
• The distal convoluted tubule of each nephron discharges
into a single collecting tubule in the cortical labyrinth.
Collecting tubule cells are columnar, pale staining with
very distinct borders between adjacent cells and have
rounded apical cell surfaces. Compare the collecting
tubules in the medullary rays to the descending and
ascending thick tubules. The collecting tubule continues
to the medulla, where it fuses with other collecting
tubules to eventually form a collecting, or
papillary,duct in the papilla. The collecting ducts empty
into the minor calyx at the very tip of the papilla. The
minor calyx is lined with a transitional epithelium.
Mesonephric or collecting portion

Begins at the end of DT, proceeds

through medullary rays into
medullary pyramids, and ends at
the tip of the renal papillae.
Connecting tubules are transitional
structures that connect DT with
straight cortical collecting ducts.
Cortical collecting ducts are in the
medullary rays drain in medullary
ducts and eventually in papillary
ducts (Bellini)
Papillary ducts drain into the minor
calyces at the surface of the
papillary apex.
The area cribosa is the portion of the
papillary surface on which the
ducts empty.
Two kinds of cells principal and
intercalated
 Collecting Ducts cells

Principal cells are light cells that
reabsorb Na and secrete K in response
to ADH
They possess ADH regulated water
channels (Aquaporins (AQP) 2, 3, and 4)
Intercalated cells are dark cells, are
lesser than principal cells, have more
mitochondria, and reabsorb K and
secrete H.
Ureter
Urinary Bladder